Major faults in an alternator and their protection.

We can divide alternator faults in two type -Internal fault, External fault. There is internal Fault like 1.Stator
Winding Fault (most severe), 2.Excitation circuit fault or failure of rotor field, 3.Unbalanced loading. On the
other hand, there is external fault like 3.Failure of prime Mover, 4.Over current, 5.Over / under Voltage,
6.Over Speed; 7.over / under frequency.8. Loss of synchronism or pulling out of step . 9.Over or under
frequency fault of alternator(newly added).

01. Stator winding fault.

It is the most severe fault and considered most important for alternator protection. This vital protection of
alternator stator is Differential circulating current scheme or Mertz price differential current protection
scheme of alternator is discussed in a separate post.

02. Alternator Prime Mover failure fault or reverse power fault-

What is prime mover in an alternator-We know about prime mover. Its the mechanical system that rotates
the rotor in alternator or just in simple word runs the alternator. Typical prime movers are diesel or gas
engines, steam turbine, wind – tidal force, water flow static force in hydro electric plant with dam etc.Now
that we understand about prime mover, it is clearly understandable that any time a prime mover might fail to
keep the alternator running. The root causes are so simple like fuel flow shut up in gas /diesel engine,
inadequate water flow in hydro electric plants etc.

The effect of prime mover failure in an alternator– we can imagine the situation, an alternator is coupled
with prime mover running, and it is directly connected to the grid or some parallel electrical bus supplying
power. When the prime mover fails, it is still connected to the live electric bus. Then the alternator fails to
supply power but starts receiving power from live electric bus. This time the synchronous alternator takes
power acts as an synchronous motor and run the engines or turbine in uncontrolled high speed. This is
called reverse power.

Severity of reverse power: For gas turbine and any hydroelectric system the turbine installed is capable of
running in very high speeds, so when high speed occurs due to reverse power, any technician can decouple
the circuit breaker. But for diesel / engine system, the reverse power is so dangerous, as the over speed
limit of engines re nominal like 120% of rated speed. As example our plant’s Wartsila engines rated speed
was 750 RPM, and its high speed limit was 840/880 RPM.

Remedy -A reverse power relay is recommended.But this relay should have time delay to avoid false trip in
case of short time system disturbance,phase swinging and fluctuation in synchronization.Thus when a
reverse power problem occurs, the first thing is to decouple the corresponding circuit breaker to disconnect
the alternator from live line. If it is stuck, then shut down the whole bus, if that too is not possible then shut
the whole power plant for engine based power plant only.

03. Over current fault on an alternator.

Causes of over current fault on an alternator is the Partial breakdown of internal winding insulation,
Overload on the supply system.Over current protection for alternator is unnecessary because of high
internal impedance of alternator, Modern design concept of alternator is to set high internal impedance of
alternator.Thus if over current fault occurs,due to high internal impedance alternator can withstand short
circuit for a while.It can manually disconnect from the bus.

False tripping on an alternator by over current protection relay is need to be considered as this might
disconnect alternator from bus for some fault out side of plant.This will cause interruption of continuous
operation, so over current relay used must have time delay.

04. Over voltage protection of an alternator:

If we talk about over voltage of an alternator, its internal over voltage. Over volatge fault of an alternator is
very rare, as the excitation current that controls the voltage has closed supervision with AVR, automatic
voltage regulator system.

However, if somehow alternator suddenly disconnected from the load, its speed exceeds rated speed, over
voltage might occur. So an over voltage relay is recommenced to install where alternator rpm is not closely
supervised.

05. Unbalanced loading of an Alternator

This is not a direct fault, just a symptom of some severe faults. But we can summarize those faults in one
fault category to apply a common protection scheme for it. First of all, unbalanced loading means there are
different current in three phases of alternator. In normal condition, the difference in phase current varies +/-
5% , but when this difference exceeds- then it is unbalanced condition. As it is stated earlier that this
unbalanced is not itself a fault, does not apply any ham but the cause of unbalanced is harmful like grounding
of one phase, or short circuit of phase to phase.

To sense and protect the unbalanced loading a simple conception is used that the three phase current
is equal in magnitude but 120 degree separate by phase angle. So when we vectorically sum up three phase
current- the result is zero. Thus we can apply some simple instrument transformer to watch out the
summation of three phase to zero, if by some means there is some value other than zero that is not in the
range of tolerable, then this circuit can send a trip signal.
The below circuit follow the above conception. See the secondaries of three CT’s are shorted, so the sum
of normal phase currents is zero, no current in the trip coil. By some instance if there is some unbalanced,
then there will be some current in the secondary, that will eventually sen trip signal.

