Tecnicas de Natacion

Brent S. Rushall, Ph.D.
Sports Science Associates

and
San Diego State University

11/19/2018
Technique Macrocycle ii
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Brent S. Rushall
4225 Orchard Drive
Spring Valley
California
USA
91977
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First edition published January 18, 2013

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November 19, 2018
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Technique Macrocycle iii
DEDICATION
This book is dedicated to the three Hall-of-Fame coaches who were my mentors and
friends and who provided me with opportunities and experiences in swimming that have
uniquely molded my approach to and appreciation of the sport.
The late Professor James Edward "Doc" Counsilman PhD, DFC
Mr. Donald Talbot OBE, AO
and
The late Mr. Forbes Carlile MBE

Technique Macrocycle iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MICROCYCLE TITLE PAGE
Dedication iii
Preface vii
0 INTRODUCTION 0.1
Purpose 0.1
Structure of the Experience 0.3
Assessing Teaching Effectiveness 0.4
Evaluations 0.5
Teaching Point Sheet 0.7
Visual Aids 0.7
1 STREAMLINE 1.1
Possible Effects of Microcycle 1 1.1
Crawl Stroke 1.1
Backstroke 1.5
Butterfly Stroke 1.6
Breaststroke 1.9
Teaching Points for Streamline Positions in All Strokes 1.15
2 BREATHING 2.1
Reminder 2.1
Introduction 2.1
Crawl Stroke 2.2
Backstroke 2.4
Breaststroke 2.8
Breaststroke Non-breathing 2.10
Teaching Points for Breathing in All Strokes 2.11
3 BODY ROLL 3.1
Reminder 3.1
Body Roll 3.1
Shoulder-hip Roll 3.4
Shoulder to Upper-arm Angle 3.6
Body-roll Rhythm 3.7
Overtaking versus Balanced Crawl-stroke Patterns 3.8
Teaching Dynamics 3.9
Teaching Points for Body Roll in Crawl Stroke and Backstroke 3.11
4 THE END-OF-STROKE (FINISH) 4.1
Reminder 4.1
Acceleration 4.1
Crawl Stroke 4.3
Backstroke 4.5
Breaststroke 4.7
Teaching Points for End-of-stroke Positions in All Strokes 4.12
(continued over)

Technique Macrocycle v
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
5 THE POWER-PHASE (MID-STROKE) 5.1

Reminder 5.1
Power 5.1
Crawl Stroke 5.3
Backstroke 5.8
Breaststroke 5.11
Teaching Points for the Power-phase Movements in Crawl Stroke and Backstroke 5.20
Teaching Points for the Power-phase Movements in Breaststroke and Butterfly Stroke 5.21
6 INITIAL ACTIONS 6.1
Reminder 6.1
Initial Positions 6.1
Crawl Stroke 6.3
Backstroke 6.5
Breaststroke 6.7
Teaching Points for Initial Actions in All Strokes 6.11
7 RECOVERIES 7.1
Reminder 7.1
Crawl Stroke 7.1
Backstroke 7.4
Breaststroke 7.6
Recovery forces 7.11
Teaching Points for Recoveries in All Strokes 7.12
8 KICKING 8.1
Reminder 8.1
The Appropriateness of Kicking 8.1
Crawl Stroke 8.7
Backstroke 8.8
Breaststroke 8.13
Double-leg Kicking 8.17
Teaching Points for Non-propulsive Kicking in Three Strokes 8.20
Teaching Points for Propulsive Kicking in Breaststroke and Out of the Dive and Turns 8.21
9 POSTSCRIPT 9.1
10 REFERENCES 10.1
Appendix A 11.1
Major Instructional Cues for Microcycles 11.1
How to Use the Instructional Cue Sheets 11.2
(continued over)

Technique Macrocycle vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Appendix B 12.1
Visual Aids for Microcycle Content Instruction 12.1
How to Use These Visual Aids 12.2
Index 13.1
About the Author
Front Cover

Technique Macrocycle vii
PREFACE
This manual is a follow-up companion to my 2011 book, Swimming pedagogy and a curriculum for
stroke development (Second Edition). It attempts to describe a program of macrocycle length that
develops the techniques of the four competitive strokes in a swimming group/club situation.
The details of all microcycles, which could equally be termed "lessons", are extensive. The
principles and recommendations are supported by the observable and measureable records of very
elite swimmers videotaped in their winning performances, usually at Olympic Games or World
Championships 1 . When the observations are replicated across genders, race distances, and
champions from a number of countries, the accuracy and validity of the content is substantiated. The
descriptions produced pertain to how a swimmer should perform in a race or at training that involves
race-pace work. Applying the content to slower than race-pace swimming will enhance the
swimming at the slower-pace but those effects are unlikely to transfer to race velocities in racing
circumstances. The Principle of Specificity strongly and convincingly supports that contention. It is
reasonable to assert that how a swimmer trains best reflects how that swimmer performs.
There is considerable overlap in the content of microcycle explanations. That is necessary because
technique features flow from one element to the next in the total stroke cycle. For example, when
talking about the end-of-stroke position, one has to understand how to get there from the power-
phase and how to leave it in the recovery without any interruption. Consequently, throughout the
manual stroke features are described in relationship to the microcycle topic. It is helpful to consult
the index to see where all the mentions of technique elements occur. By consulting all the references,
those in the Reference section, and within the text through direct URLs, a better perspective of a
topic will be gained than limiting a reference exclusively to the appropriate microcycle.
This manual is inspired by the same reasons as those that drove my companion book (Rushall,
2011a). A major factor is the observation that few swimming coaches know much about teaching
motor skills, perhaps the single most-important characteristic of an effective swimming coach. The
manual covers implementing a total incremental shaping program for developing competitive
swimming strokes. This was also the intention of Rushall (2011a) but the skill of developing a
program from a curriculum has proved to be difficult for those not trained in the appropriate
pedagogical skills for that task. This manual should go a long way to closing that gap.
Why is there a need for this manual? There are many answers to that question. Some of the reasons
that could be proffered are listed below.
1. Many swimming coaches are not trained teachers despite a strong case being made for teaching
being the major element in effective swimming coaching.
2. Swimming coaches talk a very good "game". When discussing techniques, often correct elements
are described and advocated. However, their swimmers do not exhibit those features. Knowledge
alone does not make a good coach. Communicating that knowledge and effecting permanent
behavior changes in swimmers do.
3. The myopic approach of using physical conditioning as the only avenue for stimulating
"improvements" in swimmers is doomed to failure. While occasional champions emerge despite
such coaching, the conditioning approach fails in many ways and in turn, deprives many
swimmers of the opportunity to improve.
1
See the Swimming Science Journal, "How champions do it" section at http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/index.htm.

Technique Macrocycle viii
Some coaches are so focused on physical conditioning as being the avenue for swimming
performance improvements, that the structuring of programs is treated meticulously and according to
"exact" formulations, so that it outwardly appears to be a very exact science. However, such an
approach is based on several false premises and/or the denial of some important performance
principles (see the Preface in Rushall, 2011b).
The evidence is now clear and incontrovertible that swimming technique and velocities are linked
directly. Change velocity and technique features have to be altered accordingly to produce the most
efficient form of progression through water at the altered velocity. The belief that one can transfer
techniques from one pace to another is now a disproved myth. The Principle of Specificity still
remains a major principle of behavior despite swimming coaches attempting to disprove it over the
past 60 years. A tacit implication of the specificity principle is that only by combining skill
instruction and physical conditioning, with the emphasis being on the former, can one expect
continued performance improvement throughout a swimming career. A failure of a swimmer to
improve is a failure in coaching.
This manual attempts to focus on the important factors involved in teaching technique when
coaching serious swimmers. It describes why content should be taught and in its structure, how to
implement a program of technique change and/or refinement. It describes the "what" and a part of
the "how" of swimming pedagogy.
No apologies are made for haranguing about "bad" coaching, although it is proffered with the best of
intentions. It is necessary to make some sense out of what is known about performance and coaching
for the benefit of swimmers, not coaches. Swimming is a sport of skill. Therefore, swimming
coaching requires an emphasis on the instruction of good skill content for high levels of success to
be achieved.
I hope this manual proves to be of value to coaching attempts to change competitive swimming skills
for the better.
I want to thank Coach Greg McWhirter from the Cherrybrook Carlile Swimming Club in New South
Wales, Australia and Coaches Peter and Tina Andrew of Team Andrew Indie Swimming in Kansas,
USA for allowing me to test this manual's content on their swimmers and for providing both
encouragement and feedback.
From Spring Valley, California
Brent S. Rushall
January, 2013

Introduction 0.1
A SWIMMING TECHNIQUE MACROCYCLE:

CONTENT FOR A CLUB-ORIENTED MULTI-STAGE STROKE TECHNIQUE
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
INTRODUCTION
Purpose
This manual presents an applied example of using a curriculum for instructing technique features of
the four competitive swimming strokes. It is an alternative model to that of the three classes of
swimmer described in Brent Rushall's 2011b book Swimming pedagogy and a curriculum for stroke
development (Second Edition). It is assumed that book has been read and the reader understands the
dynamics of effective instruction in sporting domains.
A multi-stage macrocycle that builds techniques incrementally is suggested. Microcycles of one
week length are assumed. Coaches and their assistants are encouraged to understand the reasons why
technical features are described and that they sometimes are contrary to the belief-based lore of
much of modern swimming and in particular, swimming educational materials.
The macrocycle starts with three microcycles concentrating on reducing resistance. Resistance
reduction (sometimes referred to as active drag) is a major factor that discriminates elite from lesser
swimmers and remains an avenue for near-elite swimmers to improve (Stewart & Kagaki,, 1998
citing the works of M. Miyashita and M. Fujishima of Japan and J. Cappaert of the USA). By
reducing resistance, less effort is required to progress through water or if trying to swim fast, the
theoretical maximum speed of the swimmer through the water 2 will be increased. The factors
involved in reducing the resistance caused by the non-propulsive or counter-balancing actions in the
swimming strokes take no effort, just modifications to the functional postures of each stroke. The
three focuses described should occur in all complete races. They result in swimmers improving in
efficiency of movement through water and should not be affected by fatigue.
The fourth through sixth microcycles focus on increasing propelling effectiveness that is, improving
the effectiveness of the transfer of energy from the swimmer's "engine" to the water. Two major
effects are possible:
1. If the transfer of energy is increased in its proficiency then a swimmer should be able to
maintain a certain velocity with less effort.
2. The accommodation of the mechanical features of acceleration across the propulsive phase,
that is, the physical distance over which acceleration occurs and the percentage of total force
that occurs in a horizontal plane in the direction of the swimmer's intended progression, all
will result in greater force application in an improved manner of efficiency. When this
occurs, a swimmer should be able to progress longer at an improved velocity in races.
In these "arm action" microcycles, the description of one arm's movement pattern is usually
provided. It is assumed that the pattern will be replicated by the other arm. Balanced arms should
lead to straight progression and the absence of a large number of stroke faults that are reflected in
reductions in streamline, breathing actions that are not independent of body and arm actions, and/or
varied within-cycle rhythms. Some data-based studies have reported that arm-stroking patterns are
2
The maximum speed through the water is known as "hull speed" in sailing. Most factors that improve hull speed, can
be applied to swimming strokes with the understanding that not all are perfectly adaptable.
Introduction 0.2
not symmetrical (Riemann, Witt, & Davies, 2010; Seifert, Chollet, & Rouard, 2007). That is a true
conclusion if the subjects in the study have not been coached effectively and have learned to swim
with "errors". The principles of mechanics require all movements to be symmetrical where possible.
It would be foolish to accept erroneous movements as being "normal" and not seek perfection in the
pursuit of maximal movement efficiency. It is this latter assumption upon which the content of this
manual is based. It is possible that there is no perfect swimmer in any stroke in existence. That is not
a justifiable reason to ignore movement principles that should be adopted.
The scope of this manual is restricted to race-pace techniques. For most race paces, the effort level
surpasses the lactate steady-state threshold (metabolic equilibrium). Toussaint et al. (1990) showed
that swimming efficiency is velocity dependent. Pelarigo et al. (2010) showed that in endurance
swimmers, stroke parameters change above lactate threshold swimming velocities. The case for
techniques being specific to swimming velocities has also been made by Chatard et al. (1990) who
showed that swimming techniques and the supply of energy to promote their movements are totally
interdependent. One cannot change without the other being altered. Energy demands differ between
strokes (White & Stager, 2004). Since swimming stroke efficiency is developed for the pace at
which training is performed, it is logical to assert that if race-performances are to be improved, that
can only be achieved by improving the efficiency of swimming at race-pace for each stroke. Some
strokes (e.g., butterfly and breaststroke) might always have to be swum at race-pace at practice to
achieve the best training effect (Chollet et al., 2006; de Jesus, 2010). Thus, race-pace stroke
instruction and training will have the greatest relevance for singular competitive swimming
performances. It would be foolish to teach the technique features recommended in subsequent
microcycles at slow paces under the assumption that they will translate to higher swimming
velocities. The restrictions of this scope should always be considered when applying or criticizing
the recommendations of this manual.
The remaining microcycles involve recoveries and kicking. They are designed to improve the
proficiency with which swimmers progress through water.
When attempting to implement this macrocycle, the following are recommended.
1. Plan using the technique macrocycle repetitively every three to four months except in the
month when a major championship occurs. During that month, technique instruction should
focus on revision, refinement, and the content of race strategies.
2. Technique macrocycles can be planned with or independently of conditioning cycles. The
main time that conditioning interferes with improving the motor skill elements of swimming
techniques is when swimmers are fatigued (short-term/overreaching or longer-
term/overtraining fatigue). If excessive fatigue is experienced through training, a swimmer
will not benefit either physically or motorically. In one sense, using technique macro- and
microcycles and observing inabilities to change techniques serves as a method for
determining that conditioning has been excessive and the physical load of both relevant and
irrelevant training needs to be reduced.
3. Engage all coaches/instructors in the swimming club to implement all microcycles at the
same time. If the whole club is concentrating on the same actions, younger swimmers will
feel disposed to try hard if they see their in-club heroes doing the same things. As well, it will
bring all coaches into line with evidence-based instructional content. This is a coaches'
manual that can be used to coordinate the culture of technique instruction in large swimming
organizations.

Introduction 0.3
4. At least once per microcycle conduct a staff meeting where the content to be taught in the
next microcycle is discussed and clarified. Since the learning that is designed here is
cumulative, discussions about what has occurred during the existing or most recent
microcycle should be encouraged as well. Items such as what swimmer responses were, what
instructions seemed to work well, and how any problems were solved should be discussed.
5. Throughout this manual there are drawings and pictures that illustrate the technique
elements. They should be used as visual evidence that supports what is being taught.
Oftentimes, a picture explains a concept better than a verbal description, particularly when
vocabularies are age-differentiated.
Structure of the Experience
This macrocycle of technique instruction follows established motor learning principles. The
macrocycle is divided into technique microcycles. Each microcycle presentation describes the
reasons and content of technique features that should be instructed in a concentrated manner.
Whether technique and conditioning micro- and macrocycles coincide with each other will be
determined by a coach's program. From the perspective of technique being the most important factor
for competitive success, the macrocycle that follows should be the primary concentration in
swimming coaching.
Microcycle content is designed to adhere to three principles of motor learning.
1. Each microcycle should be introduced at the beginning of a week-long focus on the content3. For
the remaining practice sessions the content and only the content should be repeated and
reinforced as much as possible when done correctly. An extended instructional focus of this form
should result in swimmers overlearning the content. That is important because if overlearning is
not achieved then over time what should have been learned will regress back to what originally
was done.
If days are lost within a microcycle, the microcycle should be extended. As a rule-of-thumb,
swimmers should be exposed to a minimum of five uninterrupted days of technique
concentration for each microcycle.
2. When a total body movement is being instructed, the central supportive body functions should be
taught first and the peripheral limb movements taught last. Correct limb techniques can only be
achieved when they are performed on an efficient, stable, central structure. This is often termed
the "center-to-periphery" instructional sequence. The sequencing of the microcycles observes
that principle.
3. When movements are being taught, such as that required for arm propulsion and recovery,
counter-balancing kicking, and propulsive kicking in breaststroke, the movement segments
should be taught in a reverse sequence. The most important phase of any propulsive movement is
the final release velocity at the end of the action. When that is taught first, swimmers will always
know how their strokes should finish. Although teaching last-to-first sequences is counter-
intuitive, it is much more effective than the usual progressions (see Section 6 in Rushall's
pedagogy book).
The implementation of these three principles can be difficult. The major challenge will be to
dedicate at least a week of training to developing one element of the four swimming strokes. The
3
One week is the minimum time recommended for each microcycle. If interruptions or disruptions occur within a
microcycle, the duration allotted to it should be extended. If the swimmers' learning progress seems to be slow then each
microcycle should be lengthened to accommodate the absolute learning rate of the content.
Introduction 0.4
haphazard process of employing "teachable moments" (single instances of instruction/feedback

about isolated technique features without regard to developmental sequences) is fruitless for
technique. Coaches have to accept that the elements involved in propulsion and movement efficiency
through water can be developed over a structured and concentrated learning experience. This process
cannot be hurried because overlearning on every feature must be produced to permanently establish
a swimmer's altered strokes.
Since the majority of swimmers in a club setting are age-groupers, learning effects are modified by
stages of growth and development. A technique established in one macrocycle could be disrupted by
a growth spurt, which would alter stroking sensations and proficiency. To hedge against such
disruptions, it is recommended that the macrocycle be cycled repeatedly so that elements are either
re-taught or refined in swimmers as they grow. That should accommodate necessary adaptations in
growing swimmers.
The state of physiological fatigue and program disruptions experienced by swimmers also modify
techniques. Consequently, a structured and repetitious macrocycle of technique items should be
programmed so that swimmers develop a generalized capacity to "swim well" in all manners of
fatigue and program disruptions.
Technique work is essential for the improvement of swimmers of all ages. Initially, technique
instruction focuses on learning, which should be achieved at least in two macrocycles4 of the content
that follows. After that, and assuming there is no long absence/neglect of technique instruction, the
focus of re-presenting the same content should be on technique refinement that should increase the
proficiency with which swimmers move through water. Consequently, a swimmer's career should
includes of yearly multiple presentations of this technique macrocycle.
Assessing Teaching Effectiveness
It is imperative that coaches determine if their instructions to change techniques are effective.
• It is unacceptable for coaches to assume that instructions are followed by swimmers because
the coach has emphasized, to varying degrees, the importance of what is being taught. It is
clearly understood in psychology, that instructions alone are insufficient to establish behavior
changes. It is only when swimmers obtain feedback about their attempts to alter techniques
along the lines recommended that behavior change is likely at all (Rushall & Siedentop,
1972; Section 4 in the Rushall, 2011b book).
• Since the majority of the content contained in the microcycles occur underwater, it is
essential that appraisals of what is happening are provided. That is close to impossible for a
coach to do when only observing from the pool deck. Two forms of significant feedback
about what occurs underwater follow.
1. Pairing swimmers and having each evaluate the other with regard to compliance with a
coach's directions (peer reinforcement), is a form of instruction that employs significant
sources of feedback. As well, the action of evaluating a peer and communicating what
was observed also leads to better learning/understanding in the observer. Thus, peer
reinforcement has the potential to influence the ability of swimmers to learn no matter
what role is played in the dyad.
4
Within large programs, because of attendance and pool availability factors which alter the environment that facilitates
or hinders instruction, the establishment of techniques likely will take longer than two technique macrocycles.
Introduction 0.5
2. If coaches are to be the source of reinforcement, then it is essential that relevant

underwater images (preferably videos) of all swimmers be provided. This is viewed by
many coaches as being in the "too hard" basket, although it is required for a coach to be
effective. If a coach cannot summon the energy to construct the circumstances where
frequent videos are provided swimmers, and in the context of these lessons at least one
video of each microcycle's content emphasis is the minimum, then a failure to achieve
impressive performance improvements in swimmers is not because of the lessons but
because of a coach's indifference to constructing the dynamics of learning that are
essential for effective instruction.
3. When swimmers are shown relevant videos of their performances in each microcycle,
there is an opportunity for them to engage in the most significant learning dynamic of all
– engaging in their own performance evaluation and the development of self-generated
feedback.
4. One substitute for underwater videos is the coach being in the water with the swimmers
and evaluating if the swimmers are performing the lesson content appropriately. Such a
rare coaching behavior can be effective and it is remarkable that it is not engaged in at all.
Throughout this writer's 55-year history in competitive swimming, he has observed only
one coach enter a pool for the purpose of swimmer evaluations from an underwater
perspective. The next closest coaches have come to such an action is the infrequent
observation of swimmers through an underwater viewing window.
The frequent provision of underwater images (one or more times within each technique microcycle)
is perhaps the most effective coaching behavior that can be performed. Unfortunately, such an
appreciation of what does and does not constitute effective coaching behaviors is not a strong point
of most swimming coaches.
If a coach considers implementing the macrocycle of technique development that is described in the
following pages, but does not intend to view or provide underwater images, then any notable
beneficial effect across a group of swimmers should not be expected. Learning will not occur if the
essential dynamics of the instructional endeavor are not provided. To start implementing those
dynamics, the provision of significant relevant reinforcement (feedback) has to be a coaching focus.
Evaluations
When attempting to incrementally change swimming techniques, it is essential that the swimmers
and coach(s) are able to determine the success or lack of success of the endeavor. Every time a
swimmer attempts something new or tries to do something better, it is important to evaluate the
effects. Since the purpose of each microcycle in this technique macrocycle is to perform some
technical aspects in such a way that performance is improved, it is beneficial to have in situ methods
of evaluation that are meaningful to the coach and/or swimmers. Objective methods of assessing
performance changes can be motivational for the coach and swimmers.
Stroke Counts. Stroke counts can be used to evaluate changes and they provide immediate feedback
for the swimmers.
1. Satisfactory testing can be conducted with 50-m repeats if training is in a 25-m pool.
2. When a structured set is programmed (e.g., 10 x 50 m on 1 minute), every repeat should be
swum at the same intensity/repetition-time/race-pace.

Introduction 0.6
3. Swimmers should be instructed to count the number of strokes taken on the second 25-m
length of each 50-m repetition. The second length is more consistent/reliable than the first.
4. Stroke counts should be performed for all repetitions in the set. It is best to do them in order.
For example:
1) On every odd numbered repetition, have the swimmers count the number of strokes for
the second length using the "old" stroke that does not employ the current microcycle's
new feature. Usually that is called baseline. It will be what was developed in the previous
microcycle.
2) On every even numbered repetition, the new stroke feature that was introduced in the
current microcycle should be focused on and the number of strokes taken in the second
lap counted.
3) Swimmers need to be discerning in their counting because improvements might be a
quarter or half a stroke for the lap. Quarter strokes are about as exact as can be estimated
by swimmers counting and focusing on new technical features. An attempt to be more
precise only increases the lack of reliability of the stroke counts.
4) Swimmers should record the number of strokes as well as the intensity/pace of the
repetitions in the set. The coach should be able to inquire of any swimmer and be given
the actual count as well as an assessment of whether the count was better, the same, or
worse than the "average" count for the laps swum without the newly introduced
technique feature.
5. Swimmers should develop the skill of swimming "test sets". Ideally, all repetitions will be
similar – the same intensity and lap times. If that is achieved, then swimmers will be able to
evaluate if they are or are not improving with the newly introduced technique feature.
6. It is important that swimmers see that the new content, which reflects the credibility of the
coach's knowledge and program, is actually helping them to perform more efficiently. Since
there are numerous microcycles in this program, there might be one microcycle where a
swimmer does not improve. Often that occurs when the "new" feature introduced in a
microcycle is already being done correctly by the swimmer. In that situation, improvement
should not be expected. If justified, that can be used as an explanation when improvements
are not reported or recorded.
7. If someone can time a few of the repetitions near the end of the set, a comparison of times
between the "old" and the "new" repetitions will indicate if the swimmer is or is not going
faster. Going faster in fewer strokes is ideal but not all the technique features that are covered
in this macrocycle will result in better velocity. Velocity changes are likely to occur in the
microcycles that involve propulsion with the arms, but seldom with the resistance reducing
aspects of streamline, breathing, and body roll.
8. Stroke count tests should be performed by the swimmers as they wish, often several times per
practice. Although not occurring in a standardized test set, if swimmers are able to compare
at least one repetition of the "old" with one of the "new" stroke, a focus on instituting change
will be promoted within the athletes.
The simple feature behind stroke counting is: If a new technique feature is beneficial, fewer strokes
per length should result when compared to swimming without that feature. That concept is not
difficult to grasp even for very young age-group swimmers.

Introduction 0.7
Wave Heights. When a swimmer cleaves through the water, obvious bow and lateral waves are
formed. When lane lines are of consistent dimensions, the height of the lateral wave on both sides of
the swimmer can be used as an index of improvement.
In the first three microcycles, the main effect of the technique changes is to reduce frontal and wave
resistance, and to a certain degree, surface resistance.5 A layman's description of frontal resistance is
the area of the wall of water that the swimmer pushes against. With streamline, frontal resistance and
wave resistance should be reduced. With correct breathing, the length of time out of minimal
resistance should be minimized. With body roll, frontal resistance should be minimized. Wave-
height evaluations are appropriate for determining those microcycle effects.
1. With practice, a coach can become quite adept at determining lateral wave heights relative to
the height of the lane line portion that is above the water surface.
2. Establish a performance velocity (race-pace is recommended) for the swimmer to use in all
swims that are used for comparison purposes.
3. It is best to watch several strokes in the observed lap so that a general estimate can be made.
4. Comparing lateral wave heights of "old" and "new" technique emphases will indicate if
resistance-reduction is occurring. For standard-effort performances, the lower a swimmer's
wave height, the better is the swimming technique from a resistance-reduction perspective.
5. Coaches should spend considerable time in the first three microcycles evaluating wave
heights and the efficacy of attempts to reduce resistance.
Frequent evaluations of performance changes are necessary if a successful program of performance
changes is to be achieved. When this technique macrocycle is instituted, intense evaluations of new
effects are required to accelerate learning and overlearning in the swimmers involved.
Most coaches will know how to react when performance changes indicate technique improvements.
It is when changes do not occur that the expertise of the coach will be taxed. The reason for a non-
improvement in a microcycle is likely to be incorrect implementation of the technique feature. If it is
not that, then other reasons should be sought but what they might be cannot be indicated here.
Constant evaluations of swimming efficiency are integral features of this technique macrocycle.
Teaching Point Sheet
At the end of each technique microcycle there is a single page of the teaching points to be instructed
in the microcycle. Those instruction sheets are reproduced in Appendix A. That page should be
printed so that coaches can have the notes of what to teach in each microcycle in hand at all
practices. It would be helpful to have a couple of staff meetings each week to discuss teaching
techniques, plans, the reactions of swimmers, and how any problems were solved.
Visual Aids
Appendix B contains a compilation of pictures used in the book. Each page provides images of what
the coach should be teaching. It is suggested that the visuals be printed and then laminated in
waterproof plastic. In that form they could be used at practices and handled by swimmers in the
pool. They would be invaluable as an adjunct to a coach's verbal instruction.
5
In this manual, resistance will largely be attributed to frontal resistance. That is because changes in movements and
posture can be observed and improvements inferred from the alterations. Wave drag increases as a swimmer's velocity
increases. At the highest sprint speeds, wave drag can be ~40% of total active drag (Wilson & Thorp, 2003). When using
wave height as an index of change in resistance, all the compared occasions need to be performed at the same velocity.
Streamline 1.1
Technique Microcycle 1
STREAMLINE
The simplest way to improve in swimming velocity is to increase the streamline of the head and
body. The streamline of a swimmer's head and body refers to the straightness (horizontality) of those
non-propulsive body parts. It is difficult for humans to progress through water because they incur
resistance, which causes a swimming person to slow down. If horizontal streamline is achieved, then
the resistance caused by those structural elements will be reduced to a minimum. If resistance is
reduced, then a swimmer will go faster because there will be less resistance impeding forward
progression. It is as simple as that. It is a given: Reduce resistance caused by the head and body and
the swimmer will go faster when seeking speed or go further each stroke when attempting to swim
long distances.
The critical feature of a swimmer's streamline is the position of the head and hips in all strokes.
Possible Effects for Microcycle 1
The main effect of streamlining is to reduce resistance. In ultra-short race-pace training sets, the
following effects on swimming performances could occur [In all estimates of effects, it is assumed
they will be measured in that training format.]
1. It should be expected that the distance per stroke will increase, which translates into fewer
strokes per lap for equal swimming intensities.
2. Since, the slowing down of each stroke is lessened there could be a minor improvement in
lap times for the same effort levels.
3. Incurring less resistance should result in a reduction in the bow- and lateral-wave heights.
Crawl Stroke
In most practice situations when swimming crawl stroke, swimmers look forward, often with a partly
raised head. Usually, this is a safety measure so that collisions with other swimmers in the same lane
will not occur. As well, looking forward makes training more interesting particularly in long boring
sets. Life-saving and some water-polo situations also advocate lifting the head to see a patient or an
opposing player. Unfortunately, swimming with the head up incurs resistance.
The actions that are necessary to maximize streamline are to swim for as long as possible in every
stroke with the head looking directly at the bottom of the pool, the head being held just
below the surface, and the buttocks being at the same elevation as the head. In this
position, the cross-section of the shoulders and chest will present the greatest area that
establishes maximal frontal resistance. The hips and legs should be held and function in
the shadow of the maximum body girth.
The head should be held down to also be enclosed in the body's cross-sectional area. An
added advantage of the "head down" position is that the smooth curvature of the scalp is
presented to oncoming water which minimizes resistance as water parts to move around
it. If the face, with its structural asperities (pockets and projections), is presented to the
oncoming water, much water will be obstructed with excessive turbulence being created
(resistance will be increased).
The horizontality of a line from the back of the head to the top of the buttocks will
determine the level of streamline in a swimmer. The picture to the right illustrates such a
line which delineates an ideal posture. That is the posture that signifies correct physical
Streamline 1.2
development in humans. If the picture is rotated 90º counter-

clockwise, the ideal swimming posture is revealed. There is
no change from the vertical posture because a swimmer is
totally supported by the water.
Nuclear submarines on the surface are a mechanical
manifestation of what is ideal for a swimmer propelling
through (not over) the water. The leading edge of the ship is
slightly underwater so that the flow proceeds evenly along
the hull and disturbs the water to a small degree, which is
much less than a surface craft that cleaves through the fluid.
The amount of water disturbed is an index of the efficiency
with which an object proceeds through water. Figure 1.1
depicts a nuclear submarine moving across the sea surface.
The large streamlined hull moves with little water
disturbance but the two structures projecting above the
surface cause considerable disturbance (the white water of
the surface). A similar phenomenon occurs when part of a
swimmer (e.g., the head) breaks the surface.
The features of good crawl stroke posture are:
1. Head down and look directly at the bottom of the pool.
2. The head depth should be such that some water travels over the swimmer's cap.
3. The top of the swimmer's buttocks should be at the same height as the top of the swimmer's
head as it looks to the bottom.
4. The postural link between a swimmer's head and buttocks should be firm along the horizontal
axis.
As with all considerations of body positions, Newton's Third Law is appropriate: In layman's terms it
is "for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction". This indicates how errors in technique,
with regard to streamline, can be made. If the head is
raised (such as when the swimmer is instructed to
Figure 1.1. A nuclear submarine
look forward and have the water line at the level of
traversing the sea surface. As much
the start of the swimmer's cap), then the feet will go
down. To some extent so will the hips. If the of the craft as possible is underwater.
shoulders are raised, then the hips will sink. Raising
the head and/or shoulders and looking forward (also
a form of head raise) will cause the opposite reaction
in those body counterparts on the other side of the
center of buoyancy in the swimmer's body.
The diagram to the right illustrates how to test the
effect of raising the head. Not everyone will respond
the same as the idealized subject in the illustration,
but the reaction principles are the same. The
elements of what should be learned from this
depiction are included in the figure.

Streamline 1.3
Top swimmers are not immune from technique faults. Figure 1.2 illustrates Ian Thorpe breathing to
his left. His breathing action could be improved considerably because his head is raised to be partly
above the water line. Newton's Third Law is invoked and his hips and legs sink. The overall angle of
the swimmer increases resistance slowing progression. As well as the head being raised, the entered
hand/arm presses directly down. It is not known how much force is involved in that press but the
shoulders and/or head will rise and the hips and feet will sink as a result (Newton's Third Law in
action again). It is interesting to note that Ian Thorpe's kick is deep and forward, producing a force
that is opposite to what is desirable for propulsion. The lesson learned from this is if kicking is
consciously substantial, and the head and body are not streamlined, kicking hard will hinder rather
than help a swimmer.
Figure 1.2. Ian Thorpe breathing

with a raised head that contributes
to his hips and feet being deeper
than would be preferred for
streamlining.
Figure 1.3. The head position and obvious streamlining of exceptional swimmers
representing both genders and the extremes of racing distances.
Rushall, Sprigings, Cappaert, and King presented an in-depth analysis of body and head positions
and angles at various stages of male crawl stroke medalists at the 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games
(http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/bullets/bodydyns.htm). It is worthwhile to compare the Gold Medal
winners to the other place-getters in the analysis. The better streamline and head positions were
evident in the Gold Medalists. Further evidence of the head-down position is illustrated in Figure
1.3.
Rarely does one see a top swimmer with the head completely covered throughout a race. It is
common to have a finishing strategy that consists of "no breathing, head down, bottom up". That is
supposed to produce a better finishing surge. One has to ask: "If putting the head down makes a
swimmer go faster, then why not do it for the whole race?" Fluid mechanics deems that the head
should be "down" in alignment with the body to produce the most streamlined posture possible.
When coaches want swimmers to go their absolute fastest, the head "down" attitude is also
recommended. Among today's swimmers, only Sun Yang of China, the 2011 World and 2012
Olympic 1,500 m champion and world-record holder completely covers his head when not
breathing. Some would say he "buries his head." Figure 1.4 illustrates Sun Yang's head carry.

Streamline 1.4
Figure 1.4. Sun Yang's underwater head position at 775 m of his 2011 world-record
1,500 m swim at the Shanghai World Championships.
Figure 1.4 shows Sun Yang at 775 m in his World Championships 1,500 m race in Shanghai. The
majority of the frames are with the head completely underwater. There is absolutely no water going
up and over the head it is that low. Frames #9 and #25 show the highest his head rises which is
inhalation on the right side. There is no evidence that lateral waves start at the head, a feature that
suggests a marked reduction in resistance. That breathing position and timing could be improved but
the covered head is the first example of a swimmer holding to this important mechanical principle
throughout a total race. It is hoped this head position will be copied by many.
However, an underwater analysis of Sun Yang's stroke (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion
/sy1225.htm) shows that how the swimmer holds his head underwater (it looks slightly forward with
a hyper-extended neck) could be improved. What is of interest here is the coverage of the head.
When instructing a swimmer to lower the head under water, bending at the neck is a possible
response and that usually produces unsatisfactory results. If that is seen as the reaction it is better to
instruct to lower the shoulders and the head as a unit. It has been shown that when swimming at the
surface, if the body angle (i.e., shoulders to hips) is negative, that is, when the shoulders are slightly
deeper than the hips (-4º), resistance is least (Pease & Vennell, 2010).6
DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE ACHIEVED IN CRAWL STROKE

The following features should be evident in correctly-postured crawl-stroke
swimmers.
• The head should be down with the eyes looking directly at the bottom of the
pool.
• The head depth should be such that some water travels over the swimmer's
cap.
• The top of the swimmer's buttocks should be at the same height as the top of
the swimmer's head.
• The postural line between a swimmer's head and buttocks should be firm along
the horizontal axis.
6
In November 2012, this writer experimented with the negative body angle at the Cherrybrook Carlile and Carlile
Swimming Clubs in Australia. The immediate effects of a very obviously buried head and shoulders were demonstrated
by swimmers taking fewer strokes per length and also improving in lap times while performing ultra-short race-pace
training over 50 m. When Michael Andrew of Team Andrew Indie Swimming in Kansas, USA, lowered his head and
shoulders further, his coach remarked "today a well rested Michael just tore the pool apart and actually it was a
breakthrough on the negative angle swimming. He did it and felt it. It was like poetry in motion watching as he looked so
smooth and it was amazing. He held 25 x 50 all around 22.80."
Streamline 1.5
Backstroke
Backstroke postural features and the principles involved with that posture are the same as those
involved in crawl stroke with the exception being that the swimmer looks upward instead of
downward.
The posture of the swimmer should embrace being flat along the surface. That means the face, the
highest part of the chest, the hips, and when in line with the body the thighs should all be on the
surface. Unfortunately, most backstroke swimmers have been taught to look back to some degree
which usually is with the head somewhere between 45º and 60º. That angle causes the hips to drop
which results in an increased frontal/cross-sectional area which in turn increases resistance
unnecessarily.
The features of good backstroke posture are:
1. Head held back and aligned with the horizontal axis with the eyes looking directly up at the
ceiling of the pool.
2. The head depth should be such that some water
travels over the swimmer's face (see picture to
the right). This will entail at least both ears being
below the water line.
3. The top of the swimmer's hips should be at the
same height as the top of the swimmer's chest and face. Some part of the hips should be
visible in every phase of the swimmer's stroke.
4. The postural link between the center of a swimmer's head and center of the hips should be
firm along the horizontal axis.
The change in the position of the head to being underwater means that swimmers will have to be
taught how to exhale and inhale consistently in their stroking rhythms. [This is explained in
Microcyle 2.] This often produces some resistance when a swimmer has performed for a long time
with the comfortable, but resistance-increasing, face-out-of-the-water head position. Figure 1.5
illustrates the head back positions of top backstroke swimmers.
If the streamlining features advocated here are incorporated into backstroke swimming technique,
then a swimmer's velocity and/or distance per stroke should improve. Lowered resistance means
greater proficiency in sliding through water.
Figure 1.5. The head position and obvious streamlining of exceptional backstroke
swimmers of both genders.

Streamline 1.6
DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE ACHIEVED IN BACKSTROKE

The following features should be evident in correctly-postured backstroke
swimmers.
• Head back and eyes looking directly up at the ceiling of the pool.
face. This will entail at least both ears being below the water line.
• The top of the swimmer's hips should be at the same height as the top of
the swimmer's chest and face. Some part of the hips should be visible
throughout the stroke.
• The postural link between the center of a swimmer's head and center of the
hips should be firm along the horizontal axis.
Butterfly Stroke
Butterfly stroke and breaststroke have much in common. Their movement symmetry restricts some
of the resistance-reducing actions that are possible with the alternate arm and kick actions of crawl
stroke and backstroke. The challenge for symmetrical stroke swimmers is to maintain a streamlined
posture for as long as possible and when breathing is required to limit as much as possible departures
from streamline in the vertical plane.
Generally, coaches have failed to realize the loss in energy and the increase in resistance that occurs
with the breathing and kicking actions in butterfly.
• The bigger the butterfly kick, the greater is the amount of drag resistance created. It is
prudent for swimmers to kick small so that propulsive forces exceed the resistance that
occurs in the action. With big butterfly kicking, there usually is an increase in the magnitude
of the hip movement. The continual movement of the hips produces much water movement,
the energy for that movement coming from the swimmer. Big hip movements are normally
accompanied by big leg movements resulting in a slow kicking rate, which produces fewer
propulsive impulses from the arms, and bigger movements produce increased resistance that
eventually exceeds any increased propulsive benefits.
• The higher a swimmer "flies" over the water, the greater is the energy required to produce the
vertical movement component of the swimmer. That energy loss is at the expense of
propulsion. What is seldom considered is the increased resistance that occurs when the
swimmer "crashes" back into the water after inhalation. An added detrimental feature occurs
when the high head and shoulder lift is counter-balanced by a lowering of the hips and legs,
resulting in a net increase in frontal resistance, which slows the swimmer. Trying to "fly over
the water" has several detrimental features: 1) it requires increased energy output causing
fatigue to occur earlier than should be expected in a race; 2) it increases resistance which
slows the swimmer; and 3) bigger and more complicated movements take more time than an
efficient stroke and therefore the swimmer executes fewer propulsive phases in a set interval.
It is in a swimmer's best interest to keep streamlined as long as possible and to deviate from that
streamline when required by the smallest amount and the shortest time possible. These two factors
are often related to breathing, which is presented in Microcycle 2.
Streamline 1.7
Figure 1.6. Michael Phelps (top left and bottom right) and Ryan Lochte (bottom left
and top right) demonstrating different body postures during breathing in the butterfly
leg of the 200 IM final at the London Olympic Games.
Figure 1.6 illustrates Ryan Lochte (the "bad" example) and Michael Phelps (the "good" example)
breathing in the butterfly leg of the London Olympic Games 200 IM final race.
• Michael Phelps demonstrates "good" features of body posture while breathing in butterfly
stroke. When compared to Ryan Lochte, Phelps' body is more horizontal and his mouth is
closer to the water surface. He breathes forward. It is this limited disruption to streamline that
is noteworthy in Michael Phelps' technique.
• Ryan Lochte demonstrates "poor" features of body posture while breathing. His body is at a
steeper angle than Michael Phelps' and his mouth is higher over the water. He breathes
forward and upward.
Michael Phelps' breathing action results in less disruption to streamline; 1) it takes a minimal amount
of time to execute because it travels the least distance; 2) the return to streamline will require less
effort to halt its downward movement; 3) the return to streamline will require less counter-balancing
corrective movements (usually in the kick); and 4) a greater part of the total stroke will be in
streamline. Ryan Lochte's greater departure from streamline magnifies the detrimental levels of
those aspects.
Most butterfly swimmers develop a "rocker action" between the hips and shoulders. Ideally, the
shoulders and head should remain fixed when not breathing. The face should look directly at the
pool bottom and the head should be completely covered when recovering. That fixed position should
only be disrupted when breathing. However, if the head and shoulders plunge into the water it is
likely that the hips will rise (and push away a lot of water) as the feet kick down to counter-balance
that movement. When the shoulders and hips rise and fall in opposition to each other, much energy
is transferred to the water so that it will move out of the way as well as flow around the body. It is
desirable to eliminate or at least minimize this "rocker" movement. Figure 1.7 illustrates some of the
major forces that act upon a butterfly swimmer's body position at the entry and exit of the arms.
Rocker movements can also occur with the arm exit. An unnecessary emphasis on lifting the arms
high as they exit will also cause the shoulders to dive and the hips to rise, which are signified by an
excessive kick to produce the height. Figure 1.6 shows Michael Phelps recovering forward as his
hands leave the water. There is no attempt to lift up.

Streamline 1.8
Figure 1.7. The action and reaction forces involved in major movements in butterfly
stroke.
An emphasis on the arm forces at entry or exit will cause the counter-balancing kicks to be larger
than is desirable. An emphasis on kicking harder might increase the force developed by the arms at
entry and exit but more likely will cause the hips to rise (see Michael Phelps' second picture in
Figure 1.8). It has been a common failure of coaches to tolerate excessively vertical entries and to
over-kick. Both emphases cause a rocker-action in the body which increases resistance. If the entry
in butterfly is executed correctly (see Microcycle 6 in this manual), and the kick is only a reaction to
a correct entry and not excessive, the body should remain streamlined throughout most of the stroke.
Figure 1.8 illustrates the head and body positions at entry of elite swimmers Michael Phelps
(http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/mp30200.htm) and Jessicah Schipper (http://coachsci.
sdsu.edu/swim/champion/js170200.htm). Both swimmers begin to seek a propulsive position very
shortly after the entry is completed. Because the power in propulsion comes early in their strokes,
the hands spread further apart in the early stage, not because of intention, but because of the rotation
of the humerus bones (upper arms) in the glenoid fossae of the scapulae during abduction. Coaches
should teach swimmers to feel their propulsive efforts are directly backward and not attend to an
unavoidable outward path. As can be seen in the full analyses from which the frames in Figure 1.8
were extracted, flexion at the elbows cancels a large part of what would have been an outward sweep
in the first half of the butterfly propulsive movement.
Figure 1.8. Head and body positions of two outstanding butterfly stroke swimmers.
The coaching emphases for developing minimally resistant head and body positions in butterfly
stroke follow.
1. Attempt to keep the head, body, and hips streamlined for as long as possible during the stroke
cycle.