Unbalanced loading fault protection of an

alternator with a protection relay.
06. Stator inter turn protection of alternator
This specific protection is for alternators with multiple coils turns like in double phase winding used in large
steam turbine alternators. The concept is that this protection scheme covers the stator coil inter turn to turn
short circuit, not coil to coil(phase to phase) or coil to ground(phase to ground). Its like a local fault in one of
the coil.

The protection scheme to cover stator inter turn fault is simply on the basis of the theory of differential theory.
In normal condition, the two coil or multi coils individually carry same magnitude of current but with a phase
displacement. If this current is summed up in a common circuit then the result will be zero. So we can just
place some CT’s with their secondaries shorted and primaries with individual coils. If some fault persists,
then there will be current in the secondaries which will energize the trip circuit.
07. Loss of Synchronism or pulling out of step fault of alternator
This type of fault we used to see in power plant. Suddenly one of alternator shut down and in protection
relay fault log display shows “Loss of sysnchronism”.

To understand this fault we can have some brief theory. As in all electrical rotating machine, the common
working principle is that there is some disalignment generated between two flux- rotor flux & stator flux. Thus
a force is exerted to straighten this dis alignment-which is harnessed as working force.

Fp=resultant air-gap flux per pole

Fw = mmf of the dc field winding
Drf = electrical phase angle between magnetic axes of Fp & Fw

The adjustment of the rotor to its new angular position

following a load change
As the prime-mover torque is increased, the magnitude of Drf must increase until the electromechanical
torque balances the shaft torque. The readjustment process is actually a dynamic one, requiting a change
in the mechanical speed of the rotor.

As can be seen from Fig, an increase in prime-mover torque will result in a corresponding increase in the
torque angle. When Drf becomes 90 °, the electromechanical torque reaches its maximum value, known as
the pull-out torque. Any further increase in prime-mover torque cannot be balanced by a corresponding
increase
in synchronous electromechanical torque, with the result that synchronism will no longer be maintained and
the rotor will speed up. This phenomenon is known as loss of synchronism or pulling out of step.

As remedy– Under these conditions, the generator is usually disconnected from the external electrical
system by the automatic operation of circuit breakers, and the prime mover is quickly shut down to prevent
dangerous over speed. The value of the pull-out torque can be increased by increasing either the field current
or the resultant air-gap flux. However, this cannot be done without limit; the field current is limited by the
ability to cool the field winding, and the air-gap flux is limited by saturation of the machine iron.

08. Over frequency & Under frequency fault and protection for
alternator
The frequency has a constant stable value, defined by the equation (Ns=120f/p). But frequency varies
causing over and under frequency fault. Over or under frequency has its own severe effect on both the load
side and generating equipment side, We are talking here about the generating set – alternator. The first
thing we like to know why the over or under frequency occurs.

The frequency variation created by the load demand(excess or less then generation). Say when a
generating station producing power that equals the net consumption plus the loss, then the system will
be stable. But when the load demand is higher then production, that is production is low then use/demand
then frequency will be low, on the other hand when the load demand is less then production or production
is excess then frequency will be higher.

We can summarize over & under frequency in a mathematical concept to understand and memorize as
below-
Production > Load demand = frequency high
Production < Load demand = frequency low
Production = Load demand = frequency stable.

The remedy or protection of over and under protection is simple. When under frequency occurs that is more
power consumer then the covering capacity, then the only solution is to effect load shedding or increase the
power generation. For over frequency the only solution is to lower the power generation. A relay can be used
to automatically control the loading, unloading of generator or effect the load shedding.
Synchronous alternator protection
principles and systems
September 28th, 2017, Published in Articles: Energize

by Mike Rycroft, features editor, EE Publishers

29
Protection of synchronous generators involves the consideration of faults and harmful abnormal operating conditions, more
so than the protection of other power system elements. The range of abnormal conditions and faults that can occur is
extensive, and many could result in serious damage to the alternator and associated plant. In a properly protected generator,
automatic protection against harmful abnormal conditions is required.

Unlike most other areas of a power system where faults can be cleared by opening all electrical sources to the faulted element, a
synchronous generator is a system with mechanical (prime mover, inertia), DC electrical (field), and AC electrical (power system)
sources of energy. An understanding of the interaction of these various energy sources is necessary to properly protect a synchronous
generator.

Alternators need to be protected not only from short circuits but also from abnormal operating conditions such as overexcitation,
overvoltage, underexcitation, loss of field, unbalanced currents, loss of prime mover and abnormal frequency conditions. When
subjected to these abnormal conditions, damage or complete failure can occur within seconds thus requiring automatic detection and
isolation.