Streamline 1.9
2. When breathing, the height of the head will determine the amount of deviation of the body
from streamline. Attempt to breathe low and forward through the bow-wave (as opposed to
rising upward).
3. Minimize the degree of effort and vertical force components at the entry, exit, and in the
kicks. If a rocker action is sensed, then the causal element(s) (entry and/or exit of the arms
and/or both kicks) should be located and minimized in their vertical force component
production.
DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE ACHIEVED IN BUTTERFLY STROKE

The following features should be evident in correctly-postured butterfly
stroke swimmers.
• Head, body, and hips streamlined for as much of the stroke as possible.
• When breathing, the head should be low and forward through the bow-
wave.
• Do not tolerate a "rocker action" because it wastes energy. The entry and
exit of the arms and both kicks should not disrupt streamline (although it
is common to see this fault exhibited by the best butterfly swimmers of
today).
Breaststroke
The desirable dynamics of breaststroke swimming are similar to those of butterfly. Although rarely
stressed by coaches, two general principles need to be embraced: 1) maintain streamline for as long
as possible in every stroke cycle, and 2) when breathing, disrupt streamline minimally. They
translate into the following coaching emphases.
1. Attempt to keep the head, body, and hips streamlined for as long as possible during the
breaststroke cycle.
2. When breathing, the height of the head will determine the amount of deviation of the body
from streamline. Attempt to breathe low and forward through the bow-wave (as opposed to
rising upward).
3. The arms and body should be streamlined during the propulsive phase of the kick.
The body position in breaststroke has changed over the past 15 years. It has always been advocated
that a swimmer remain streamlined while "keeping the hips up" (assumedly near the surface). That is
about all that has been stressed. In the early 1980s when swimmers were able to submerge due to a
rule change, up-and-down movements in the stroke appeared7. By the early 1990s, the Europeans
(e.g., Norbert Rosa) introduced rising very high out of the water to breathe, recovering over the
water, and then crashing back into the water with little concern about underwater streamlining. Some
vestiges of that stroke, particularly rising high to breathe and recovering over the surface, remain
today in many swimmers. Rising high and collapsing back into the water produced much splash and
required great amounts of effort to complete races. Unfortunately, little scientific analysis of this
7
Anne Ottenbrite of Canada was the first Olympic champion using excessive emergence from the water when breathing.
Streamline 1.10
aspect of breaststroke technique had been performed. It is only since 1992 that much more
understanding of resistance reducing actions began to be considered.
The breaststroke equivalent of butterfly stroke's "rocker action" was somewhat prevalent in the
vertical-oriented stroking pattern. The picture to the right is of
Samantha Riley in the final of the 100 m breaststroke race at the 1998
Perth World Championships (http:// coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/
riley701.htm). The swimmer was noted for the degree of elevation and
the vigor of her stroke. The negative angle of the body illustrates a part
of the rocker action. Instead of this movement feature, a flat horizontal
body position would be preferable.
The breathing action in breaststroke swimming to a large extent governs the amount of streamlining
that occurs in a stroke cycle. Over the years there have been a number of positions demonstrated,
some being desirable and others undesirable. It appears that there is one body position for breathing
for females and another for males. Females exploit their lower back flexibility and bend markedly in
the spine to raise the head and shoulders to breathe. The less flexible males tend to have only a
minor degree of spinal bend and raise their bodies in a straighter fashion to breathe. To understand
this conjecture it is necessary to look at some historical analyses of top swimmers.
Figure 1.9. A 3D computer analysis of Linley Frame's breaststroke cycle in her Gold
Medal 100 m breaststroke race at the 1991 World Championships held in Perth,
Western Australia (from Cappaert & Rushall, 1994).
Linley Frame exhibited an exaggerated elevation in the breathing action of her stroke (see Figure
1.9). In that action, the highest body angle during breathing was ~45° (the third drawing in the
figure). Her knees dropped almost the same amount (~-49°), which produced a large increase in
frontal resistance. In this position, her forward progression was approaching its lowest velocity in the
whole stroke. The actual lowest velocity occurred as the arms were thrust forward, the knees were
fully drawn up prior to kicking, and the head and shoulders were re-entering the water. At no time in
the stroke did she achieve streamline. Her glide position (drawings 1 and 4) displayed a slight
concavity over the total swimmer, a common feature of breaststroke swimmers who elevate too
much which causes the swimmer's alignment to go past horizontal upon return into the water.
Figure 1.10. A 3D computer analysis of Norbert Rosza's breaststroke cycle in his

Gold Medal 100 m breaststroke race at the 1991 World Championships held in Perth,
Streamline 1.11
Norbert Rosza was perhaps the most successful of the new and much copied breaststroke action that
featured high elevation during breathing and a recovery over the water (Figure 1.10). A notable
number of today's breaststroke swimmers exhibit similar features. At the peak of breathing, the
swimmer had a body angle of ~43° but the knees dropped considerably resulting in the slowest
progression velocity in the total stroke cycle. At no time did Norbert Rosza exhibit a streamlined
position in the stroke (see drawings 1 and 4 in Figure 1.10).
In 1991, Mike Barrowman captured the imagination of many coaches because of his 200 m
breaststroke swim at the Perth World Championships. Figure 1.11 displays the characteristics of his
stroke cycle. His form offered a striking alternative to the technique of Norbert Rosza.
Figure 1.11. A 3D computer analysis of Mike Barrowman's breaststroke cycle in his

Gold Medal 200 m breaststroke race at the 1991 World Championships held in Perth,
The amount of body elevation was reduced compared to high-elevation breathers. Since his body did
not travel as far, his action of raising and lowering his body took less time, exposing more of the
stroke time to streamline. As well as his body action, hyperextension of his lower back allowed his
legs to trail with less resistance (drawing 2). The quicker return of the upper body and his arm
recoveries meant that a considerable portion of his kick was propelling the body in streamline. His
overall gliding position was one of near perfect streamline. Drawing #3 in Figure 1.11 is close to the
slowest forward velocity in his stroke cycle. Barrowman's lower and quicker body action, the
hyperextension of his lower back and hips, and his streamline served as clues for a better
breaststroke. With the lower body action, when the knees were drawn up to kick, they did not
present as much frontal resistance when compared to the two previous swimmers. It would be some
time before these features were embraced by swimming's coaching fraternity.
Figure 1.12. A 3D computer analysis of Elena Roudkovskia's breaststroke cycle in

her Gold Medal 100 m breaststroke race at the 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games (from
Cappaert & Rushall, 1994).
Elena (aka Yelena) Roudkovskia took the hyperextension of the lower back to the next level (Figure
1.12). Although her body angle was in excess of 40°, her thighs hardly dropped at all until kick
preparation was initiated. The reduction in the forward progression velocity of this swimmer at this
stroke stage was less than in other swimmers analyzed by Cappaert and Rushall, but still coincided
with the slowest progression velocity in her stroke. Roudkovskia demonstrated that performing the
breathing action with streamlined trailing legs was a beneficial improvement in breaststroke
technique.

Streamline 1.12
As the 1990's progressed, further refinements in breaststroke technique occurred. Limiting this
discussion to the body position in the stroke, what Elena Roudkovskia demonstrated was improved
further.
Figure 1.13. Megan Quann's body action during the breathing phase in her Gold Medal
100 m breaststroke race at the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games.
Megan Quann (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/mq75100.htm) clearly showed the extent
that female breaststroke swimmers can take the body's involvement in breathing (Figure 1.13). The
three frames depicted above show the raising of the head and shoulders in the breathing movement.
In Frames #7 and #8, the thighs travel in streamline and only begin to be drawn up to kick when the
arms are recovering forward in a very fast manner.
In Figure 1.14, Rebecca Soni (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/rs60200.htm) displays the
full extent of the body moving independently of the trailing legs in breaststroke. Women have a
greater facility for spinal flexibility. Most of the hyperextension that occurs is in the spine with no
obvious action in the hips. This series of frames displays the latest evolution of the body's action in
breaststroke. Elevation to breathe occurs through hyperextension in the spine from the lower thoracic
region on down. After the head and body return from breathing, the body, head, and arms are in full
streamline as the legs are drawn up and followed by the kick. In Frame #9 in Figure 1.14, the
swimmer's recovery forward is close to completion while her legs are only half-way through the
preparation to kick.
Figure 1.14. Rebecca Soni during her Gold Medal 200 m breaststroke race at the
2011 Shanghai World Championships
Male breaststroke swimmers do not have the same potential for flexibility and manipulation in the
spine that exists in females. Consequently, the body's involvement in the breathing action is gender
specific. Males tend to employ straighter spines when breathing. Some hyperextension of the lower
back and some hip extension occur to a minor degree. This is a subtle feature but does make a
difference because it is of great advantage to males to breathe low and forward, a condition that
allows the angle of departure from streamline to be minimal.

Streamline 1.13
Figure 1.15. Kosuke Kitajima's body movement during breathing in his 200 m Gold
Medal race at the 2003 World Championships.
Figure 1.15 illustrates Kosuke Kitajima's body movement during breathing in 2003
(http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/kk165200.htm). Only a slight bend in the spine is evident
at the peak of the breathing action (Frame #8).
Figure 1.16. Three male Gold Medal swimmers illustrating reduced back
hyperextension (when compared to females) in the breathing action.
Figure 1.16 illustrates further examples of elite male breaststroke swimmers showing reduced lower
back hyperextension when compared to females. [The full stroke analyses of these three swimmers
are presented in the Swimming Science Journal (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/
table.htm)]. These exhibits are intended to support the hypothesis that body positions during
breathing are gender specific.
Streamline 1.14
DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE ACHIEVED IN BREASTSTROKE

The following features should be evident in correctly-postured
breaststroke swimmers.
• Head, body, and hips streamlined for as much of the stroke as
possible.
• When breathing, the deflection from horizontal should be as little as
possible. Therefore, breathe low and forward through the bow-wave.
• Do not tolerate a "rocker action" because it wastes energy. Spend as
much time as possible in a streamlined position.
This presentation is detailed and provides examples as evidence as well as basic research references
that take the discussion of points beyond that which is required for supporting technique
recommendations for most swimmers. The major point behind this technique focus is that if
streamline is improved in a swimmer then performances should improve because of the mechanical
consequence of reduced resistance. When objects travel through fluids, if their resistance can be
reduced they travel faster and their progress is more efficient. That is what should happen to the vast
majority of swimmers who improve streamline.
The simplest test for improved efficiency due to streamline is the number of strokes taken to
complete a length in a constant time. Distance per stroke should improve.
It is likely that a change in streamline will have concomitant changes in arm actions, the amplitude
of kicks, and breathing actions. Some of those changes might not be for the better. However, in the
following microcycles those aspects of technique are addressed. In this manual, it is assumed that
once streamline is corrected that it will remain in its new superior form for the rest of the
macrocycle.

Streamline 1.15
TECHNIQUE MICROCYCLE 1
TEACHING POINTS FOR STREAMLINE POSITIONS IN ALL STROKES
BODY POSITION IN
BACKSTROKE
BODY POSITION IN CRAWL • Head back and eyes looking
STROKE directly up at the ceiling of the
pool.
• The head should be down with the
eyes looking directly at the • The head depth should be such
bottom of the pool. that some water travels over the
swimmer's face. This will entail at
• The head depth should be such
least both ears being below the
that some water travels over the
water line.
swimmer's cap.
• The top of the swimmer's hips
• The top of the swimmer's
should be at the same height as
buttocks should be at the same
the top of the swimmer's chest
height as the top of the
and face. Some part of the hips
swimmer's head.
should be visible throughout the
• The postural line between a swim- stroke.
mer's head and buttocks should
• The postural link between the
be firm along the horizontal axis.
center of a swimmer's head and
center of the hips should be firm
along the horizontal axis.
BODY POSITION IN
BUTTERFLY STROKE BODY POSITION IN
BREASTSTROKE
• Head, body, and hips stream-
lined for as much of the stroke as • Head, body, and hips streamlined
possible. for as much of the stroke as
possible.
• When breathing, the head should
be low and forward through the • When breathing, the deflection
bow-wave. from horizontal should be as little
as possible. Therefore, breathe
• Do not tolerate a "rocker action"
low and forward through the bow-
because it wastes energy. The
wave.
entry and exit of the arms and
both kicks should not disrupt • Do not tolerate a "rocker action"
streamline (although it is because it wastes energy. Spend
common to see this fault as much time as possible in a
exhibited by the best butterfly streamlined position.
swimmers of today).

Breathing 2.1
BREATHING
Reminder
The technique feature of body streamline that was instructed in Microcycle 1 should continue to be
coached through this and all subsequent technique microcycles.
Introduction
The position of a body's streamline and head are very much linked with the breathing action of a
swimmer. Consequently, when working on breathing, the streamline of a swimmer must be
maintained as much as possible.
There are physical considerations surrounding breathing that should be understood before
implementing changes. Some of those considerations follow.
1. In all strokes, breathing disrupts the best streamline and therefore causes a swimmer to slow.
Consequently, the duration of a breathing action should be as short as possible.
2. In any breathing action, extra and less than direct movements increase the slowing-effect.
The simplest breathing action is the best.
3. When a breath is taken above the water line (i.e., the flotation level of the swimmer) energy
is required to lift the anatomical parts involved. Usually, the force component for that lift
comes from one or both arm movements and therefore, reduces the force component that can
be developed for propulsion. In most cases, the energy required to lift the head and upper
body is far greater than would be needed to sustain propulsion if no breathing action
occurred.
4. Returning from an above-the-waterline breath displaces some water; the energy for that
displacement comes from gravity and the swimmer, resulting in less energy for propulsion in
a race.
5. A lifting and returning breathing action disrupts water flow around the body which increases
resistance and slows the swimmer.
6. A lifting and returning breathing action also causes parts of the body to move in unusual
manners which reduces the efficiency of the swimmer.
7. The physiological principle: It is best for respiration to occur outside of the effort phase,
should be observed. In cyclic sporting movements, of which swimming is an example,
respiration should occur when the effort level of work is least.
8. Air should be held in the lungs throughout the force-production phase of all strokes. As force
lessens, the air should be forcefully expelled very quickly (a "blast") which creates negative
pressure in the lungs. When inhalation occurs, the flow of air will be enhanced due to the
equalization of atmospheric and lung gas pressures (inhalation will be very quick).
9. The reason one does not move the chest by breathing in the work phase of an action, is that a
stationary torso provides a fixed base upon which arm work can be created. If work is
performed on a moving base, energy is consumed by the movement (much like shock-
absorbers) and the arm forces are reduced. To achieve the strongest pull possible, the chest
has to be stationary.

Breathing 2.2

The main effect of streamlining is to reduce resistance. In ultra-short race-pace training sets, the
following effects on swimming performances could occur [In all estimates of effects, it is assumed
they will be measured in that training format.]
1. It should be expected that the distance per stroke will increase, which translates into fewer
strokes per lap for equal swimming intensities.
2. Since, the slowing down of each stroke is lessened there could be a minor improvement in
lap times for the same effort levels.
3. Incurring less resistance should result in a reduction in the bow- and lateral-wave heights.
Crawl Stroke
Some breathing action errors in crawl stroke are common even among top performers. Figure 2.1
illustrates that more than one error can occur in an elite swimmer (Lotte Friis;
http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/lf133015.htm ).
Figure 2.1. Lotte Friis' breathing action in crawl stroke. A number of deficiencies are
evident.
• In Frames #4 through #7, the swimmer raises her head and looks forward. To counter-
balance that unnecessary movement, some potential propulsive arm force is used to support
the unnecessary action. [This is an example of an extra and less direct movement - point #2
above.]
• Frames #8 and #9 show the production of turbulence off the face that occurs when it is turned
to the side in a somewhat upright orientation. [Points #2, #3, and #5 above.]
• Frames #10 through #13 illustrate how long the swimmer holds her head to the side. It
appears that the "hold" is timed with the duration of the left arm recovery. In Frames #14 and
#15, the head turns back into the water as the recovery arm moves forward and enters the
water. [Contravention of point #1 above.] The final position of the head when it is returned is
desirable, that is, the face profile looks directly down at the pool bottom.

Breathing 2.3
The undesirable features of Lotte Friis' breathing action could be removed if the breathing action had
the following features.
• The head turn should be independent of the shoulder turn and recovering arm.
• Breathing should be bi-lateral. That means the swimmer would breathe less (once every three
strokes) than when on one side (once every two strokes). The number of slowing impulses
produced by breathing will be reduced. It also facilitates the swimmer being aware of what is
occurring on both sides of him/her. [An application of point #1 above.]
• The head should rotate to the side along the longitudinal axis. This produces the smallest
disruption to streamline, the least production of turbulence, and should occur in the shortest
time. No head lifting should happen. [Point #2 above.]
• Because of the way the bow-wave forms off a low rotating head, the mouth can be positioned
in the wave trough making it possible to inhale below the water line. [Point #2 above.]
• To make sure the inhalation is "safe"; breathing through the highest half of the mouth is
preferable. [See Figure 2.2 below.]
• The timing of the head turn should be with the exit of the recovering arm. [Point #7 above.]
• Air should be explosively exhaled as the head turns to the side. If that is timed right, it also
"blasts" water away from the mouth to facilitate a clean inhalation. [Point #8 above.]
• Inhalation should occur very quickly. When forcible exhalation occurs, negative pressure
develops in the lungs. When the mouth is opened to inhale, little effort is needed to breathe in
because air rushes into the lungs to equalize the lung and atmospheric pressures. That occurs
very quickly. [Point #8 above.]
• As soon as inhalation is complete, the head should be turned directly back to look at the pool
bottom. This action must be completed before the recovering arm is at its highest point.
[Points #1 and #7 above.]
The above features should produce a fast, minimally disruptive breathing action. There is no place in
a proficient crawl stroke swimmer for a slow or complicated breathing action. Figure 2.2 illustrates a
good head position for breathing in crawl stroke.
Figure 2.2. A good head position along the horizontal axis in the sprint crawl-stroke
breathing action.

Breathing 2.4
It is occasionally advocated that one should use breathing equipment (e.g., a snorkel-form) when
training for crawl stroke. However, Strumbelj (2007) showed that swimming with a respiratory valve
altered both the breathing pattern and stroke technique. The use of such "tools" (aka "toys") is
detrimental to good breathing actions and stroke technique elements.

The following features should be evident in crawl-stroke swimmers exhibiting
correct breathing.
• The head turn should be independent of the shoulder turn and recovering
arm.
• Breathe out explosively as the head starts to turn to the side on the
horizontal axis.
• Breathe in fast when the mouth is just clear and return to look at the pool
bottom very quickly (before the recovery arm is vertical).
• Time the turning action with the arm exit (the time of least effort).
• Streamline should be maintained at all times throughout the breathing
movement.
• The postural line between a swimmer's head, shoulders, and hips should
Backstroke
The commonly observed backstroke breathing action has been tolerated for a considerable time. The
position of the head in champions has usually involved pushing the head back and looking up at
about 60+º. Less than strict attention has been paid to the height of the hips in the body position
despite exhortations to keep the hips "up". A less than desirable emphasis on kicking (a larger than
natural counter-balancing kick is executed) also depresses the hip position. Most backstrokers are
not streamlined to the extent that is possible which in turn, raises the amount of frontal and surface
resistance in the stroking movement.
If one observes the principles of physics first and describes the body-head position that would be
desirable (see Microcycle 1), lesser stressed features of breathing in backstroke emerge.
• The curvature of a swimmer's lumbar region and buttocks is such that considerable drag
resistance is developed if the general direction of water flow over those surfaces is not as
horizontal as possible. This feature is evident in Figure 2.3, which illustrates the head-body
alignment of Aaron Peirsol in one of his Olympic victories. Particular attention should be
paid to Frame #7 (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/apBK1652.htm).
• One way of correcting the streamline of backstrokers is to change the position of the head
and shoulders. Since the head and shoulders are on one side of the center of buoyancy, if they
are lowered into the water, the reaction on the other side of the center of buoyancy is for the
hips to rise. Such an adjustment should be made so that when the body rotates during an arm
pull, the hip actually breaks the water surface. This new alignment should reduce resistance
because of better streamline. It should improve distance per stroke after sufficient practice
that yields a position of acceptable comfort.

Breathing 2.5
Figure 2.3. Aaron Peirsol at 165 m of his Gold Medal 200 m backstroke race at the
2004 Athens Olympic Games.
• An ideal positioning of the hips usually requires the head to be lowered into the water. The
neck should be straight to further enhance streamline which results in the swimmer looking
directly up and not at all backward. The face profile can be above the water level but if the
head and shoulders are low enough, the bow-wave will cause water to flow over the face
(reducing resistance). Figure 2.4 (Daniel Arnamnart) shows bow-wave flow over the head,
although the face profile could be flatter.
Figure 2.4. Daniel Arnamnart with bow-wave flow over his head in backstroke. The
low head position unfortunately is accompanied with an angled face profile.
The following are the features of ideal backstroke breathing.
1. The head and shoulders should be lowered into the water until the hips are level with the
water surface and visible in each body rotation. That maximizes streamline.
2. The head should be of sufficient depth that part of the bow-wave flows over the face. The
face should look directly upward so that the neck is straight. This prevents laissez-faire
breathing and requires a breathing protocol and timing. Most swimmers will interpret this to
mean that they are swimming with their head underwater.
3. Breathing should be timed to coincide with the least effort level in the stroke. That is when
the propulsive arm has completed its propulsive effectiveness and is emerging from the
water. Swimmers should elect to breathe explosively, rhythmically, and consistently.
4. As the pulling arm performs its upward sweep, air should be forcibly exhaled to create
negative pressure (relevant to atmospheric pressure) in the lungs. Possibly a slight
repositioning of the chin and mouth will clear the mouth of the surface water so that a very
quick inhalation occurs (aided mainly be the equalizing of external and lung air pressures).
Any realignment of the face to expose the mouth should be as small as possible and usually
imperceptible to an observer.