Generator operation can be affected by both faults within the machine and disturbances occurring in the power system to which it is
connected. A generator protection system, therefore, has a dual objective: to protect the machine and protect the power system.

Protection systems

Protection systems can consist of discrete component relays, found mainly in older installations, or programmable microprocessor
controlled units. Modern units can be programmed to provide a full set of functions, although it is strategically better to use separate
units for grouped protection functions. Protective functions are now mainly implemented with a multifunction microprocessor-based
protection system, in which case the functions are identical to those implemented using discrete component relays.

The algorithms used to perform some of the protection functions may be different but produce equal or better protection. Performance
and capability of digital systems are generally superior, for example, improved frequency response (bandwidth) and thresholds (pickup
settings). Other additional features, which are difficult to implement using discrete component relays, and that enhance the
functionality of the protection system are available from these digital systems. The term “relay” is used both for discrete devices and
microprocessor-based devices.

Discrete component systems

Discrete component systems are based on a detection system or relay, which operates the necessary device or devices required to
disconnect or shut down the plant or take whatever other action is necessary. Individual relays are required for each condition or
function that requires action. Discrete components can be both electromechanical (older types) and electronic.

Microprocessor controlled units

Units may be single or multifunction. The unit receives inputs in either analogue or discrete (contact) form, and provides outputs in as
discrete (dry contact), operating signals, or communication protocol format. Fig. 1 shows a block diagram of such a device.
 Fig.1: Digital relay architecture SEL [5].
Standards

There are several similar standards that cover generator protection. The most commonly referred to in literature is IEEE Standard
C37.102-2006: IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection. A similar standard exists in the IEC series. The IEEE and ANSI standards
have assigned numbers to the various devices that are used for fault protection. The IEC has a similar system of identification but uses
descriptive notation. Table 1 shows a sample of typical conditions that are monitored on generators.

Table 1: ANSI/IEEE device codes [1].

ANSI/IEEE
Function
designation

12 Overspeed protection

24 Overexcitation (V/Hz)

25 Synchronisation check

27 Undervoltage

27TN Third harmonic undervoltage

32 Power protection: active reactive power

37 Undercurrent protection

38 Temperature supervision

40 Loss of excitation device

 46 Negative sequence protection (unbalanced load)

49 Stator overload protection

50 Overcurrent protection

51 Voltage-dependent overcurrent

52 AC circuit breaker

59 Overvoltage protection

63 Pressure switch detector

64F Field earth fault

64R Rotor earth fault

78 Out of step protection

81 Over and under-frequency protection

87 Transformer differential protection

Choice of protection portfolio

A wide choice of protection and measuring functions is available, and the protection portfolio will usually depend on the size and the
function of the generator being protected. Basing generator protection on machine size is difficult because the desired protection may
be determined more by the importance of the generator to the power system than by the size of the generator. Fig. 2 gives examples
of protection for different size generators.

Generator protection schemes

Protection schemes are designed to guard against two classes of condition:

 Fault conditions, either within the generator or external to the generator. Faults can cause serious damage to the generator and
generally result in shutdown of the installation.
 Abnormal conditions, which are caused by conditions external to the generator, but which can seriously affect the operation of the
generator and also result in damage.

Protection against fault conditions

Stator phase to phase fault protection (phase short circuit protection)

A phase to phase fault in a generator stator winding is serious because of the high currents encountered and the potential for damage
to the machine windings, shafts, and couplings. To worsen the situation, the fault current in a faulted generator does not stop flowing
when the generator field is tripped and the generator is separated from the system. The energy stored in the field will continue to
supply fault current for several seconds. High-speed protection on major generator units detects and quickly clears these severe faults.
A high-speed differential detector can detect three-phase, phase-to-phase, and double-phase-to-ground faults. Single-phase-to-ground
faults are not normally detectable by differential relays on a machine unless its neutral is solidly or low-impedance grounded.
 Stator earth fault protection

Traditional stator earth fault protection schemes include:

 Neutral overvoltage
 Various third harmonic voltage-dependent schemes

Neutral overvoltage detection caters for a high percentage of stator earth faults, but will not detect faults close to the neutral point. For
a fault near the neutral, the level of third-harmonic voltage at the neutral decreases, and an undervoltage detector operating from third-
harmonic voltage measured at the neutral end could be used to detect the faults near the neutral. Ground faults in the remaining
portion of the windings can be detected by conventional ground fault protection, e.g., overvoltage detection (59 G), which operates on
the 50 Hz neutral voltage. The combination of both detectors provides 100% stator winding protection.