Breathing 2.6
5. The two phases of breathing should be completed before the recovering arm is vertical.
6. To facilitate and minimize disruptions to streamline in the breathing action, the head should
be fixed (motionless) throughout the whole stroke. That governs the stability of the
longitudinal axis of the swimmer and sustains streamline (if it is achieved). A lack of head
movement should be one of the first features emphasized in technique instruction.
Swimmers who have performed backstroke for a long time with a raised angled head and lowered
hips (often referred to as the "sitting-in-a-chair" or "bucket" position) will resist the changes
advocated here. Breathing is not difficult in the new position. However, change initially produces
swimmer discomfort and is likely to be less than well received. It should be emphasized that such
change will reduce both passive and active resistance. A reduction in those resistances alone will
result in faster backstroke swimming.
A rhythmical breathing action and an almost submerged head are necessary features of proficient
and economical backstroke swimming.

The following features should be evident in backstroke swimmers exhibiting
correct breathing.
• A fixed and unmoving head should be held back with the eyes looking
directly up at the ceiling of the pool.
face.
• Exhalation should be explosive and occur as the arm sculls upward.
• Inhalation should be completed before the recovering arm approaches
vertical.
Butterfly Stroke
The aim for butterfly stroke breathing should be to minimize resistance increases, diversion of
potential propulsive force, and the loss of energy through water movement. Those factors are rarely
considered, particularly by coaches who advocate "flying over the water".
Figure 2.5 illustrates Michael Phelps' timing of his breathing. In Frame #1, his head begins to
emerge although less than half the propulsive phase is likely to have been completed. Frame #3
shows his head and shoulders fully emerged before his elbows break the surface. Inhalation is
complete before the hands exit (Frame #5). In Frame #7, the head and shoulders have been returned
to the water as the arms pass low and at right angles to the mid-line. This is the preferred timing of
butterfly breathing because it occurs outside the effort-phase of the stroke. As well, having the head
and shoulders in the water as the arms recover requires less effort when compared to a later
breathing action when forces would have to be developed to support the head, shoulders, and both
arms out of the water. Michael Phelps' timing lowers the effort requirement of the stroke. It is a very
important feature worthy of copying.
The aspects of efficient breathing in butterfly follow.
1. The head and shoulders are raised as little as possible so that when compared to usual
butterfly swimmers, the swimmer will be described as swimming "flat".
Breathing 2.7
2. The rise of the head and shoulders should be completed just after the middle of the
propulsive phase of the arm strokes.
Figure 2.5. The timing of Michael Phelps' breathing action in the 200 m final at the
2012 Olympic Games.
3. Keeping the hips near the surface in streamline will reduce the angle of change of the torso in
the breathing action.
4. Instead of rising up, the jaw should be thrust forward at water level through the bow-wave.
To some extent, that action minimizes streamline disruption.
5. As soon as propulsion ceases (when the arms begin to round-out and the elbows are about to
break the surface), explosive exhalation should occur to lower the air pressure in the lungs.
That forceful exhale should occur also as the head rotates to look and stretch forward.
6. As the elbows exit with the lower arms still in the water, a very quick inhalation should
occur.
7. The head and shoulders should return underwater before the arms are halfway through the
recovery. [A high recovery is unnecessary.]
8. Breathing should occur every two strokes and in the finish zone, not at all.
Figure 2.6 illustrates the breathing positions of Michael Phelps and Ryan Lochte in the 200 IM final
at the 2012 London Olympic Games. The following are notable features in this side-on perspective.
• Michael Phelps' chin projects through the bow-wave while Ryan Lochte's chin rises.
Figure 2.6. Michael Phelps (top left, bottom right) and Ryan Lochte (bottom left, top
right) swimming in the 200 IM final at the 2012 London Olympic Games. Phelps'
desirable low breathing action is obvious compared to Lochte's higher action. The
angle of Phelps' back is less than that of Lochte.

Breathing 2.8
• Michael Phelps' body angle is less steep (flatter) than Ryan Lochte's angle requiring Phelps
to use less energy to attain a breathing position than Lochte. Phelps lifts his head and
shoulders a small amount incurring less resistance than Lochte.
• Phelps' smaller movement also can be completed in less time than Lochte's larger movement.
• Michael Phelps' is ready to return his head and shoulders into the water as soon as the hands
exit.
In the front-on picture of Michael Phelps in Figure 2.7, the low head and mouth position relative to
the water surface is striking. Inhalation has begun while only the upper arms have exited the water.
This breathing action is one of the best in elite butterfly swimming. While Michael Phelps breathed
every stroke instead of every other stroke, his minimized action lessened the detrimental impact of
constant breathing. It is advised that swimmers attempt to breathe on alternate strokes and not at all
in the finish zone.
Figure 2.7. Michael Phelps breathing early, low, and in front of the bow-wave.
A low, fast, and correctly timed breathing action will make butterfly swimming easier than that
evidenced in most swimmers.

The following features should be evident in correct butterfly breathing.
• The head and shoulders should rise the least amount possible and be
completed by about the middle of the propulsive phase of the arm strokes.
• The hips should remain at the surface even in the breathing action.
• The chin should be thrust through the bow-wave on the water's surface.
• Exhalation should be explosive and occur as the elbows begin to round-out.
• Inhalation should be completed as the hands exit the water.
• The head should be returned to a streamlined position before the arms are
half-way through the recovery.
• Breathe every two strokes and not at all in the finish zone.
Breaststroke
The dynamics of correct breaststroke breathing in many respects are similar to those required for
butterfly stroke.
Breathing 2.9
The timing of the breathing action is important because the total action has to occur in a very limited
period. The head should begin to rise as soon as the power-phase of the stroke is initiated. Explosive
exhalation should occur immediately propulsive power ceases and be followed by very rapid
pressure-equalizing inhalation. The head and shoulders should be returned to streamline before the
recovery of the arms forward is completed.
What not to do. Figure 2.8 is of Liping Li swimming in the 2012 London Olympic Games. She
exhibits a number of undesirable features that unfortunately, are displayed by many swimmers.
Figure 2.8. Liping Li at the 2012 London Olympic Games.

• More than half of the swimmer's torso, the upper arms, head, and hands are out of the water.
Considerable energy is used to develop the force to raise that bulk. That energy demand
comes from the available energy that might have been used for propulsion. Rather than
maximizing the direct force component in the arm pull, it will have been reduced to build a
substantial vertical force component to support the extensive lifting movement.
• After the large mass is raised, it collapses back into the water displacing a considerable
volume. The energy for that displacement comes partly from the swimmer and gravity.
• The large lifted mass produces an extensive bow-wave off the torso and upper arms. Had the
arms been totally underwater, the bow-wave resistance would have been lessened. [While the
hand recovery over the water is supposed to "reduce resistance", all it does is increase upper
arm resistance, consume more energy from the swimmer, and with the sinking reaction of
other body parts, reduces streamline which results in greater passive and active resistance.]
• At the stage of the arm recovery exhibited, the head and shoulders should return to a
streamlined position before kicking commences. The length of time taken to perform the
breathing action is too long.
The technique errors made by Liping Li would be corrected by performing the following
breaststroke breathing dynamics.
1. Lift as little as possible in the breathing movement. That allows most of the developed arm
force to be propulsive. The greater the lift to breathe, the less is the propulsive force
developed in the arm pull.
2. Keep the hips streamlined with the shoulders. Breathing should not alter hip height.
3. Project the chin forward and low across the water to inhale (much like Michael Phelps in
butterfly stroke). This will orient the swimmer to travel forward, not upward or in a "wave".

Breathing 2.10
4. The smaller any lifting action and the quicker the head is faced forward, the quicker can be
the breathing action.
5. Exhale forcibly at the end of the propulsive phase of the arm action. Raise the face forward
and inhale as the lower arms begin to change direction to recover and then go forward.
Return the head and shoulders to streamline before the arms complete the stretch forward.
6. The quicker the breathing action can be performed, the shorter is the time when excess
resistance is developed.
These features will produce a "flat" stroke, minimize resistance, and foster an increased stroke rate.
Breathing mechanics is possibly the least emphasized feature of stroke techniques. That so many
elite swimmers have poor and inefficient breathing actions is a sad commentary. However, it also
indicates that swimming performances at the highest level have the potential to improve much more
than current records.

The following features should be evident in breaststroke swimmers exhibiting
correct breathing.
• The head and shoulders should rise the least amount possible to minimize
streamline disruption.
• The hips should remain at the surface even in the breathing action.
• The chin should be thrust through the bow-wave just above the water
surface.
• Exhalation should be explosive and occur immediately after the arms
complete propulsion.
• Inhalation should be completed in the early stage of the recovery.
• The breathing action and return to streamline should be completed before
the draw-up of the legs preparatory to kicking is completed.
Breaststroke Non-breathing
The way breaststroke is swum should change within the near future. As stroke rates increase,
breathing will become more rapid and will interfere with smooth progression. The rules of
breaststroke require a swimmer's head to break the surface once every stroke cycle. There is nothing
about having to breathe. In some casual experiments, swimming with a high rate and only breathing
every two or more strokes resulted in faster times. A scientific verification of that phenomenon is
needed. The non-breathing strokes will have a reduced amount of head lift with the shoulders hardly
moving at all, which reduces the disruption of streamline. Soon a swimmer will perform the 50 m
race with only a few breaths but the head always breaking the surface to accommodate the rules.
This is the path to the future in this stroke because it increases the propelling efficiency of the
swimmer and will result in faster times at all distances.

Breathing 2.11
TEACHING POINTS FOR BREATHING IN ALL STROKES
BREATHING IN CRAWL STROKE
• The head turn is independent of the
shoulder turn.
BREATHING IN BACKSTROKE
• Breathe out explosively as the head
starts to turn to the side on the • A fixed and unmoving head should
horizontal axis. be held back with the eyes looking
directly up at the ceiling of the pool.
• Breathe in fast when the mouth is
just clear and return to look at the • The head depth should be such that
pool bottom very quickly (before the some water travels over the
recovery arm is vertical). swimmer's face.
• Time the turning action with the arm • Exhalation should be explosive and
exit (the time of least effort). occur as the arm sculls upward.
• Streamline should be maintained at • Inhalation should be completed
all times. before the recovering arm
approaches vertical.
• The postural line between a
swimmer's head, shoulders, and
hips should be firm along the
horizontal axis.
BREATHING IN BUTTERFLY
STROKE
• The head and shoulders should rise BREATHING IN BREASTSTROKE
the least amount possible and be • The head and shoulders should rise
completed by the middle of the the least amount possible to
propulsive phase of the arm strokes. minimize streamline disruption.
• The hips should remain at the • The hips should remain at the
surface even in the breathing action. surface even in the breathing action.
• The chin should be thrust through • The chin should be thrust through
the bow-wave on the water's the bow-wave just above the water
surface. surface.
• Exhalation should be explosive and • Exhalation should be explosive and
occur as the elbows begin to round- occur immediately after the arms
out. complete propulsion.
• Inhalation should be completed as • Inhalation should be completed in
the hands exit the water. the early stage of the recovery.
• The head should be returned to a • The breathing action and return to
streamlined position before the streamline should be completed
arms are half-way through the before the draw-up of the legs
recovery. preparatory to kicking is completed.
• Breathe every two strokes but not at
all in the finish zone.

Body Roll 3.2
BODY ROLL
Reminder
The technique features that were instructed in Microcycles 1 and 2 should continue through this and
all subsequent technique microcycles.
• Streamline with the head, shoulders, and hips held in a straight line.
• Breathe quickly, simply, and with as little disruption to streamline as possible.
Body roll only pertains to crawl stroke and backstroke. For this microcycle, the emphases of the first
two microcycles for butterfly stroke and breaststroke should continue.
Any increase in the employment of the external rotator muscles in the shoulder joints usually results
in more power per stroke, although there might be no conscious attempt to improve that quality.
Those who already have good body roll are not likely to change in any measurement variable.
1. Any increase in power should result in minor but measureable increases in stroke length in
swimmers who previously did not employ good shoulder work.
2. For those who increase stroke power, lap times could improve to a measurable degree.
3. Possibly an increase in bow and lateral wave heights would occur, particularly in swimmers
who had an increase in Microcycle 2.
Body Roll
Propulsive forces in the alternate-arm strokes (crawl stroke and backstroke) are most efficient when
they are applied under the body along or as close as possible to the center line of the intended
direction of the swimmer (the "mid-line"). When arm strokes are executed properly, the center of
force application is somewhere between half-way and three-quarters of the way up the forearm.8
Rolling the body brings the arm closer to the center line so the efficiency of the stroke improves. In
this microcycle, following the center-to-periphery principle of instruction, the concentration is on
rolling the shoulders and hips together so that forces created by the arm will be both strong and close
to the center line (Keppenham & Yanai, 1995).
With any deviation away from the center line, lateral force components are developed. A swimmer is
propelled forward and depending upon the distance of force application from the mid-line, sideways9
as well. Any rotational or lateral force has to be corrected by steering with the feet, hip sway, or a
sudden change in the orientation of the path of the pulling arm.
The crawl stroke recovery develops lateral and horizontal forces. Those forces are counter-balanced
by the pulling arm being slightly away from the theoretical best mid-line so that its lateral forces
equal and counter-balance those of the recovering arm. If those forces are not equaled, a kick occurs
(usually the middle kick on each side in a six-beat kick) as an augmenting force. When those
scenarios occur, the swimmer progresses in a straight line but with less efficiency.
In crawl stroke, with ideal rotation of the shoulders, the recovering arm will be closer to the mid-line
of the swimmer as will be the pulling arm. Thus, shoulder rotation will facilitate the best position of
8
Not the hands.
9
Actually, the impulse is slightly rotational.
Body Roll 3.3
the propulsive arm and minimize the lateral forces of the recovering arm. There was a short-lived
movement a number of years ago to swim "flat". It died a natural and necessary death. As well, there
is still a movement to recover with straight arms. When that occurs, more mass is moved away from
the body in the wide sweeping recovery. That generates greater lateral forces which require the
pulling arm to be further away from the midline, reducing the propulsive force potential (see
Microcycle 7, Figure 7.1). In swimmers with less than desirable shoulder roll, when breathing occurs
in crawl stroke, the amount of shoulder roll increases (Psycharakis & McCabe, 2010).
When talking of crawl stroke shoulder roll, it is assumed that the hips will also roll and in some
swimmers will match the same degree of rotation as the shoulders. Hence, when one talks about
crawl stroke shoulder roll, it is tacitly implied that the hips will rotate in concert with the shoulders
often to the same magnitude.
In backstroke, the recovering arm usually is vertical, which is desirable. If the shoulder capsule is
elevated with the recovering arm, body roll likely will result. Thus, shoulder roll of considerable
magnitude is very important because the forces generated by the propelling arm are closer to the
mid-line. A wide pull will generate lateral forces which have to be corrected by some other
movement (quite often by hip sway in backstroke). The amount of shoulder roll and its cohort hips
could be even more than in crawl-stroke swimming. A close-to-the-body propulsive arm action is
desirable and will occur with sufficient body roll.
The principle involving shoulder and hip roll to either side is common to both crawl stroke and
backstroke.
Some Research on Body Roll. Psycharakis and Sanders (2010) critically reviewed the swimming
literature on body roll in crawl stroke for the purposes of summarizing and highlighting existing
knowledge, identifying the gaps and limitations, and stimulating further research. The main research
findings were as follows:
• Swimmers roll their shoulders significantly more than their hips;
• Swimmers increase hip roll but maintain shoulder roll when fatigued;
• Faster swimmers roll their shoulders less than slower swimmers during a 200-m swim;
• Roll asymmetries, temporal differences in shoulder roll and hip roll, and shoulder roll side
dominance exist in front crawl swimming, but there is no evidence to suggest that they affect
swimming performance; and
• Buoyancy contributes strongly to generating body roll in front crawl swimming.
The above conclusions were drawn from a variety of studies using a variety of standards of
swimmers. It is likely less than optimal shoulder/hip usage was averaged into the conclusions. When
the very best performers in actual Olympic races are reviewed, the findings are more definitive and
in concert with what theoretical fluid mechanics would suggest.
Rushall, Sprigings, Cappaert, and King's (no date) in-depth analysis of body and head positions and
angles at various race stages of male crawl stroke medalists at the 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games
(http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/bullets/bodydyns.htm) produced a number of conclusions that could
serve as principles for crawl stroke swimming, and because of its reverse position, backstroke.
Several assertions about crawl stroke swimming techniques have been justified by Rushall, Holt, et
al. (1994) and Rushall, Sprigings, et al. (1994).
• The position of the body affects the peripheral actions of the limbs. It would be wrong to
consider what the limbs do without relating them to the body's posture and movement.

Body Roll 3.4
• Actions which move large amounts of water (wave resistance), increase the frontal and eddy
resistance of the system (form resistance), and increase the surface area of the swimmer
(frictional resistance), are usually detrimental to propulsion.
• Movement economy can be assisted by reducing passive and active drag resistances as long
as no propulsive movements are compromised.
It is not as easy to define the parameters of body rotation during the crawl stroke as it is to describe
longitudinal properties (Technique Microcycle 1). Part of the problem is that the structure,
flexibility, and strength of a swimmer determine how much rotation is necessary to place the arm in
the most advantageous position for generating maximum propulsive force. However, it is proposed
that certain aspects of shoulder and hip rotation must be demonstrated in order to optimize the body's
musculature for enduring force application and to minimize detrimental resistance.
Figure 3.1 illustrates the effect of hip and shoulder rotation on form resistance. When the hips
remain stable and flat and the shoulders rotate to an appreciable angle, the frontal area increases.
However, if the hips rotate in a similar manner to the shoulders, the resistance area is decreased from
the previous conceptualization. Streamlining would be greatly assisted by a combined and similar
hip and shoulder roll. Hard/big kicking restricts hip rotation. When kicking is of a sufficient effort
level, the hips do not rotate. Therefore, hard kicking in crawl stroke not only increases resistance
around the legs but also increases frontal resistance and is more
detrimental than beneficial to a swimmer's proficiency.
Figure 3.1 (on the right) illustrates the shoulder and hip rotations of a
hard-kicking swimmer. "H" is the angle of the hips, "S" is the angle of
the shoulders, and "C" is the potential angle of the hips if they were
rotated in concert with the shoulders. "A" and "B" are symbols for
portions of the cross-sectional area of the body. If the hips were not
rolled, then the cross-sectional area would be "A" + "B." If they were
rolled to match the shoulders, the cross-sectional area would be reduced
to "A." Similar shoulder and hip roll angles are advantageous for
streamlining.
Figure 3.2 illustrates two frontal perspectives of Kieren Perkins in his
Barcelona 1,500 m Gold Medal swim, both in the mid-propulsive phase.
The first depiction is at the 40 m mark of the race when reasonably hard
kicking and fast speed occurred (and restricted hip roll). The hips (19°)
have not "rolled" as much as the shoulders (49°). The right side of the
figure's frontal form has "opened-up" to increase this aspect of resistance. However, at the 1,440 m
mark of the event, when kicking and swimming speed were lessened and the swimmer was fatigued,
the hips (41°) and shoulders (42°) are in harmony and the reduction in cross-sectional area is
obvious.

Body Roll 3.5
Figure 3.2. Shoulder and hip rotations for Kieren Perkins at two stages in his
Barcelona 1,500 m race. As the race progressed, hip rotation increased, improving
streamline because of reduced form resistance. In both instances, the shoulder roll is
greater than 40°.
The Kieren Perkins illustration needs to be interpreted with caution. The two pictures are intended to
be as similar as possible but are not at identical stages of the stroke. This is because the timing of
arm recoveries and pulls, and consequently kicking, changed as the race progressed. However, the
degree of rotation of the shoulders was greater than 40° in both cases and the upper arms in the pulls
and recoveries greater than 45°. It is hypothesized that as the race progressed, streamlining, from a
form resistance perspective, improved primarily due to increased hip rotation. However, this
interpretation must be made against the observation that the swimmer frequently "surged" in races,
such actions being accompanied by more intense (i.e., six-beat) kicking. The first 40 m illustration
contains a six-beat kicking action while the 1,440 m illustration contains a two-beat action.
These two "differences" in the analysis illustrate that when "harder" kicking is performed, and in
particular four- and six-beat kicking, the hips do not rotate as much as with a two-beat kick. Thus, it
is possible that "hard" kicking may increase the potential of the arms to generate extra force
vertically, which would not add to propulsion. By restricting hip rotation, the cross-sectional area of
the swimmer's body increases and in turn, increases form resistance. When that is added to the
increased form and wave resistance that results from bigger leg movements, the scope of kicking
movements may have to be a feature of swimmer streamlining that has to be attended to more than
has been done in the past. If that is not considered, any supposed gains from harder kicking are likely
to be offset by losses in streamline and increased resistance. However, given the data available, it is
not possible to state exact ranges of tolerance for this factor.
Shoulder-hip Roll
Elite male crawl-stroke swimmers roll their shoulders considerably (at least 45°; Rushall et al., no
date). The concept of planing over the surface of the water with a flat chest and shoulders is not
supported by these observations. Rather, it seems that a roll in the vicinity of 45+° to either side
would be preferable for both crawl stroke (Cappaert & Gordon, 1998) and backstroke.

Body Roll 3.6
When swimmers kick hard there is a strong tendency for the hips to remain flat even though the
shoulders rotate. It is proposed that swimmers be taught to rotate the hips sometimes as much as the
shoulders.10
One further kicking adjustment is to restrict kicking to be small and fast. Impressive research on
kicking conducted at the Western Australian Institute of Sport showed that after a certain kicking
magnitude, resistance from heightening the action increases at a much greater rate than the counter-
balancing value in crawl stroke and backstroke. When the kicking force exceeds a moderate level it
is the arms that have to perform the counter-balancing function. That usually is manifested by an
increase in pressing down (vertical force; see Ian Thorpe in Figure 1.2) and often with a straight arm
which stresses the shoulder joint in a potentially injurious manner. It is foolish to kick harder to
make the arms work more because the arms are likely to function less efficiently. Very little benefit
results from a kick-dominant approach to the two alternate stroking techniques. Kicking should only
be of the magnitude that counter-balances vertical forces produced by the arms. Kicking should only
react to the arms, not dictate to them. Kicking certainly should not suppress hip roll.
Figure 3.3 shows the shoulder-hip roll of Paul Biedermann (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/
champion/PB652B.htm) and Dara Torres (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/ dt80100R.htm).
Although the images are of one part of a stroke it is contended that they are representative of the
body roll in the elite swimmers' techniques.
Figure 3.3. The body rolls of two elite crawl-stroke swimmers.

Figure 3.4 Illustrates the body roll in backstroke of Kirsty Coventry (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/
swim/champion/KC115200.htm) and Ryosuke Irie (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/
RI140200.htm).
10
It is believed that six-beat kickers will rotate the hips less than would two-beat kickers.
Body Roll 3.7
Figure 3.4. The body rolls of two elite backstroke swimmers.

Shoulder to Upper-arm Angle
One cause of shoulder problems in swimmers is dominant internal rotator activation in the crawl
stroke11 (Troup, 1992). Figure 3.5 illustrates angular relationships between the upper arm and the
shoulder line in the mid-propulsive phase. In the left example, the internal rotator muscles (anterior
deltoid, pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi) are stronger and activated more than the external rotators
(infraspinatus, teres minor, supraspinatus). The excessive force subluxes the greater head of the
humerus so that it contacts the glenoid labrum of the scapula. With excessive repetitions, the
external rotators weaken and the glenoid labrum eventually becomes irritated and/or damaged. If the
angle of the shoulders and that of the upper portion of the pulling arm are not aligned, shoulder
problems eventually develop. The angular position at the shoulder: (a) places more reliance on the
internal rotator muscles to produce force, and
(b) reduces the effectiveness and function of
the external rotators. As training progresses,
the internal rotators strengthen and the external
rotators weaken, exacerbating the problem
further. Ruwe et al. (1994) found this problem
with exaggeration also occurring in
breaststroke.
Figure 3.5 illustrates two alignments of the
upper arm and shoulders in the crawl stroke
propulsive phase. In the left figure the shaded
portion of the circled shoulder joint indicates
that the internal rotator (IR) muscles are
activated more than the external rotators (ER)
resulting in a minor inward movement of the
greater head of the humerus to irritate the
glenoid labrum. In the right figure, a position
11
Another cause is keeping the arm straight as downward pressure is exerted at or just after entry.
Body Roll 3.8
similar to that displayed by the right-side image of Keiren Perkins in Figure 3.2, the alignment of the
humerus and the shoulder rotation allows both IR and ER muscle groups to function in "balance" so
that the shoulder joint works correctly, produces no irritation, and more muscles are used to produce
propulsive force.
With regard to propulsion, an angular change at the shoulder joint that favors one group of rotator
muscles over the other means that fewer muscles are used to generate and sustain force. Those fewer
muscles will fatigue easier than if more muscles were used to generate the same amount of force.
Thus, not only is a swimmer threatened by injury with an angled shoulder pull (Ruwe et al, 1994),
the mechanical and endurance properties of the resulting action also will be degraded.
With the correct arm-shoulder alignment, both internal and external rotator muscles work to abduct
and adduct the arm in the central part of the pull. That allows the head of the humerus to nestle
correctly in the glenoid fossa. Mechanically, the swimmer is advantaged by being able to use both
internal and external rotator muscles to generate propulsive force. When more muscles can be used
to generate force, the load is distributed across a greater number of muscles, consequently allowing
each muscle to do less work and thus, maintain a greater endurance capacity in a swimming
performance. That was one of the technique strengths of Kieren Perkins' crawl stroke.
The desirable technique feature of the upper arms in crawl stroke, when combined with shoulder
rotation, is to have the two aligned. The recovering arm should also be aligned in the manner
displayed in Figure 3.5. This could be an important technique criterion for effective crawl stroke
swimming. In backstroke, the vertical arm recovery encourages body roll, which facilitates good
mechanics in the propulsive arm. If during a backstroke race a swimmer tires, it is relatively easy to
retain shoulder, and hopefully hip roll. On the other hand in crawl stroke, maintaining a high-elbow12
recovery becomes difficult with fatigue. If the recovering arm is lowered as a race progresses, it is
likely that shoulder/hip roll will decrease. Particularly in crawl stroke races, as fatigue increases, the
conscious effort to maintain a high-elbow recovery should concomitantly increase.
Body-roll Rhythm
The roll of the hips and shoulders is not a constant movement. There are two stages that should be
understood.
When the arm is developing power in the initial stages of the power-phase of the pull (see
Microcycle 5), the shoulder and hip on the propulsive side should be deep and relatively stable. At
that time, the recovering arm will be rising and being brought forward. Both the recovering shoulder
and hip will be rotated up in opposition to the downward position of the propelling shoulder and hip
and also will be relatively stable.
When the pulling arm has attained its position of maximal propulsive power (completion of
abduction), the recovering arm should be at its highest point in the recovery movement. For the latter
part of propulsion when adduction occurs, the shoulder and hip on the pulling side should rotate up
so that the finish position of the propulsive arm can be close to mid-line. At the same time, the
recovering arm will be extending forward across the water in a downward movement. The
recovering shoulder and hip will rotate downward in opposition to what is happening on the
propulsive side.
12
It is assumed that the reader knows that a high-elbow recovery with the forearm hanging down in a relaxed manner is
the best form of recovery for two reasons. It is easier to perform than a lower or wider recovery (a bigger angle at the
elbow) and it centers the force application of the propulsive arm because there is a small lateral force component to be
counter-balanced (see Microcycle 7).
Body Roll 3.9
The rhythm of the body roll is therefore one of quick changes up and down and relatively stable
positions that provide time for propulsive and recovery actions to occur. Essentially, the strongest
part of the propulsive action and first half of recovery are performed with the swimmer rolled on
his/her side. The second part of propulsion and the second half of the recovery (the approach toward
and actual entry) are performed while rotating to the other side. The rotational transitions are
relatively quick but do not disrupt the impression of overall smoothness of the complete stroke cycle.
Overtaking versus Balanced Crawl-stroke Patterns
Figure 3.6. Oussama Mellouli at 1,415 m into his Gold Medal race in 2009.
In crawl stroke, an overtaking ("catch-up") stroke pattern is common, particularly in male distance
swimmers. Figure 3.6 shows Oussama Mellouli in a classic overtaking stroke position
(http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/OM1415.htm). The "parked" recovered arm holds the
shoulder stable and prevents shoulder roll occurring to any appreciable degree. In Frame #9, the arm
is partially through its pull with propulsion being powered by the internal rotators of the shoulder.
With a balanced stroke, which features one arm being repositioned to propel the swimmer while the
other arm is rounding-out from its propulsive role, the shoulders are free to roll in a fully functional
manner.
Figure 3.7. Grant Hackett displaying pulling deficiencies associated with the
overtaking crawl stroke form.
Figure 3.7 shows Grant Hackett in 2008 in the second lap of his 400 m freestyle Olympic Trials
victory (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/gh65400.htm). In Frame #7, there is no body roll
causing his pull to be very wide which generates considerable lateral forces. In Frame #8, as the
upper arm adducts, little of the upper arm's potential for generating considerable force is employed.
In most champion swimmers who display an overtaking stroke, some roll does occur when the
power-phase of the stroke commences but it is abbreviated to accommodate the entering arm. As
well, at the very end of the stroke, the hip rotates to allow the hand to finish near the mid-line.

Body Roll 3.10
Despite those partial rolls, the important power-phase functions of abduction and adduction are
limited by the diminished musculature that is engaged.
Overtaking/catch-up stroking is less efficient and undesirable when compared to balanced stroking.
Females tend to use less catch-up stroking than males (Schnitzle et al., 2008), swimmers gravitate
toward performing a balanced stroking pattern as velocity increases (Fernandes at al., 2010, Millet et
al., 2002), and intra-cyclic velocity variations are greatest in a catch-up stroke pattern (Schnitzle et
al.). Factors other than inadequate body roll work against the adoption of a balanced stroking pattern
in serious swimmers.13 [Overtaking stroking patterns are a rarity in backstroke swimming, and are
not present in the very best backstrokers.]
Teaching Dynamics
In crawl stroke, an equal roll of the shoulders and hips means that kicking will not always be
vertical. Kicking to the side will occur when the body rolls, although not as much as the actual roll.
Kicking only vertically when performing the crawl and backstrokes does not facilitate the best form
of swimming. Unfortunately, kicking is only vertical when using a kickboard. So the orientation of
kickboard training is irrelevant to the partial rotational nature of body-roll kicking. Kicking in
isolation, whether with or without a board is not particularly useful for improving swimming
because when done alone, a pattern of movement is adopted that produces propulsion. When
swimming a full stroke, kicking serves only a counter-balancing role. The forces created are largely
vertical. The pattern of kicking movement in full swimming is different to when doing isolated
kicking because both have different functions/purposes which require different movement patterns.
The kicking movement patterns for the two different functions of propulsion and counter-balancing
are different. The body does not use the same movement sequences or their representation in the
brain to perform two discretely different functions. To encourage swimmers to train using kick
boards or on their backs and then instructing them to use the same patterns ("feelings") when
performing the full stroke is poor and incorrect coaching.
Some teaching emphases that will facilitate using the body roll (shoulders and hips) are listed below.
Lift the elbow in crawl stroke recovery. At practice, linking a conscious elbow lift during recovery
with shoulder/hip rotation encourages good form.
Point the belly-button to the side. Since the hips should rotate up to ~45°, rotating the navel the
required amount is a focus activity that facilitates this important aspect of technique. One problem
with this instruction is that rotation can be excessive and the swimmer will roll too much.
Kick small and fast, but small most of all. Small kicking will encourage fast movements and will
keep the kick subservient to arm propulsion.14 This principle pertains to serious training swimmers.
As happens with many human movement principles, there is a paradox between superior performers
when compared to lesser performers. Oliviera et al. (2011) found that in pre-pubescent swimmers,
performance in 200 m front crawl was related to leg-kicking properties. Young swimmers who
presented higher values of hydrodynamic drag force and power output during leg-kicking exhibited
better performances when swimming 200 m front crawl. Deschodt (1999) evaluated male swimmers
sprinting 25 m. Kicking was not propulsive but did facilitate better arm mechanics. Some studies
have looked at kicking alone and described the dynamics (e.g., Mookerjee & Weller, 2006). Many
13
The continued presence of an overtaking stroking pattern, particularly in male swimmers, is a sad commentary on the
awareness of swimming coaches with regard to the critical technique factors that affect propelling efficiency.
14
In crawl stroke to all intents and purposes, kicking in full swimming is not propulsive. In backstroke, for a brief period
in a full kick, a horizontal force component might be created but lasts for such a short time that it would not enhance
forward progression in any meaningful way.
Body Roll 3.11
have invalidly inferred that kicking alone is good for full stroke swimming. Rushall (1999) presented
a more in-depth discussion about the functions of kicking in full crawl-stroke swimming.
Feel the activation of the external rotator muscles. Body roll is intended to place the external rotator
muscles of the shoulders into a posture where they will be activated in the propulsive actions in
crawl stroke and backstroke. If that activation is new to a swimmer, the swimmer should feel that
he/she is "swimming with the back muscles". Drawing swimmers' attention to this sensation should
make them aware of the changes they should feel in their strokes. If the use of the back muscles is
not experienced, it is likely that the swimmer will need to roll further.
As a way of summarizing some of the major tenets offered in these first three microcycles, the work
of Cappaert et al. (1996) is presented. Video tapes that facilitated three-dimensional analyses of
champion and non-qualifying swimmers from the 1991 World Championships and 1992 Olympic
Games were examined and compared. The following were concluded.
1. Elite butterfly swimmers exhibited lower trunk angles (they were flatter and more
streamlined); had symmetrical pulling patterns, and pushed back further at the finish.
2. Elite backstroke swimmers rolled the hips and shoulders in unison and to the same degree.
Non-qualifiers did the opposite, with hips rolling one way and the shoulders the other. The
latter action decreases the ability to use trunk muscles to support arm actions. Elites also
performed a larger kick from the knee down (over 70º).
3. Elite crawl stroke swimmers had a symmetrical shoulder-hip roll while non-qualifiers
produced opposite and less hip and shoulder roll (similar to the phenomenon in backstroke).
Elbows were high early and were maintained high throughout the stroke. The power of elite
and non-qualifiers' pulls were similar but the better streamlining (less resistance) of the elites
produced greater propelling efficiencies.
Elite swimmers at World and Olympic championships were technically more proficient than non-
qualifiers. Propelling efficiency resulted from better streamlining, the timing of stroke propulsion
phases, and symmetrical unified hip-and-shoulder movements. These features are advocated in this
manual and emphasize that champion and non-champion swimmers are differentiated by technique.
DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE ACHIEVED IN BODY ROLL

The following features should be evident in crawl stroke and backstroke swimmers
exhibiting correct body roll.
• An overtaking stroke pattern in crawl stroke should be avoided.
• Body roll consists of the hips and shoulders rotating to ~45° to both sides. That
reduces frontal resistance and positions the propelling arm closer to the mid-line.
• The harder a swimmer kicks, the greater is the amount of resistance developed.
Kicking should remain small and fast and deviate to each side in concert with the roll
of the shoulders/hips.
• In crawl stroke, a high-elbow recovery will facilitate good body roll.
• In the middle of the propulsive phase of crawl stroke, a line from the recovering
elbow through both shoulder points to the propelling-arm elbow should be straight.
• Backstroke should also emphasize body roll. Usually, a vertical recovery that lifts the
shoulder facilitates the roll.

Body Roll 3.12
TEACHING POINTS FOR BODY ROLL IN CRAWL STROKE AND
BACKSTROKE

The following features should be evident in crawl stroke and backstroke
swimmers exhibiting correct body roll.
• Body roll consists of the hips and shoulders rotating to ~45° to both sides.
This reduces frontal resistance and positions the propelling arm closer to
the mid-line.
• The harder a swimmer kicks, the greater is the amount of resistance
developed. Kicking should remain small and fast and deviate to each side
in concert with the roll of the shoulders/hips.
• In the middle of the propulsive phase of crawl stroke, a line from the
recovering elbow through both shoulder points to the propelling arm elbow
should be straight.
• Backstroke should also emphasize body roll. Usually, a vertical recovery
that lifts the shoulder facilitates the roll.

End-of-stroke 4.1
THE END-OF-STROKE (FINISH)

Reminder
The technique features that were instructed in Microcycles 1, 2, and 3 should continue through this
and all subsequent technique microcycles.
• Roll the shoulders and hips together in crawl stroke and backstroke.
This microcycle largely emphasizes arm positions. In crawl stroke and backstroke it is assumed that
the position of the shoulders and hips that was taught in Microcycle 3 will have been learned. When
the hip and shoulder are rotated up in the second part of propulsion of both strokes, the end-of-stroke
position will be able to finish closer to the mid-line. The result of that position is that the lateral force
component developed with the propelling arm will be diminished.
Acceleration
This microcycle focuses on the ends of the strokes (the ends of the propulsive phases – the
"Finishes"). All competitive swimming strokes accelerate the swimmer through the water when
correctly applying propulsive forces. The hand/arm does not accelerate in a pull. Rather, it slows
down relative to the water and the center of mass is propelled (accelerated) past it. Thus, it is very
important to anchor15 the propelling arm in the water and feel that one is swimming past that anchor.
When acceleration is used in this manual, it refers to the acceleration of the swimmer past a powerful
and almost stationary arm. The most effective acceleration is one that grows continually throughout
the stroke and is terminated with the highest swimmer velocity. The end-of-stroke ("release" or
"terminal") velocity needs to be the most exact application of force that occurs in the propulsive
phase of a swimming stroke. The best position for the forearm/hand in swimming strokes is when it
is vertical to the intended direction of propulsion (Keys et al., 2010). That is why a vertical
forearm/hand is emphasized as the only position to be sustained to achieve maximum propulsion.
However, when preparing to breathe in breaststroke and butterfly stroke, that desirable position is
compromised.
Unfortunately, an emphasis on force development at the end of the arm stroke(s) has not always
been promoted. For too long, discussions and embraces of the concept of "front-quadrant" arm work
have focused on the wrong part of the acceleration curve. The latter parts of strokes are more
important than those that occur early (Formosa et al., 2010). It is recognized that the higher the
initial velocity is in an acceleration curve, the greater is likely to be the terminal velocity. However,
if acceleration is not maintained after a good initial velocity then maximum performances are not
possible. The first priority in the acceleration of a swimmer through arm movements is to develop a
total acceleration curve and ensure that the terminal velocity is the highest velocity throughout the
whole stroke (Chatard et al., 1990). Consequently, an emphasis on how arm strokes finish should
15
The arm will not be truly anchored, that is, stationary. In all swimming strokes, the propulsive arm does move
backward in the water. The distance the arm "slips" backward, is dependent upon the size of the propelling surface.
Consequently, strokes that employ the upper- and lower-arms and the hands as the propelling surfaces, will not travel as
far as one that only focuses only on the hands. In this manual, the term anchoring the arm recognizes the inherent
slippage that occurs in water during propulsion.
End-of-stroke 4.2
ensure that swimmers have a greater likelihood of positively accelerating than negatively
accelerating their progress.
Throughout all swimming stroke phases, swimmer momentum is not constant. In the propulsive
phase of one arm in crawl stroke and back stroke and of both arms in butterfly stroke and
breaststroke the acceleration of the swimmer should be positive. A failure to develop and/or sustain
positive acceleration is a technique error. When the development of propulsion changes from one
arm to the other or is interrupted by dual-arm recoveries, the swimmer negatively accelerates when
propulsive forces cease or are diminished. The previous three microcycles looked at what a swimmer
can do to minimize the negative acceleration that occurs outside of propulsive phases.
When force is applied by an arm or both arms, not all the work that is done is for propulsion. The
inefficiency of humans for moving through water is marked. The slightest alteration in the position
of the arm when developing propulsion loses force requiring the next sub-phase of the arm stroke to
recapture acceleration. Thus, an overall appreciation for consistent positive acceleration without
breaks in force development is necessary for swimmers to approach achieving their potential.
Cappaert and Rushall (1994) showed that the top male and female swimmers of the early 1990s-era
rarely achieved consistent positive acceleration and relevant force development in their strokes
(http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/bullets/pathfs33.htm; and http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/bullets/
pathbk34.htm). That deficiency most likely still pervades much of all levels of swimming today.
How strokes are terminated determines whether propulsion is sustained over the longest effective
stroke length.16 One would be in error to conclude that effective stroke length would imply pushing
as far back as possible before initiating a recovery. The understanding of the terminal position in an
effective propulsive stroke is unique to each stroke.
When swimmers accelerate their arm propulsive movements, two sensations should be experienced
at the end of the effective pull.
• The body should be moving fastest past the arm(s) at the end of the stroke. The corollary to
that sensation is that the swimmer should feel he/she is moving fastest away from the
anchored arm than at any other time in the stroke.
• The sensation on the arm of pressuring (forcing) the water should be consistent or marginally
higher than at any other stage in the stroke.
The above sensations and seeking to develop them should reinforce the concept of acceleration in a
swimmer's mind. As the earlier stages of a stroke are developed, the difference between the early
part of the propulsive phase and the end stage of the stroke will not be as great as experienced in this
microcycle. Since no emphasis on the mid- or initial-phase of any stroke has been addressed yet in
this and former microcycles, at this time the sensation of powering and moving quickly should be
more obvious at the end of the stroke than in later microcycles.
The definition of the end-of-stroke position and the emphasis on accelerating to that position should
improve swimming velocity.
1. Number of strokes per length is not likely to change to any remarkable degree. If the end-of-
stroke position shortens the overall time of the stroke, that number might even rise slightly.
16
Effective stroke length is the duration over which propulsive forces are applied. It should not be confused with the
relatively meaningless concept of stroke length which commonly is defined as the distance between stroke entry and exit
or the next entry.
End-of-stroke 4.3
2. Stroke rates should improve slightly because the accelerated stroke should lessen the duration
of each stroke cycle.
3. Lap times should improve because of the emphasis on acceleration.
4. The number of race-pace repetitions in a set should initially decrease. After a period of from
one to two weeks, the number of repetitions should recover and match those exhibited in
Microcycle 3.
5. Faster swimming might increase the height of the bow- and lateral-waves.
Crawl Stroke
When the elbow on the propulsive arm is as far back as possible (it has completed adduction) the end
of the propulsive phase has occurred. The forearm/hand propelling surface should be at right angles
to the direction of propulsion. A proper end-of-stroke action in crawl stroke is best described as a
forearm/hand push. Once the elbow-far-back and the vertical forearm/hand positions are attained, the
round-out action that initiates recovery should occur.
Figure 4.1 contains a series of elite swimmers exhibiting the fully adducted elbow and the vertical
forearm/hand propelling surface which marks the end of the propulsive phase in the underwater
action. That position also marks the end of the effective underwater pull. Once that position is
achieved, the elbow is lifted and the forearm/hand rotates at the elbow. The elbow-lift and forearm
rotation makes the lower arm "round-out" as the exit to recovery occurs. When changing the
movement direction of a limb, rounding-out movements after force production is a method of
conserving momentum. No propulsion occurs during this movement because there is no drag force
turbulence on the forward surface of the lower arm. The continuation of terminal velocity in the
round-out minimizes resistance caused by the arm. The movement velocity of the arm at least
matches the forward velocity of the swimmer and so does not incur frontal resistance.
Some coaches have proposed that the hand should push back as far as possible before the hand
begins to exit. The major faults with that hypothesis follow.
• The elbow has reached the limit of how far back it can go. Therefore, it is stationary in the
water and will produce surface and frontal resistances which will slow the swimmer. A non-
moving body part develops resistance.
• As the forearm and hand attempt to move back, the forearm rotates at the elbow. As rotation
continues, the forearm slows and increases the amount of resistance. Once the forearm leaves
the ideal vertical position, it quickly loses its contribution to propulsion and becomes a non-
propulsive moving body part that very quickly develops both surface and frontal resistance.
• When the arm is long back with the hand still attempting to push water, the elbow usually
drops down deeper in the water and along with a slightly angled forearm increases surface
and frontal resistances. In this position, the upper and lower arms are not moving.
• Finally, when the hand no longer can push back it stops. The whole arm then produces
increased total resistance. The most common form of extracting the arm from the water is to
keep it long and fling the hand back and up. Often a trail of water accompanies the arm such
is the amount of resistance it has developed in this disadvantageous movement pattern.
• Once the end of effective propulsion is achieved, any attempt to extend propulsion by
keeping the arm underwater is futile because it does not add to propulsion but very
noticeably adds to surface and frontal resistances.