Field fault protection (Rotor fault protection)

The field circuit of a generator is an unearthed DC system. With a single earth fault, no fault current flows and this does not generally
affect the operations of the generator or produce any immediate damaging effects. The concern with this condition is that a second
earth fault will occur and bypass a portion of the field winding, unbalancing the air gap flux, which results in vibration. The degree of
unbalance and the resulting vibration depend on the location and extent of the winding bypassed by the two faults. Several protection
methods can detect rotor field earth faults, depending on the type of excitation system in use. From a protection viewpoint, immediate
tripping when the first fault is detected is preferable, but alarming the system is often used together with monitoring of the condition if
the alarm persists.
 Fig.2a: Example of a protection scheme for a typical large generator [1].
Generator breaker failure

Breaker failure protection provides for the tripping of backup breakers if a fault or abnormal condition is detected by protective relays
and the associated generator breaker does not open after trip initiation. If a fault or abnormal condition in the generator protection zone
is not cleared by the associated breaker within a predetermined time, additional locally tripping breakers are necessary to remove the
fault or abnormal condition. One of the most important criteria for determining breaker failure timing is the critical clearing time to
maintain system stability, while not allowing a generator or group of generators to go out-of-step from the rest of the system. Breaker
failure protection should be fast enough to maintain system stability but not so fast as to compromise tripping security.

Stator overheating (overload) protection

Stator overheating is caused by the overloads and failure in the cooling system. It is very difficult to detect the overheating due to the
short-circuiting of the lamination before any serious damage is caused. Temperature rise depends upon I2R·t and also on the cooling.
Overcurrent relays cannot detect the winding temperature because electrical protection cannot detect the failure of the cooling system.

To protect the stator against overheating, embedded resistance temperature detectors or thermocouples are used in the slots below
the stator coils. These detectors are located at different places in the windings to detect the temperature throughout the stator, and
operate the temperature relay to sound an alarm. Overloading causes overheating in the stator winding of the generator. In addition to
overloading, failure of cooling systems and insulation failure of stator laminations also cause overheating.

Abnormal operating conditions protection

Abnormal frequency protection (over or under frequency)

Over frequency protection: Full or partial load rejection can lead to over-speed of the generator, and hence, over frequency operation.
In general, over frequency operation does not pose any serious problems and control action can be taken to reduce the generator
speed and frequency to normal without tripping the generator. Generators are manufactured with over-speed detectors. An over
frequency detector can be used to supplement this overspeed equipment. Multifunction devices provide a two-set point over frequency
detector (81O) that can be set to alarm or trip on an over frequency condition.

Under Frequency Protection: Overloading of a generator, perhaps due to loss of system generation and insufficient load shedding, can
lead to prolonged operation of the generator at reduced frequencies. This can cause particular problems for gas or steam turbine
generators, which are susceptible to damage from operation outside of their normal frequency band. The turbine is usually considered
to be more restrictive than the generator at reduced frequencies because of possible mechanical resonance in the many stages of the
turbine blades. If the generator speed is close to the natural frequency of any of the blades, there will be an increase in vibration.
Cumulative damage to the blades due to this vibration can lead to cracking of the blade structure.

Overexcitation and overvoltage protection

Overexcitation of a generator or any transformers connected to the generator terminals will typically occur whenever the ratio of the
voltage to frequency (V/Hz) applied to the terminals of the equipment exceeds design limits. When V/Hz ratio limits are exceeded,
saturation of the magnetic core of the generator or connected transformers can occur, and stray flux will be induced into nonlaminated
components. These components are not designed to carry flux, and damage can occur. It is general practice to provide V/Hz detection
to protect generators and transformers from these excessive magnetic flux density levels.

Excessive overvoltage of a generator will occur when the level of electric field exceeds the insulation capability of the generator stator
winding, connected transformers, bushings, and surge arrestors. The V/Hz protection cannot be relied upon to detect all overvoltage
conditions. If the overvoltage is the result of a proportional increase in frequency, the V/Hz relaying will miss the event because the
V/Hz ratio remains constant. It is general practice to provide overvoltage detection to alarm, or in some cases, trip the generators from
these high electric field levels.
 Fig. 2b: Small generator protection [2].
Field loss (excitation loss) and under- excitation protection

When a generator coupled with a power system loses its field, it becomes desynchronised with respect to the power system. It then
operates asynchronously, at a slight overspeed, and it draws reactive power. This causes stator overheating since the reactive current
may be high and rotor overheating since the rotor is not sized for the induced currents. When a generator develops insufficient
excitation for a given load, the terminal voltage will decrease, and the generator will operate at a more leading power factor with a
larger load angle. If the load angle becomes too large, loss of stability and pole slipping will occur. A loss of field could be caused by
an exciter or rectifier failure, automatic voltage regulator failure, accidental tripping of the field breaker, short circuits in the field
currents, poor brush contact on the slip rings, or AC power loss to the exciters (either from the station power supply or from the shaft
generated excitation current).