End-of-stroke 4.4
Figure 4.1. A variety of elite crawl stroke swimmers showing the forearm/hand end-
of-stroke position.

The following features should be evident in a correctly-ended crawl-stroke arm
pattern.
• This part of the arm stroke should feel the strongest and fastest part of the
total-arm movement. It marks the end of propulsive acceleration.
• The adducted elbow should be as far back as possible alongside the
swimmer.
• The forearm and hand should be vertical and pressing directly backward.
• The next movement after achieving the arm's end position should be the
elbow being raised out of the water to initiate the arm's exit.
• The hand and forearm should "round-out" as they exit the water.

End-of-stroke 4.5
The extent of crawl stroke end positions is one where maximum acceleration is achieved by applying
the largest force-producing area to the water. Once the body's anatomy no longer can be so
productive, the arm should round-out and exit for a recovery.
Backstroke
The end of propulsion in backstroke is very different to that of crawl stroke. The reversal of position
in the water makes some actions possible in backstroke that cannot be performed in crawl stroke.
Figure 4.2 shows several elite backstroke swimmers in the end-of-stroke position. The main
differences to the crawl stroke movement are:
• The direct propulsion movement is completed with the elbow as far back as possible and the
forearm/hand vertical (this is possible because the hips and shoulders are rotated). From
there, the arm extends fully and is somewhat deep.
Figure 4.2. A variety of elite backstroke swimmers showing the forearm/hand end-of-
stroke position and round-out action.

End-of-stroke 4.6
• From the deep position, a straight-arm recovery is used to generate lift forces by sweeping
the arm inward and upward (i.e., sculling). That force adds only a little to propulsion if it
adds any at all. Its main function is to counter-balance the vertical forces of the entering arm.
Taking over that function from the legs means that the size of the kick at that time is small.
• The arm lift in recovery usually requires some internal rotation (flexion) of the shoulder
which has the beneficial effect of lowering/angling the shoulder of the propulsive arm.
• The long inward/upward sculling exit of the propelling arm provides ample time for the other
soon-to-propel arm to enter the water and be repositioned to effect propulsion. There is no
overtaking stroke in backstroke in top flight swimmers.17
The technique emphases for the end of the backstroke arm action are:
1. This part of the arm movement should feel the strongest and fastest part of the total-arm
propulsive stage. Acceleration must be the central concept that is employed during
propulsion and achieves its highest momentum at the end of the stroke.
2. Adduct the upper arm fully and have the forearm/hand at 90º to the intended direction of
swimming.
3. After the end-of-stroke position, the arm goes through some extra actions before exiting.
1) The arm should extend back and down at an angle between 20º and 35º. Pressure should
be felt on the hand. The final position should be at least one foot wide of the mid-line of
the body;
2) At the end of the extension, the palm of the hand should be turned inward and swept
inward and upward in a sculling motion; and
3) To assist the inward/upward sculling action, the shoulder should be rotated inward as it is
lifted upward.

The following features should be evident in a correctly-ended backstroke arm
pattern.
• This part of the arm stroke should feel the strongest and fastest part of the
total-arm movement. It marks the end of propulsive acceleration.
• The adducted elbow should be as far back as possible alongside the
swimmer.
• The forearm and hand should be vertical and pressing directly backward.
• The arm should then extend back and down and remain away from the body.
• In a continuing motion, the hand should be turned in and the arm swept
inward and upward in a sculling motion.
• The exiting-arm shoulder should rise to initiate the exit.
17
This promotes a conundrum. If an overtaking stroke is desirable for crawl stroke, why would it not be beneficial for
backstroke? Both strokes use alternate arms, are subject to similar resistances and mechanics, and are reversed only in
aspect in the water. From a mechanical viewpoint, overtaking stroke is an undesirable aberration of technique, which is
verified by its absence in backstroke swimming.
End-of-stroke 4.7
Breaststroke
Breaststroke is unusual among swimming strokes because it terminates the arm pull when more
work is possible. The reason for this anomaly is that the breaststroke kick is capable of more power
than any other stroke's kick and is more powerful than a full breaststroke arm pull could be. By using
a "half-pull", the generation of force is optimized between the arms and legs and stroke rules are
accommodated fully. For the end of the breaststroke arm pull, the usual characteristics of
acceleration to the end point and applying force with the largest surface area of the arms possible
should be evident.
Figure 4.3 illustrates features of the end-of-stroke and initiation of recovery in elite breaststrokers.
The stroke finish and start of the recovery of the breaststroke arm pull have the following
characteristics.
Figure 4.3. A variety of elite breaststroke swimmers showing the full arm end-of-
stroke position and the initiation of recovery.
1. The end of the pull should feel the most powerful and fastest part of the pull. It should mark
the end of continuous acceleration since the start of the pull.

End-of-stroke 4.8
2. Once acceleration is complete, the head and shoulders should have been raised minimally,
oriented forward, and completed in the shortest time possible.
3. The total arms – the upper and lower arms plus the hands, apply force backward. They
should be as vertical as possible. There is an anomaly in this directive. While the sensation
for the swimmer should be pushing backward, the arms themselves will also move laterally.
That is because the upper arms abduct in the glenoid fossae of the scapulae which forces
them to move wider purely because of the fixed levers involved.
4. Power for the arm propulsion comes from abduction of the upper arms and flexion of the
elbows. The elbows should not move past the line of the shoulders.
5. As much of the force application as possible should be backward. Horizontal force
application will be compromised by the breathing action and the amount of shoulder lift. The
greater the lift, the greater the propelling arms will be angled to produce a larger vertical
force component. [As was discussed in Microcycle 2, the proportion of the swimmer lifted
should be minimal and should occur as quickly as possible.]
6. Upon termination of the propulsive phase, the hands very quickly should be swept in, up, and
forward, which is very different to the more common description of bringing the hands in
under the chin. The prescribed hand path is shorter, takes less time, and produces less
resistance than the traditional hand-path.
7. Also as the recovery occurs, the elbows should round-out and travel very little toward the
body. That also contrasts with the now-outmoded action of bringing the elbows in tight on
the body. Once the round-out is completed, the elbows should follow the hands forward
allowing the upper arms to follow the direct line of the hands and forearms. That movement
reduces resistance that normally would occur with the traditional "full-in" recovery. The
reduction occurs because the upper arms are moving in the turbulent water created by the
hands and forearms.
8. No attempt should be made to lift the hands out of the water on recovery despite many of the
top breaststrokers doing just that. Less resistance will be created by recovering directly
forward underwater because the excessive wave resistance caused by crashing back into the
water from a high recovery will not occur (e.g., Frames #7 - #10 in
http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/dg30200.htm). Water flows easier around
submerged bodies than occurs with the same bodies on the surface.
Figure 4.4 illustrates a four-frame sequence of the end-of-stroke and initiation of the recovery of
Rebecca Soni. Several of the features mentioned above are visible.
Figure 4.4. End-of-stroke and initiation of the recovery of Rebecca Soni.

Frame #1: The upper arms are abducted but still forward of the shoulder line. The forearms and
hands although not vertical are applying force backward. This is the end of a
relatively brief arm-pull which allows Rebecca Soni to rate quite high.

End-of-stroke 4.9
Frame #2: At the start of the recovery, the hands sweep in, up, and forward. The elbows remain
wider than the hands. [There is no snap inward of the elbows to the sides of the
body.]
Frame #3: The hands thrust forward and upward with the elbows following. With the swimmer's
shoulders and head out of the water, the upper arms create considerable turbulence in
the form of minor bow and lateral waves. If the swimmer was lower in the water, the
turbulence would have been much less as the water would flow more easily around
the arms.
Frame #4: The hands break the water surface. A large amount of resistive turbulence is created
in this action. If the arms and hands were underwater, the amount of resistance would
be much less.
The technique emphases for the end of the breaststroke arm action follow.
1. Apply force with the total arms and hands with a directly backward feeling.
2. The level of force sensation should be highest at the end of the pull when compared to all
stages of the pull. Additionally, the arms should feel they are moving the fastest of any stage
in the pull which signifies the end of consistent acceleration.
3. The upper arms do not move past the line of the shoulders in the acceleration movement.
Flexion of the elbows also enhances the application of force backward.
4. The initiation of the recovery starts with the hands and elbows wide, which is followed by
the hands moving forward, upward, and inward rather than going directly in to under the
chin. The path to full stretch forward should be the shortest possible, which is largely an
angular thrust forward.
5. Keep as much of the swimmer (i.e., arms, hands, and shoulders) as possible underwater.

The following features should be evident in a correctly-ended breaststroke
arm pattern.
• This part of the stroke should feel the strongest and fastest part of the
total-arm movements. It marks the end of propulsive acceleration.
• The elbows should not pull past the line of the shoulders.
• The total arms and hands should feel they are applying force directly
backward.
• As much of the swimmer as possible should be kept underwater.
• The recovery is initiated by thrusting the hands forward and in, rather than
pulling the total arms in tight against the body.
Butterfly Stroke
Most characteristics of the end-of-stroke of butterfly are similar to those of crawl stroke. However,
in butterfly the angle of the forearms/hands before the end-of-stroke usually is not as vertical as in
crawl. That troubling phenomenon will be discussed in the next microcycle.

End-of-stroke 4.10
The approach to the end-of-stroke in butterfly should differ between breathing and non-breathing
strokes. Since recovering arms only have to clear the water, there is no point and only a disadvantage
to recovering high when not breathing. A high recovery in a non-breathing stroke causes the
shoulders to rise and the hips to drop more than necessary. In a non-breathing stroke, the oscillations
of the hips and shoulders should be minimal to non-existent. The arm pull in that stroke can be
devoted more to horizontal propulsion than vertical force production when unneeded vertical actions
occur.
Whether breathing or not breathing in butterfly stroke, both variants should have propulsion
completed with the elbows fully adducted and the forearms/hands vertical. From there the elbows
rise and the hands round-out.
The following features should be evident in correctly-ended butterfly-stroke arm patterns.
• This part of the stroke should feel the strongest and fastest part of the total-arm movement. It
marks the end of propulsive acceleration.
• The elbows should be as far back as possible alongside the swimmer.
• The forearms/hands should be vertical and pressing directly backward.
• The next movement after achieving the arms' finish-position should be the elbows being
raised out of the water to initiate the arms' exit.
• The hands and forearms should "round-out" as they exit the water.
Figure 4.5 illustrates the above features in a number of elite butterfly stroke swimmers.
Figure 4.5. Elite butterfly swimmers showing the full arm end-of-stroke position and
the initiation of recovery.
End-of-stroke 4.11
The end-of-stroke executions in all strokes should adhere to several principles.

• Streamlining should be maintained while breathing and during body roll.
• The end-of-stroke positions for butterfly and crawl strokes should have the elbows go back as
far as possible while the hands/forearms remain at right angles to the direction of propulsion.
In backstroke, the same position is achieved but is followed by a full push backward and
down to allow the starting position for a long-arm upward sculling motion.
• In breaststroke, the end of the pull should have the forearms and hands upright. The elbows
should be shallower than the hands when the recovery (inward and forward sweep) begins.
• The end-of-stroke should generate the feeling of the highest momentum and application of
force in the total propulsive arm action. That usually will result from a dedication to
acceleration throughout the movement.
• A major error that can occur is that in butterfly and crawl strokes the hand(s) travels further
back than the elbow(s) before the round-out. That is wasted effort because the diminishing
surface due to forearm-angulation reduces propulsion while increasing resistance to a much
greater degree.
• If the end of propulsion is improved the number of strokes per lap should be reduced and the
time for a lap should also improve. Those two features should be monitored at practices for at
least a few selected repetitions.
• Expect swimmers to get more tired more quickly in the early practice sessions when
attempting this technique change. It usually does require more effort than with "lazy"
finishes. Noticeable fatigue should diminish and disappear within 2-4 practices.

The following features should be evident in a correctly-ended butterfly-stroke
arm movement.
• This part of the arms' stroke should feel the strongest and fastest part of the
total-arms movement. It marks the end of propulsive acceleration.
• The elbows should be as far back as possible alongside the swimmer.
• The forearms/hands should be vertical and pressing directly backward.
• The next movement after achieving the arms' finish-position should be the
elbows being raised out of the water to initiate the arms' exit.
• The hands and forearms should "round-out" as they exit the water.

End-of-stroke 4.12
TEACHING POINTS FOR END-OF-STROKE POSITIONS IN ALL STROKES
END-OF-STROKE POSITION IN
BACKSTROKE
CRAWL STROKE • This part of the arm stroke should
feel the strongest and fastest part of
• This part of the arm stroke should the total-arm movement. It marks the
feel the strongest and fastest part of end of propulsive acceleration.
the total-arm movement. It marks the
end of propulsive acceleration. • The adducted elbow should be as far
back as possible alongside the
• The adducted elbow should be as far swimmer.
swimmer. • The forearm and hand should be
vertical and pressing directly
• The forearm and hand should be backward.
backward. • The arm should then extend back
and down and remain away from the
• The next movement after achieving body.
the arm's end position should be the
elbow being raised out of the water • In a continuing motion, the hand
to initiate the arm's exit. should be turned in and the arm
swept inward and upward in a
• The hand and forearm should sculling motion.
"round-out" as they exit the water.
• The exiting-arm shoulder should rise
to initiate the exit.
END-OF-STROKE POSITION IN END-OF-STROKE POSITION IN

BREASTSTROKE BUTTERFLY STROKE
• This part of the arm stroke should • This part of the arms' stroke should
feel the strongest and fastest part of feel the strongest and fastest part of
the total-arm movement. It marks the the total-arms movement. It marks
end of propulsive acceleration. the end of propulsive acceleration.
• The elbows should not pull past the • The elbows should be as far back as
line of the shoulders. possible alongside the swimmer.
• The total arms and hands should feel • The forearms/hands should be
they are applying force directly vertical and pressing directly
backward. backward.
• As much of the swimmer as possible • The next movement after achieving
should be kept underwater. the arms' finish-position should be
• The recovery is initiated by thrusting the elbows being raised out of the
the hands forward and in, rather than water to initiate the arms' exit.
pulling the total arms in tight against • The hands and forearms should
the body. "round-out" as they exit the water.

Power-phase 5.1
THE POWER-PHASE (MID-STROKE)

Reminder
The technique features that were instructed in Microcycles 1, 2, 3, and 4 should continue through
this and all subsequent technique microcycles.
• Complete all strokes with vertical forearms and hands when the elbow is fully adducted
backward except in breaststroke where it is halted when the elbows are level with the
shoulders.
This microcycle is arguably the most important phase of the whole macrocycle. It focuses on the
development of the greatest horizontal power. It is possible that more than normal time will need to
be spent on constructing these complex actions. When planning the time devoted to phases, it would
be prudent to allocate at least double the amount of time (i.e., a minimum of two weeks) than is
usually planned for a normal technique microcycle.
Power
The common attribution of strength being the factor involved in force application in swimming is
incorrect. Strength relates to the development of force and involves the concepts of mass and
acceleration. Power is the more appropriate terminology because it embraces the concepts of mass,
acceleration, distance, and time in its formulation. Therefore, power better describes the quality of
movement of an athlete. Power is work developed per unit of time:
Power = Work / Time
The more useful work that a swimmer can perform in a short period, the faster will be the velocity of
swimming. When a swimmer "works", the energy expended is used for non-propulsive work (e.g.,
holding functional posture, positioning the arms to better exert force, kicking to counter-balance
forces not aligned with the direction of progress, etc.) and propulsive work (that which propels the
swimmer through the water). The less the amount of non-propulsive work and the greater the
propulsive work, the more efficient is the swimmer. There is a limit to the least amount of non-
propulsive resistance that is developed by a swimmer. Once that is achieved, the only avenue for
improvement is to increase propulsive power. As high levels of power are achieved, further
improvements in performance become increasingly difficult and smaller in effect size. The
consideration of energy expenditure for a particular velocity of swimming is termed propelling
efficiency. Propelling efficiency is a major factor in discriminating performance levels of swimmers
(D'Acquisto et al., 2004; Huang et al., 2010) and becomes greater, the faster the swimmer's velocity
(Toussaint et al., 1990).
The first three microcycles in this manual were designed to reduce the amount of non-propulsive
work by reducing unnecessary resistances. Microcycles 4 through 6 are designed to increase the
amount of propulsive work produced by a swimmer. Both emphases are designed to increase the
efficiency with which a swimmer moves through water.
The power-phase or mid-stroke of competitive strokes is the stage in which the greatest acceleration
occurs. This phase should transition seamlessly into the end-of-stroke position. By having the end

Power-phase 5.2
clearly defined, the body will automatically adopt the most efficient stroke modifications to the
finish in the end-of-stroke position. A swimmer does not need to "work-out" how to change from the
completion of the power emphasis to the final maximum acceleration in the end-of-stroke position.
There are a number of important principles of human movement that need to be implemented for the
most effective and efficient power-phase to be developed. They are explained below.
1. Direct horizontal propulsive forces. When forces are developed in human movement, they
are for a particular purpose. In swimming, the purpose is to travel from one end of a pool to
the other in a straight line with as little vertical movement as possible. However, because the
structures of the majority of human joints are rotational in nature, most developed forces
have a horizontal and vertical force component. For propelling efficiency to be maximized,
propulsive forces need to be largely horizontal with the vertical force component (non-
propulsive) being minimized. The closeness to which the forearm/hand unit in the propulsive
phase is at right angles (vertical) to the intended horizontal direction suggests the amount of
horizontal force that is being developed (Keys et al., 2010). Efficient and effective
underwater stroke patterns have to manipulate the limbs and body to facilitate the
development of horizontal propulsive forces.
2. Longest distance. The distance over which power is developed should be the longest
possible. Long applications of force provide time to accelerate the swimmer to velocities that
are not achieved by short-duration applications. That is why a meaningful characteristic of
competitive swimming strokes is stroke distance. Unfortunately, stroke distance has been
misconstrued over the years. Its original and correct description was "effective stroke
distance", which is a dimension underwater from the start of swimmer-acceleration to the end
of that acceleration. That is the distance over which swimming velocity increases and is the
most meaningful concept with regard to racing performances. It indicates when propulsive
forces are being exerted.
3. As many muscles as possible. Movements are most efficient when all muscles that can
contribute to productive movement are employed in an action. When the load or work of the
movement is spread across as many muscles and energy sources as possible, the
sustainability of the velocity being developed is enhanced. It allows swimmers to swim faster
longer. As well, the more muscles employed in an action, the greater is the level of force
production. That feature has already been discussed in Microcycle 3 and largely encompasses
using the internal and external rotators of the shoulders (see Figure 3.5) to produce the
maximum force possible through abduction and adduction of the upper arm. Using only the
internal rotator muscles of the shoulders diminishes a swimmer's potential to accelerate.
Rouard and Billat (1990) showed that bending the arm during swimming strokes allows for
more force generation, a more horizontal direction of propelling efficiency, and retards
fatigue. The muscles surrounding the elbows and wrists need to be employed in an optimal
manner. The elbow muscles need to be contracted to hold the elbow at 90º or less but not
more. Elbow flexion preserves the most efficient positions for propulsion of the total arm.
When joints are bent (flexed) they are capable of producing increased forces. To be stronger
in an action, one should bend more at the joints18. In swimming, the longer the arm, the less
direct and weaker is the possible force application. The muscles that are activated most
18
This concept is offered within reason. There is a range of flexion for every joint where effective forces are produced.
At the extremes of joint movements, force potential lessens. Fully flexed, close to fully flexed, fully extended, or close to
fully-extended joints usually lessen the capability of producing forces.
Power-phase 5.3
efficiently, the biceps brachii and brachialis and to a lesser extent the brachioradialis, to
hold a 90º angle position are particularly suited to developing propulsive forces in
swimming. The wrist muscles need to be able to hold the forearm/hand stable. Any change in
position of the hand during the power-phase should come from rotation of the forearm and/or
upper arm. Learning to combine the forearm and hand into a stable power-producing
movement element is difficult for young swimmers who have been taught incorrectly to
focus only on what the hands do.
The more muscles that can be employed in developing propulsion increases the potential for
swimmers to improve.
4. Acceleration. Where movement velocity is important, acceleration should be achieved
throughout the range of movement. In the power-phase of all strokes, a swimmer should feel
the arm-propulsion increasing by sensing the body's forward movement getting quicker and
the pressure on the propulsive surfaces of the arm(s) remaining constant and to a lesser extent
increasing. A failure to produce consistent acceleration will not result in maximal
performances.
The emphasis on power in this macrocycle should produce the most noticeable effects of all
microcycles.
1. Strokes per length should remain roughly constant.
2. Lap times should improve markedly (~1-3%).
3. Stroke rates should improve over those exhibited in Microcycle 4.
4. The number of race-pace repetitions in a set should initially decrease. The reduction should
be greater than that which occurred in Microcycle 4 because the swimmer is working more
powerfully than in any other Microcycle. After a period of from one to two weeks, the
number of repetitions should recover and match those exhibited in Microcycle 4.
5. When compared to the bow- and lateral-wave heights in Microcycle 3, they should be greater
in this microcycle.
Crawl Stroke
The power-phase of crawl stroke is a complicated set of maneuvers that should position the largest
surface area of the arm in the vertical plane to generate propulsion. The positioning of the arm with
regard to the rotation of the shoulders and the execution of abduction and adduction of the upper arm
is the central coordination feature that must be accommodated. The actions that need to be
performed with each arm when developing propulsion are itemized below.
1. The overall movement should exhibit consistent acceleration. The swimmer should sense the
arm sweep getting faster as it progresses and to a lesser extent, the pressure on the arm
surfaces remaining stable or slightly increasing. Performing the anatomical features
described here without consistent acceleration will not produce optimal or maximal
performance improvements.

Power-phase 5.4
2. Without any slowing or stopping after entry, a very quick adjustment of the positions of the
arm has to occur.19 Relative to the extended shoulder, the upper arm medially rotates while
remaining extended forward. Upper-arm medial rotation is also enhanced by outward rotation
of the lower angle of the scapula. The upper arm does not sink in any way. At the same time,
the elbow flexes to ~90º. Initially, there can be some wrist flexion but as the forearm passes
through ~45º the wrist should flatten and from there on function with the forearm as a unit.
As the forearm sweeps through its 90º arc, the minor forces it produces change from vertical
component dominance to horizontal component dominance. Once past 45º, the major force
component is increasingly horizontal. The position that should be achieved should allow the
forearm and hand to provide direct propulsion and marks the commencement of the effective
pull.
3. While the initial adjustments of the arm are occurring, the shoulder should be rotating
downward to at least 45 º.
4. Once the shoulder is at its maximum depth, the upper arm abducts. The almost stationary
propulsive shoulder is coordinated with the recovering shoulder which allows the recovering
arm to progress forward comfortably close to the mid-line. Relative to the shoulder, as the
upper arm abducts away from the mid-line, more of its surface is added to the forearm/hand
to increase the propulsive surface area. When the pulling arm is fully abducted, maximal
propulsive forces are developed.
5. The shoulder and hip rise quickly as adduction begins. The amount of force produced lessens
as the contribution of the upper arm diminishes.
6. Before the recovering arm enters the water, the elbow of the propulsive arm should be
extended fully backward with the forearm/hand being vertical. That is the end-of-stroke
position and marks the end of productive propulsion.
7. From the end-of-stroke position, the elbow rises and the forearm/hand rounds-out while the
recovering arm enters the water.
In this description, the almost complete power for propulsion emanates from the internal and
external rotator muscles of the shoulders through abduction and adduction. The work exerted on the
upper arm is the primary determinant of swimming velocity. While discrete stages of the whole
action are described, in real-time all movements transition smoothly and quickly.
The challenge for crawl stroke swimmers is to situate the limbs and shoulders in such a manner that
the power-phase can be executed effectively. In figure 5.1, Alexandre Popov's right arm displays all
the features that accelerate a swimmer through the propulsive phases.
In Frame #1, the stroke starts far in front of the swimmer with the shoulder extended forward. That
results in commencing propulsion and acceleration from well in front of the swimmer and should
result in the longest effective pull for that stroke.
• In Frame #1 the left arm has entered the water and is being repositioned to where extensive
propulsive forces can be initiated quickly from a far-forward position. The right leg kicks to
counter-balance the vertical force component of the entry and preceding movements. The
extended arm shows some wrist bend and the start of elbow flexion. In this frame the real
19
There is no value in deliberately developing an overtaking/catch-up stroke. It is advocated that inertial lags in the
supposedly continuous cyclic arm stroking in crawl and backstrokes be avoided. The next and later microcycles embrace
further actions to develop a balanced stroking pattern.

Power-phase 5.5
movements that are occurring are: a) medial rotation of the upper arm to hold the upper arm
steady; and b) elbow flexion to initiate the lower arm's path to become vertical. The hand
leads the lower arm by being slightly flexed at the wrist. [This section of Popov's stroke is
balanced. The propulsive shoulder is deep. The right arm is starting propulsion while the left
arm has completed its propulsion and is exiting.]
Figure 5.1. Alexandre Popov winning Gold in 2003. His right arm pull displays the
classic features of a one-peak power curve.
• Frame #2 shows medial rotation of the upper arm and holding the upper arm forward on an
extended shoulder. More elbow flexion increases the angle of the forearm/hand unit. The
right shoulder remains deep. The alignment of the upper arm relative to the line through the
shoulders is clearly visible. The movement of the upper arm is powered by the internal and
external shoulder rotator muscles.
• Sometime after Frame #2 abduction of the shoulder occurred. In Frame #3, because of the
many muscles employed in the "full-shoulder" stroke, abduction and the following adduction
are very powerful movements. The elbow joint is flexed to an angle slightly less than 90º and
is aligned at 90º to the direction of propulsion.
• Frame #4 depicts almost at mid-stroke. In this position, strong abduction is being completed,
and the whole arm – the upper and lower segments and hand are presenting the largest
surface area possible to contact the water and produce force. All sections of the arm are at
right angles to the intended direction of progression. The shoulder and hip downward rotation
keeps the "line of propulsion" close to the swimmer. The right leg kicks to counter-balance
the forces being exerted by the recovering left arm.
• Frame #5 shows little change in the arm's position from the last frame. The swimmer's
propulsive surfaces are thrusting powerfully and directly.
• Frame #6 approaches the end of the stroke. The body begins to rotate quickly upward and the
elbow draws into the right side to complete adduction. The forearm/hand is largely vertical
and at right angles to the line of propulsion. The swimmer should feel he/she is moving faster
than at any time in the propulsive sweep; that it has accelerated him/her from a slower start to
significant velocity at the end; and once the end-of-stroke position is achieved a round-out
exit occurs with no break in the overall movement velocity.

Power-phase 5.6
Figure 5.2. The movement paths and power concentrations of Alexandre Popov's
right hand in his Gold Medal race in 1992.
Figure 5.2 highlights some features of Alexandre Popov's right-arm stroke. In the left most frame,
the single peak red/grey20 area shows consistent propulsive forces being exerted. Ideally, the right
side of the red area should have been sustained longer. However, once adduction of the upper arm
occurs, the total effective force diminishes but is sufficient to accelerate but with diminishing effect.
If an acceleration curve was plotted for Popov's arm pull it would be steep up to slightly after the
mid-stroke, and slowly flatten as the end-of-stroke position is approached. In the second frame, the
hand is quite and probably too deep before it and other arm parts can develop propulsive forces. As
testimony to the Principle of Individuality often the left arm functions differently to the right (see
http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/bullets/pathfs33.htm).
Jodie Henry (Figure 5.3) achieved a very long effective stroke. The repositioning of the forearm and
hand by medially rotating the upper arm and flexing the elbow while the upper arm is extended
forward (Frame #6) allows for very long and effective propulsion. The arm is repositioned and then
through abduction-adduction of the upper arm, the total arm surface is used to generate drag forces
that propel the swimmer forward. It is possible that the forearm/hand should be vertical rather than
angled. Rotation of the upper arm in the shoulder produces outward and inward lateral movement
paths, which are largely cancelled out by appropriate shoulder and body roll (Hay, Liu, & Andrews,
1993). The full analysis of this swimmer is available (http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/dept/coachsci/
swim/champion/jh90100.htm).
Figure 5.3. Jodie Henry winning Gold in 2004 and exhibiting some good features of
the power-phase in her stroke.
20
The color depends upon the method of printing of the manual.
Power-phase 5.7
Figure 5.4. Elite crawl-stroke swimmers displaying the power position of the
propulsive arm.
Figure 5.4 illustrates elite swimmers in the mid-stroke power position of one arm pull. Frames of Ian
Thorpe and Grant Hackett's overtaking strokes illustrate the width of the pull and the diminished role
of the external rotator muscles in producing propulsive power. While both swimmers were dominant
for several Olympiads in distance events, that dominance was retained without significant or
frequent improvements in the world-records for their events. It is hypothesized that those very
talented athletes would have performed to greater levels if their swimming had not been limited by
their overtaking/catch-up stroking patterns.
Figure 5.5 shows 2003 World Champion Hannah Stockbauer exhibiting the advocated characteristics
of crawl stroke swimming. It appears that the elbow angle is more than 90º (Frame #7) and therefore,
could have been less which would have produced a more direct arm pull. It is possible that the
longer arc of the pull due to the "longer" arm took added time which resulted in the recovering arm
entering the water (Frame #8) before the end-of-stroke position was achieved.
Figure 5.5. Hannah Stockbauer winning Gold in 2003.

Power-phase 5.8

The following features should be evident in a correct power-phase movement
in crawl stroke.
• This part of the arm stroke should feel increasingly faster and stronger as
acceleration is developed.
• The forearm/hand should rotate to be vertical while the upper arm medially
rotates and remains stretched forward.
• As the upper arm abducts, the shoulder and hip should be at the deepest
point of body roll.
• As the upper arm adducts, the shoulder and hip should have rotated
upward.
• The finish-position should be completed as the recovering arm begins to
enter the water.
Backstroke
There is considerable similarity in the power-phase mechanics of crawl stroke and backstroke. The
inversion of the swimmer in backstroke does impose some limitations as well as present other
opportunities. The characteristics to be performed with each arm for propulsion are listed below.
Some of the descriptions are briefer than the fuller crawl-stroke explanations.
1. The overall movement should exhibit consistent acceleration. The swimmer should sense the
arm sweep getting faster as it progresses and to a lesser extent, sustaining or slightly
increasing the pressure on the arm surfaces.
2. As soon as the back of the hand hits the surface, the upper arm should medially rotate and be
retained at full extension forward on top of an extended shoulder. The elbow should flex and
by the time flexion is at 45º, the forearm and hand should be developing a greater horizontal
force component than vertical. Some wrist flexion early in the elbow flexion is possible.
After entry the pulling-arm shoulder and hip rotate to their deepest positions. At the same
time, the recovering shoulder is elevated.
3. With the hip and shoulder deep, the upper arm abducts with the elbow flexed at least 90 º. If
the elbow angle is more than a right angle, the center of power on the arm moves away from
the swimmer causing significant lateral forces that usually cause postural reactions (e.g., the
hips sway).
4. As the upper arm abducts, it increasingly comes into play as a propulsive surface. When
abduction is complete (at right angles to the swimmer), the full arm should be producing
propulsive forces.
5. Adduction occurs much faster than abduction while the propulsive force diminishes but is
still positive. The shoulder and hip are rotated upward as adduction occurs. This final arm
action should result in achieving the end-of-stroke position with the forearm/hand at right
angles to the line of propulsion.
6. After the end-of-stroke position is attained, the arm continues to accelerate through extension
and changes to an inward and upward sculling motion that continues through the exit from
Power-phase 5.9
the water. A definite lift of the shoulder should initiate the inward scull and recovery of the
arm.
Figure 5.6 features a power-phase of Natalie Coughlin during her 2004 Olympic Gold Medal race.
As well as the propulsive arm action, it is worthwhile to note the unified shoulder and hip rotation as
well as the kick being fast but relatively small (the heel of the kicking leg drops only slightly below
the peak curvature of the buttocks).
Figure 5.6. Natalie Coughlin's power-phase during her Gold Medal race in 2004.
• Frame #4 shows the elbow flexing while the arm is extended in front. The shoulder is already
rotated down to a considerable degree. Abduction of the upper arm has commenced.
• Frame #5 shows more elbow flexion and abduction is well underway. The power of the
abduction can be seen in the clear delineation of some tendons of the rotator muscles under
the shoulders. The hand is slightly pitched down. What is also notable is the rotation of the
hips in alignment with the shoulders.
• Frame #6 is the position of maximum power. Elbow flexion is close to 90º and abduction is
almost completed. Propulsive forces in this frame are almost entirely backward but being
positioned to the side of the mid-line they produce a lateral force component. That is counter-
balanced by other aspects of the swimmer's movements that are not readily apparent in this
sequence.
• Frames #7 through #9 illustrate the power of the swimmer's propulsive action. The pressure
on the front side of the arm is much less than on the backward-facing side. That pressure
change causes turbulence which confuses light causing it to become white. The amount of
turbulence is an indication of the drag-force being created.
In these last three frames the hips and shoulders have rotated to the other side before the arm
has exited fully. Generally, the kick has remained relatively small and fast.
Figure 5.7 shows Ryosuke Irie during his 2009 world-record swim. He exhibits some good and also
questionable features in his stroke.
Ryosuke Irie demonstrates desirable shoulder and hip roll (Frames #16 through #19) but at the same
time is not optimally streamlined. His shoulders and head are higher than his hips (Frames #20 and
#21). His right arm pull exhibits strong flexion at the elbow. He finishes with propulsive-arm
extension as the recovering arm enters (Frame #20). A raised right shoulder leads the upward
sculling action (Frame #21). It would appear that the size of Irie's kick is excessive when compared
to the elite swimmers in Figure 5.8. How much the kick is influenced by the low hip position is not
clear.

Power-phase 5.10
Figure 5.7. Ryosuke Irie's power-phase during his world-record 200 m swim in 2009.
Figure 5.8 shows Kirsty Coventry and Aaron Peirsol in world-record swims.
Figure 5.8. Elite backstroke swimmers during a power-phase of their strokes.

Power-phase 5.11

The following features should be evident in correct power-phase movements
in backstroke.
• This part of the arm stroke should feel increasingly faster and stronger as
acceleration is developed.
• Immediately upon entry, the forearm/hand should rotate to be vertical
through elbow flexion while the upper arm medially rotates and remains
extended forward.
• Downward shoulder and hip roll should be completed by the time the
forearm/hand is vertical.
• As the upper arm abducts, it increasingly becomes involved in developing
a propulsive surface.
• As the upper arm adducts, the shoulder and hip should have completed
upward rotation.
• The finish-position should be completed as the recovering arm begins to
enter the water.
• The post-finish-position arm extension and inward and upward sculling
actions should be as fast as at any stage in the propulsive action.
Breaststroke
The arm-propulsion action of breaststroke is similar to the first half of the butterfly stroke propulsive
phase. Both arms working together produce some benefits. In single-arm styles, there are lateral
forces developed because the propelling arm cannot adequately center on the mid-line. In the
double-arm strokes, the lateral forces on either side of the mid-line counter-balance each other. That
simplifies the roles of the kicks and pulls into being solely propulsive. Little attention to lateral
corrections is required.
There are a considerable number of variants of breaststroke arm-propulsion and kicking. Only one
arm-stroke variant will be described here. It is believed to produce the most effective propulsion in
the most efficient manner. It adheres to principles of human movement as opposed to "beliefs" about
what should be done.
Figure 5.9 shows Daniel Gyurta in his power-phase (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/
dg30200.htm). The frames are from the early part of his Gold Medal 200 m swim at the London
Olympic Games.
• Frame #2: Gyurta's hands are not very wide before he positions his arms to create propulsive
forces. Both upper arms medially rotate and remain high and are just beginning abduction.
Flexion at the wrists and elbows begins to orient backward.
• Frame #3: Abduction is in full play. A large total-arm surface is developing propulsive
forces.

Power-phase 5.12
Figure 5.9. Daniel Gyurta's power-phase during his Gold Medal swim at the 2012
Olympic Games.
• Frame #4: Gyurta's hands are very wide. To produce more direct force he could have
continued to flex the elbows so that at the end of the power-phase, his hands would be well
inside his elbows. Greater elbow flexion would have produced a more powerful pull.
• Frame #5: The end-of-stroke is completed. The swimmer's hands are still in front of his
elbows and shoulders.
Figure 5.10 shows Rebecca Soni's power-phase in her 200 m Gold Medal race at the 2011 World
Championships in Shanghai (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/rs60200.htm).
• Frames #1 through #3: The swimmer's hands open to slightly wider than the shoulders and
start to be repositioned for propulsion. In Frame #3 the classic swimming maneuver of
medially rotating the upper arms and flexing at the elbows and wrists and abducting the
upper arms is initiated.
• Frame #4: Adduction continues. For some unknown reason, Rebecca Soni turns the palms of
her hands outward for a brief moment. That leads the hands to be wider than they need to be.
Figure 5.10. Rebecca Soni's power-phase in her Gold Medal swim in 2011.
• Frame #5: The hands continue wide as abduction rotates the upper arms outward. The hands
appear to be turning back to attain a position that better orients forces backward. It would be
interesting to see what effects there would be on propulsion if the swimmer had her hands
closer together with stronger, more noticeable flexed elbows.
• Frame #6: The propulsive phase is complete. This is quite a short stroke, but short strokes
facilitate higher rating, which is a characteristic of Rebecca Soni's racing. The hands are in
front of both the shoulders and elbows. That will produce a very short distance of travel for
the hands on the recovery.

Power-phase 5.13
Figure 5.11 illustrates Cameron Van Der Burgh during his winning 100 m race at the 2012 London
Olympic Games (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/cvdb75.htm). All this swimmer's actions
were very fast and so the actual details of transitions are not always available in these frames.
Figure 5.11. Cameron Van Der Burgh during his power-phase at the 2012 Olympic
Games.
• Frames #1 through #3 show the hands opening quickly with no sculling action. In Frame #3
abduction of the upper arms has commenced as has some medial rotation of the upper arms
and flexion of the wrists and elbows. All that happens while the swimmer is perfectly
streamlined (i.e., in a position of least resistance).
• Frame #4: The position of the hands is baffling. It is as if the swimmer is trying to push back
and outward at the same time. This is essentially the end of propulsion.
• Frame #5: Propulsion is completed. The hands are well in front of the elbows and shoulders
as they sweep in. This also is a short stroke somewhat akin to Rebecca Soni's form. This
swimmer rates very high which facilitates many quick direct kicks.
None of these swimmers displays perfect propulsive form. That suggests further improvements are
possible. 21 These three swimmers still have a lingering artifact of "old breaststroke" 22 . What is
needed is a much greater degree of elbow flexion, at least 90°. The bigger bend will make a stronger
arm action and will produce a greater direct effect on propulsion. This feature is entering
breaststroke swimming today and likely will be featured by all the top swimmers by the 2020
Olympic Games.
The description of an accurate breaststroke power-phase contains some features not illustrated
above. It is not that no swimmers display those features, but rather there are no good images that can
be displayed to illustrate them. The features are as follows:
1. At the full-stretch position the hands usually are close together. They need not be as was ably
demonstrated by Agnes Kovacs in winning in 2001 (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/
champion/ak170200.htm). From that position, the hands open quickly and when at shoulder
width or slightly more begin to employ the various swimming movements to produce direct
propulsive forces.
2. The first moves are medial rotation of both upper arms, flexion at the wrists and elbows, and
the hands orienting forces backwards (not laterally). This would be the same position that
21
Within a month of Daniel Gyurta's world-record in London, his time was broken by Akihiro Yamaguchi in Japan.
22
"Old breaststroke" alludes to the time when breaststroke swimmers' arm movements comprised of an outward and
inward sculling action. With that action, propulsion was aided by weak lift forces. With a direct butterfly-type pull,
propulsion is direct and powered predominantly by significant drag forces.
Power-phase 5.14
would initiate a butterfly stroke. As this occurs, abduction of the upper arms begins. This
action also has the benefit of employing the external and internal rotator muscles of the
shoulders which should reduce the onset of shoulder injuries occurring in this stroke (Ruwe
et al., 1994).
3. The elbows continue to bend at least to 90°. As the elbows rotate outward because of
abduction, the lateral aspect of the movement is offset by the inward movement of the hands
due to elbow flexion. The forearm/hand positions will never be vertical because some
vertical force component needs to be developed to facilitate raising the head to breathe.
4. The final propulsive position has the hands in front of the elbows with elbows slightly in
front of or level with the shoulders. Abduction is complete when in the end-of-stroke
position.
5. The total arm movement from the initial opening to the sudden cessation of propulsion
should accelerate consistently and because it is "half" a stroke is very brief.
These features produce a direct, fast, powerful pull that facilitates high rating. Its similarity to the
first abduction part of the butterfly pull should be noticeable.

The following features should be evident in the correct power-phase
movement in breaststroke.
• From a full stretch, the hands open quickly to shoulder width or slightly
more apart.
• Direct propulsion is sought from the outset. The upper arms medially
rotate, the elbows and wrists flex, and abduction of the upper arms occurs.
• As the elbows move wider due to abduction, the elbows flex more to keep
propulsion directly backward.
• As soon as the elbows approach or are level with the shoulders, propulsion
ceases and the quickest, shortest recovery forward is performed.
• Since the forearms/hands are never vertical in the pull because they have
to supply some force to raise the head and shoulders in the breathing
action, the hands will always be forward of the elbows.
• The total arm movement from the initial opening to the sudden cessation of
propulsion should accelerate consistently.
Butterfly Stroke
Butterfly stroke demands that double-arm propulsive forces be developed and on breathing strokes a
vertical force component be substituted for some propulsive force so that the shoulders and head can
be raised in the breathing action. The arm actions should function to maximize horizontal
propulsion. To complicate the stroke, there is a belief that a "wave action" that magnifies the height
that the shoulders, hips, knees, and ankles oscillate assists in propulsion. In a little known
comparative in-house study, the Australian Institute of Sport compared the oscillation magnitudes of

Power-phase 5.15
various body and leg parts of Susan O'Neill, Petria Thomas, and the original "Madam Butterfly",
Mary T. Meagher. In all facets, Mary T. Meagher's ranges of oscillation were the least of the three.
That is a practical datum of a swimmer employing lower magnitudes of movement when swimming
faster than those who display greater magnitudes.
If oscillation magnitudes are to be as small as possible, then the compromising of arm propulsion
will be less than when those oscillations are exaggerated. It has already been shown that Michael
Phelps raises his head and shoulders to a lesser degree than Ryan Lochte (see Microcycles 1 and 2)
and is the faster swimmer.
Figure 5.12 shows Otylia Jedrzejczak relatively direct power-phase (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/
champion/oj180200.htm) during a breathing stroke.
• In Frame #1 she enters and immediately flexes her wrists.
• Frame #2: The hands spread a little as abduction of the upper arms begins and downward
pressure increases.
Figure 5.12. Otylia Jedrzejczak's breathing stroke in her Gold Medal race at the 2003 World
Championships.
• Frame #3: As abduction pulls the upper arms to the sides, the upper arms medially rotate and
the elbows flex noticeably. In this position, considerable horizontal force has been
developed.
• Frame #4: Abduction has pulled the upper arms wider. The forearm/hand surfaces are angled
to produce a vertical force component to assist rising to breathe. The elbows are flexed
noticeably.
• Frame #5: Full abduction is achieved. This is the most powerful position in the stroke. The
head and shoulders are almost fully elevated.
• Frame #6: Adduction of the upper arms occurs very quickly. The major propelling surfaces at
this stage are the forearms and hands. From here the swimmer continues to the end-of-stroke
position.
When the amount of movement and the potential to generate force that occurs across Frames #1 to
#3 is compared to that which is displayed across Frames #4 through #6, it can be inferred that
acceleration has occurred and forces during the mid-stroke are extremely high for any swimming
stroke.
Power-phase 5.16
Figure 5.13 shows Dana Vollmer's power-phase in a breathing stroke in her Gold Medal 2012
Olympic Games race (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/dv40100.htm).
Figure 5.13. Dan Vollmer's breathing stroke while winning Gold in 2012.
• Frames #2 and #3: The hands move wider after entry. In Frame #3, abduction of the upper
arms is just beginning. Dana Vollmer also has her head and shoulders lower than her hips, a
position that makes little sense for fast swimming despite her being the world-record holder.
• Frame #4: The upper arms abduct powerfully and the elbows flex which prevents the hands
opening further. Up to this time, much force is vertical as it assists the head and shoulders to
rise.
• Frame #5: Abduction is almost completed with the horizontal force component increasing
rapidly.
• Frame #6: Adduction is occurring rapidly. Both forearm/hand sets are producing
considerable horizontal force since the head has broken the surface. The swimmer's feet are
out of the water and the backs of the lower legs create considerable frontal and wave
resistance. The hips are the lowest within the stroke. The magnitude of the kick will force the
hips upward (see Frame #7).
• Frame #7: The end-of-stroke position is reached and the arm-exists will begin. This frame
clearly shows that propulsion only comes from the forearm/hand surfaces.
Figure 5.14 illustrates the power positions of several swimmers. All are executing breathing strokes,
that selection being unintentional. Michael Phelps breathed every stroke and so his depictions are
representative of his strokes. All swimmers establish medially rotated upper arms, and flexed elbows
early in the action and in front to the swimmer. While butterfly is the second fastest stroke, it is so
because of the latter part of the propulsive phase. The early forces in the pull seem to be used to
elevate the head and shoulders for breathing. From the latter part of the abduction phase of the stroke
forces build very quickly and are of a high magnitude. Although the mainly horizontal force
component lasts a short duration, its forces are very large and through them, the swimmer develops
the velocity to record fast times. In calculating the forces for the various strokes, Cappaert and
Rushall estimated the peak force in butterfly stroke to be at least three times greater than the peak
force developed in any of the other three competitive strokes. Because of the importance of the
particular brief stage in the butterfly stroke, it would seem to be obvious that it is that part of the
stroke that warrants particular attention when developing butterfly technique. The potential is there
in non-breathing strokes to magnify the duration of this significant force production.