Relays that sense conditions resulting from a loss of field, such as reactive power flow to the machine, internal impedance changes as
a result of field changes or voltage decreases, may be used for the detection of the loss of field. A field breaker limit switch indicating
that the breaker is open also gives an indication that there is no field to the generator. Protection schemes based on the measurement
of machine field current with overcurrent and undercurrent detectors can detect generator loss of excitation. However, this scheme is
not reliable during all system conditions. Measurement of reactive current through the generator (or reactive power) has also been
used to detect loss-of-excitation conditions. This scheme provides good loss-of-field protection and has low cost, but it does not
differentiate well between a loss-of-field and other system fault conditions. These schemes are typically applied on small generators.
The most popular and reliable protection scheme for loss-of-field detection uses an offset mho detector.

Unbalanced stator loading protection

Unbalancing in loading produces negative sequence currents in the stator circuit. This negative sequence current produces a reaction
field rotating at twice of synchronous speed with respect to the rotor and hence induce double frequency current in the rotor. This
current is quite large and causes overheating in the rotor circuit, especially in the alternator. If any unbalancing occurred due to fault in
the stator winding itself, that would be cleared instantaneously by the differential protection provided in the generator. If the
unbalancing occurres because of any external fault or unbalanced loading in the system, it may remain undetected or may persist for a
significant period of time depending on the protection coordination of the system. These faults can then be cleared by a negative
phase sequence detection function with the characteristics to match the withstand curve of the machine. This protection detects an
asymmetrical load in three-phase generators. It functions on the basis of symmetrical components and evaluates the negative
sequence of the phase currents.

Out-of-step protection (out of synchronisation)

This occurs when the generator accelerates or decelerates, changing the voltage angle between itself and the system. This generally
occurs with unbalance of load and generation, short circuits that are severe and close, loss of lines leaving the power plant (raises the
impedance of load flow path), or large losses or gains of load after system break up. When a generator goes out-of-step (synchronism)
with the power system, high levels of transient shaft torque are developed. If the pole slip frequency approaches natural shaft resonant
frequency, torque produced can break the shaft. High stator core end iron flux can overheat and short the generator stator core. The
generator step-up transformer (GSU) may be subjected to high transient currents and mechanical stresses.

Inadvertent energisation protection

This protection has the function of limiting the damage to the generator in the event of an unintentional switch-on of the generator
circuit-breaker, whether the generator is standing still or rotating without being excited or synchronised. If the power system voltage is
connected, the generator starts as an asynchronous machine with a large slip and this leads to excessively high currents in the rotor. A
logic circuit consisting of sensitive current measurement for each phase, measured value detector, time control and blocking as of a
minimum voltage, leads to an instantaneous trip command.
 Fig. 2c: Medium sized generator protection [2].
Reverse power or motoring (loss of prime mover )

This function is for the protection of the prime mover. If the driving torque becomes less than the total losses in the generator and the
prime mover, the generator starts to work as a synchronous motor or compensator, taking the necessary active power from the
network. In the case of steam turbines, a reduction of the steam flow reduces the cooling effect on the turbine blades and overheating
may occur. The failure of steam supply can cause severe mechanical damage in addition to imposing a heavy motoring load on the
generator. A reverse power relay is used for this purpose. As soon as the generator starts rotating in motoring mode, the reverse
power relay will trip the generator circuit breaker.

Overspeed protection

Basically, over-speed control is part of the turbine control system. Most large steam turbine controls have two or three separate speed
control units, with one of these being strictly a mechanical centrifugal device that will close the turbine control valves even if electrical
power is lost to the controls that require electric input.

Over-speed protection must be selective and must not shut the unit down due to a temporary loss of load, even if the cause is serious,
for example, a short circuit. Short circuits anywhere near a generator will collapse the voltage and the generator experiences a loss of
load. Since the turbine power is unchanged, the turbine-generator unit will over-speed until the governor throttles the turbine input
back. Faults are usually temporary, however, and there is no need to shut the unit down unless the fault is on the generator or GSU
transformer.

Backup protection of generator

Backup protection should always be given in a highly rated machine like a synchronous generator or alternator. If faults occurred had
not been cleared by the appropriate protection scheme then backup protection systems should be operated to clear the fault.
Overcurrent detection is generally used for this purpose, and it is customary to apply an overcurrent detection in combination with
under voltage detection, the latter controlling the fault settings of the former.