Power-phase 5.17
Figure 5.14. A variety of elite butterfly swimmers in power positions.

Figure 5.15 shows Michael Phelps' power-phase in his championship 2007 stroke (http://coachsci.
sdsu.edu/swim/champion/mp30200.htm).
Figure 5.15. Michael Phelps' full power position in 2007.

This sequence duplicates some frames from the previous figure. Phelps clearly shows his great force
development and resulting acceleration in Frames #7 to #9 when compared to Frames #4 through #9.
Most of these butterfly swimmers seem to have a stage after entering and opening the arms where
abduction and elbow flexion begin. Medial rotation of the upper arms is not so obvious although it is
in Otylia Jedrzejczak. The point behind medial rotation of the upper arms is that it extends the
forward reach which can then be used in a long effective pull. This writer has no explanation for
why forward reach is not as revered in butterfly as much as it is in the other three competitive

Power-phase 5.18
strokes. It would seem that it should be. Such a reach would occur for both breathing and non-
breathing strokes.
Another feature that warrants contemplation is how wide the hands on entry are. Otylia Jedrzejczak
grabs the water immediately. However, Dana Vollmer and Michael Phelps find it necessary to adjust
their hand width after entry. It has to be asked, "Wouldn't it be better to enter the hands wider so that
there can be an immediate activation of medial rotation of the upper arms, flexion of the elbows, and
abduction of the upper arms?"
The essential features of the power-phase of butterfly stroke follow.
1. This phase of butterfly stroke is where acceleration occurs to maximum levels. The swimmer
should feel that the latter part of the power-phase is both the quickest and most forceful
action of the whole stroke.
2. The orientation should be to propel the swimmer forward, not upward.
3. The hands should enter sufficiently wide so that the water can be grabbed immediately.
Further widening of the arm position before repositioning the arms for propulsion should not
occur.
4. The role of the upper arms in developing propulsion should be emphasized.
5. When adduction of the upper arms occurs, the thrust off the forearm/hand surfaces should be
emphasized through to the end-of-stroke position.
Yoshimura et al. (2007) showed that the correct execution of the second-half of the power-phase
differentiates elite from good butterfly swimmers. It is not hard to understand why the power-phase
of butterfly strokes is divided into two levels of effectiveness. Since the elevation of the head and
shoulders for breathing is completed by the approximate mid-point of the power-phase (see
Microcycle 3), the first part of the phase would have to produce both horizontal and vertical force
components. Once the head and shoulders are elevated, the need for a large vertical force component
is reduced markedly and so the potential exists to greatly increase the production of horizontal force
after that position is achieved. Swimmers who fail to alter the arm position to exploit that
opportunity will not maximize the power-phase. As well, swimmers who breathe too late will stall
the opportunity to increase horizontal propulsive forces causing performance capability to be
reduced. For power to be developed in butterfly stroke, the timing of the preparation to breathe is
crucial.

Power-phase 5.19

The following features should be evident in a correct power-phase movement
in butterfly stroke.
• The head and shoulders should rise the least amount possible and be
completed by about the middle of the propulsive phase of the arm strokes.
• Acceleration should develop markedly. The adduction stage of the pull
should be the quickest and most forceful part of the phase.
• The orientation should be to propel the swimmer forward, not upward.
• The hands should enter sufficiently wide so that an immediate "grab" on
the water occurs.
• The role of the upper arms in developing propulsion should be
emphasized.
• The thrust off the forearm/hand surfaces should be emphasized through to
the end-of-stroke position.

Power-phase 5.20
TEACHING POINTS FOR POWER-PHASE MOVEMENTS IN CRAWL
STROKE AND BACKSTROKE
POWER-PHASE ACTIONS IN
BACKSTROKE
• This part of the arm stroke should
feel increasingly faster and
stronger as acceleration is
POWER-PHASE ACTIONS IN developed.
CRAWL STROKE • Immediately upon entry, the
• This part of the arm stroke should forearm/hand should rotate to be
feel increasingly faster and vertical through elbow flexion
stronger as acceleration is while the upper arm medially
developed. rotates and remains extended
• The forearm/hand should rotate forward.
to be vertical while the upper arm • Downward shoulder and hip roll
medially rotates and remains should be completed by the time
stretched forward. the forearm/hand is vertical.
• As the upper arm abducts, the • As the upper arm abducts, it
shoulder and hip should be at the increasingly becomes involved in
deepest point of body roll. developing a propulsive surface.
• As the upper arm adducts, the • As the upper arm adducts, the
shoulder and hip should have shoulder and hip should have
rotated upward. completed upward rotation.
• The finish-position should be • The finish-position should be
completed as the recovering arm completed as the recovering arm
begins to enter the water. begins to enter the water.
• The post-finish-position arm
extension and inward and upward
sculling actions should be as fast
as at any stage in the propulsive
action.

Power-phase 5.21
TECHNIQUE MICROCYCLE 5 (continued)

TEACHING POINTS FOR POWER-PHASE MOVEMENTS IN
BREASTSTROKE AND BUTTERFLY STROKE
BREASTSTROKE
• From a full stretch, the hands POWER-PHASE ACTIONS IN
open quickly to shoulder width or BUTTERFLY STROKE
slightly more apart. • The head and shoulders should
• Direct propulsion is sought from rise the least amount possible
the outset. The upper arms and be completed by about the
medially rotate, the elbows and middle of the propulsive phase of
wrists flex, and abduction of the the arm strokes.
upper arms occurs. • Acceleration should develop
• As the elbows move wider due to markedly. The adduction stage of
abduction, the elbows flex more the pull should be the quickest
to keep propulsion directly and most forceful part of the
backward. phase.
• As soon as the elbows approach • The orientation should be to
or are level with the shoulders, propel the swimmer forward, not
propulsion ceases and the upward.
quickest, shortest recovery • The hands should enter
forward is performed. sufficiently wide so that an
• Since the forearms/hands are immediate "grab" on the water
never vertical in the pull because occurs.
they have to supply some force to • The role of the upper arms in
raise the head and shoulders in developing propulsion should be
the breathing action, the hands emphasized.
will always be forward of the • The thrust off the forearm/hand
elbows. surfaces should be emphasized
• The total arm movement from the through to the end-of-stroke
initial opening to the sudden position.
cessation of propulsion should
accelerate consistently.

Initial Actions 6.1
INITIAL ACTIONS
Reminder
The technique features that were instructed in Microcycles 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 should continue through
this and all subsequent technique microcycles.
shoulders.
• Power all strokes with good elbow flexion and use of the back and front shoulder muscles in
abduction and adduction of the upper arm(s).
The initial action that precedes the power-phase of all strokes has already been discussed in some of
the previous microcycles. This treatment is a final summary of how to set-up movement patterns so
that the longest effective propulsive strokes can be executed.
Initial Positions
Three principles should serve as the bases for constructing the initial underwater actions of the
competitive swimming strokes.
An inactive arm is a resistive arm. An inactive (non-propulsive) arm develops resistance (usually
frontal and surface resistances) and is detrimental to a swimmer's progress. When an arm enters the
water, it is desirable for the time it takes to reposition the arm to produce an effective pull to be as
short as possible. An arm in the water should be active and performing propulsive movements and
not resting, gliding, sculling, etc. In the peculiar case of breaststroke, there is a stage where the arms
do not produce beneficial forces because the kick has to be executed. In such a case, the position of
the arms should be such that the resistance they develop is minimized.
Minimize inertial lags. This concept is akin to the previous principle. An inertial lag is the length of
time between the finish of one propulsive phase to the start of the next. An example in crawl stroke
is Sun Yang (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/sy1225.htm). This concept pertains to the role
of the arm(s) underwater. An arm should be producing forces that accelerate a swimmer. Stroking
patterns should be developed such that the time from entering the water to the development of
horizontal force components is as short as possible. That will minimize the time when only
resistance to progress exists.
Maximize the effective pull. Swimming efficiency will be high if the length of the effective pull, that
is the distance over which the swimmer is accelerated, is the greatest possible. Developing stroke
initiations as far as possible in front of the swimmer and "powering" to correct finish positions
should maximize the length of an effective pull. Achieving that concept will go a long way toward
developing swimming excellence.

Initial Actions 6.2
The implications of these three principles are clear:

1) The time taken from entering the water or initiating a stroke (breaststroke) to propelling the
swimmer should be the shortest possible;
2) Upon entering, immediate repositioning actions should occur so that propulsion starts after
the least delay;
3) The orientation for the start of all strokes should be to establish the power-phase with the
most direct and fastest movements possible; and
4) The power position should be established as far as possible in front of the swimmer and
continued through to an exact finish-position.
A corollary of these implications is: Perform no unnecessary movements or delays underwater.
There are two main purposes of this phase, the first being to minimize the time between entry and
the beginning of propulsion. During the time no propulsion occurs, resistance is created. Thus, the
shorter the time spent and the fewer actions made in this part of swimming strokes, the less a
swimmer will be slowed. Having the arm in the water and not producing propulsion is like driving a
car with the brakes partly on. Any part of the body in the water not developing propulsion serves to
slow a swimmer because of the resistance created. The second purpose of the entry is to position the
arm, and in particular the hand and forearm, so that the maximum propulsive surface is established at
the very earliest time and oriented in the best manner in all strokes. Early establishment provides a
greater distance over which acceleration can be developed as well as orienting the limb(s) to apply
force backward rather than going deep. One of the poorest understood phases of a swimming stroke
is the entry and what happens from then to when propulsion starts.
Two problematic situations that affect the ability of a swimmer to execute an efficient and correct
initial action are worthy of discussion.
1. If a swimmer kicks too large, it might be impossible to do a correct repositioning action.
With many large kickers, the time it takes to execute six big kicks takes longer than it does to
complete a full stroke cycle. This happens in all strokes and is termed "kick-dominant"
swimming. As will be explained in Microcycle 8, there are no advantages to big kicks, only
disadvantages. Consequently, if a swimmer has difficulty in minimizing the time spent before
the initiation of the power-phase of a stroke, the first correction that should be tried is to have
the swimmer perform much smaller kicks. The upper level of a small kick is to not have any
part of the foot break the water surface. If any break occurs, other problems arise apart from
the wasted energy through an unproductive movement.
2. Often associated with kicks that are too large are the initial movements of the arms after
entering. It is very common to see the arms kept straight, instead of immediate flexion of the
elbow(s). Stroke entries are the major cause of shoulder injuries (Yanai & Hay, 1996). When
the arm is straight, it is usual that the arm presses directly down and possibly with some
slight angled movement to the side. When the arm is in that position and performs that
function, the pressure forces the head of the humerus bone against the glenoid labrum. After
very many straight arm stroke initiations, the labrum becomes irritated or damaged resulting
in "swimmers' shoulder", for which rest is the major treatment. Once the labrum is injured,
reoccurrences of the problem occur more frequently unless there is a corrective technique
change; those changes being described here. There is no place in competitive swimming
strokes for straight arms under water. The arms can be loosely straight at the initial touch of
the water at the end of the recoveries for crawl stroke, backstroke, and butterfly stroke. After
the touch at entry, in those strokes the arm should have varying degrees of flexion at the

Initial Actions 6.3
elbow until the exit after the end-of-stroke position occurs.23 Even in breaststroke after the
full streamline stretch forward, as the arms part to positions where the initial repositioning
movements can be performed the wrists and elbows should be slightly flexed. Although the
amount of flexion is barely noticeable, it is sufficient to exert pressure with the resulting
reaction-force being absorbed in the contracted muscles and not the shoulder. There is no
place in swimming for straight arms underwater. If any straight arm is observed it should be
corrected immediately and focused on until the replacement action is dominant.
Upon the initial entry, the position of the fingers should be established. Marinho et al. (2009) and
Marinho, Barbosa, Reis et al. (2010) reported the effect of different finger spreads of the hands for
producing drag resistance when aligned at 90º to the line of intended propulsion (simply termed the
"pitch" of the hand). A slight spread (0.32 cm) was better than a wider spread (0.64) and when the
fingers were closed. The slight gap creates peculiar turbulence that does not allow water to flow
between the fingers. Slightly spread fingers create a larger propelling surface. When the position of
the thumb was evaluated (Marinho, Barbosa, Kjendlie, et al., 2010), the thumb being close to the
hand was slightly more beneficial for creating drag forces than when it was held away at 30º or
more.
A simple way to instruct swimmers to from a desirable finger and thumb spread is to have them
place a relaxed hand (with natural finger and thumb spread) on a hard surface and press down
without consciously changing the digits' spread. When swimming with slightly spread fingers,
swimmers have to be conscious that they need to be kept firmly in position at the same time as
keeping the wrist firmly in alignment with the lower arm.
Executing a short-duration initial action should promote the power-phase to begin with a velocity
higher than in any previous microcycle.
1. Strokes per length could increase marginally because the initial actions are designed to
remove any gliding before the power-phase.
2. Lap times should improve markedly (~.5-1.5%).
3. Stroke rates should improve because of the shortening of any inertial lags.
4. For a few practice sessions, the number of race-pace repetitions in a set might decrease
slightly. Adaptation to this quick but low-load action should produce rapid adaptation in
swimmers who exhibit a reduction in number of repetitions.
5. Bow- and lateral-waves are not likely to change to any obvious degree.
Crawl Stroke
Figure 6.1 illustrates Rebecca Adlington in her Gold Medal 800 m freestyle race at the 2008
Olympic Games. She demonstrates a full reach forward, correct repositioning while the upper arm is
stretched forward, and effective propulsion beginning from the position furthest in front.
23
For any swimmer complaining of sore shoulders, the first reaction of the coach should be to check and see if the
swimmer has a straight arm(s) in the early stages of any stroke. If that exists, then immediate change is warranted.
Initial Actions 6.4
Figure 6.1. Rebecca Adlington's initial action.

Figure 6.2 illustrates the initial movement of the intended propulsive arm prior to performing the
power-phase in several elite swimmers. The action repositions the forearm and hand to be vertical to
the direction of the ensuing propulsion.
The elements of the initial repositioning movement in crawl stroke are as follows.
1. Enter the water in front of or slightly wider than the shoulder with a flat hand finger tips first
with the arm stretched forward but not with the elbow locked. An entry of this form will be
assisted by gravity. Do not slide the entering arm forward underwater.
2. The shoulder should be extended to increase the reach forward.
3. Upon entering, the shoulder and upper arm should remain in an extended position and at the
same time the shoulder should also be rotating downward.
4. While the upper arm is in extension, it should be medially rotated at the same time as the
elbow flexes. Some wrist flexion can briefly occur. The medial rotation assists in keeping the
upper arm extended forward, a movement that fosters "a high-elbow" position.
Figure 6.2. A variety of elite crawl-stroke swimmers initiating their effective pulls.
Initial Actions 6.5
5. By the time the forearm/hand is vertical, the shoulder should be at the bottom on its rotation.
This position is the start of the effective pull.
6. Once the forearm/hand is vertical and the internal and external rotator muscles of the
shoulder are on stretch, abduction of the upper arm should begin. That signals the
commencement of the power-phase.
7. The whole action is continuous while acceleration builds. The repositioning of the arm into a
propulsive attitude has to be quick enough to prevent any noticeable resistance occurring.

The following features should be evident in a correctly-initiated crawl-stroke
propulsive arm action.
• Reach fully forward over the water; enter fingers first on a flat hand.
• The shoulder should be fully extended forward.
• The shoulder and upper arm should remain extended while the body
rotates to lower the shoulder.
• The upper arm should medially rotate while the elbow flexes to position the
forearm/hand vertically.
• Abduction of the upper arm commences as part of a continuous
accelerated movement.
Backstroke
Much of what should occur in backstroke in the initial movements to reposition the arm for
propulsion is similar to that for crawl stroke.
Figure 6.3 shows Kirsty Coventry initial stroking action in her winning 200 m race at the 2009
World Championships. The backstroke equivalent of the crawl stroke action of Rebecca Adlington is
demonstrated. There is a full reach forward, correct repositioning while the upper arm is stretched
forward, and effective propulsion beginning from the position furthest in front of the swimmer. [The
right-arm entry appears to be bent and across behind the right shoulder (Frame #1) which requires
straightening (Frame #2) and then repositioning (Frames #3 and #4).]
Figure 6.3. Kirsty Coventry repositioning the hand/forearm well in front of the
shoulder line.
Initial Actions 6.6
Figure 6.4 presents a number of elite backstroke swimmers in the initial phase of their underwater
actions.
Figure 6.4. A variety of elite backstroke swimmers initiating their effective pulls.
The elements of the initial repositioning movement in backstroke are:
1. Enter the water with the back of the hand and the arm stretched forward but not with the
elbow locked. The entry point should be in line with the shoulder or wider. The position
should be such that no compensatory hip sway, lateral arm movement, or arm straightening
occurs (commonly seen in swimmers who enter further across their bodies and even behind
the head).
2. The shoulder should be extended to increase the reach forward.
3. Upon entering, the shoulder and upper arm should remain in an extended position and at the
same time the shoulder should also be rotating downward. While the upper arm is in
extension, it should be medially rotated at the same time as the elbow flexes. Some wrist
flexion can briefly occur. Medial rotation assists in keeping the upper arm extended forward.
4. By the time the forearm/hand is vertical, the shoulder should be at the bottom of its roll. The
depth of the shoulder should be such that the hand is not near the surface. This position is the
start of the effective pull.
5. Once the forearm/hand is vertical and the internal and external rotator muscles of the
shoulder are on stretch, abduction of the upper arm should begin. That signals the
commencement of the power-phase.
6. The action is continuous while acceleration builds. The repositioning of the arm into a
propulsive attitude has to be quick enough to prevent any noticeable resistance occurring.

Initial Actions 6.7

The following features should be evident in a correctly-initiated backstroke
• Reach fully forward over the water; enter with the back of the hand.
• The shoulder should be fully extended forward.
• The shoulder and upper arm should remain extended while the body rolls to
lower the shoulder.
• The upper arm should medially rotate while the elbow flexes to position the
forearm/hand vertically.
• Abduction of the upper arm commences as part of a continuous accelerated
movement.
Breaststroke
The initiation of breaststroke and butterfly strokes are similar. In the past, there have been
considerable unnecessary movements that have not resulted in the most effective arm strokes. For
example, in breaststroke there was an advocacy for sculling laterally (i.e., out and in) which might be
satisfactory for synchronized swimming but is unsatisfactory for speed swimming.
Figure 6.5 shows Kosuke Kitajima and Rebecca Soni's initial actions.
Figure 6.5. The initial arm actions of Kosuke Kitajima and Rebecca Soni.
When interpreting what is demonstrated, it should be remembered how the upper arms work in the
shoulder joint. The humerus is a fixed lever and thus, its extremity will prescribe an arc of fixed
dimension as abduction occurs. While a swimmer will attempt to pull directly back to propel

Initial Actions 6.8
forward, the movement arch of the humerus extremity (i.e., elbow joint) will make the locus of
movement appear to be a widening pattern.
The following are the features of effective breaststroke initial actions.
1. The traditional hand-path in breaststroke has been from the end-of-stroke across to under or
in front of the chin. Then a ~90º turn is bake and both hands are pushed forward to full
stretch, often being lifted out of the water for a brief period. The locus of movement of each
hand resembles two sides of a right-angle triangle. This is less in vogue today amongst top
performers than in yesteryear probably because it created considerable resistance which was
prolonged because of the excessive distance travelled to get to the full stretch/streamlined
position.
As Rebecca Soni has partly shown, a better movement path of the hands would be from the
end-of-stroke position directly to a loosely attained full-stretch position. If the traditional
hand path resembled two sides of a right-angle triangle, the advocated path would be the
hypotenuse of that triangle. If a "hypotenuse path" is followed, the hands would travel less
distance in a shorter time and create less overall resistance. That would be a more efficient
form of recovery for breaststroke.
Even stretching finally forward to bring the hands together is not as popular as once thought.
Agnes Kovacs (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/ak160200.htm) demonstrated a
hands-apart recovery forward when she won Olympic Gold in 2000 (see Figure 6.6). The
point behind this digression is that if the hands recover together to a full stretch, they then
have to be moved to the sides to gain a position where the feeling of direct force production
can be initiated. In the lateral movements to reposition from the full stretch, resistance is
developed through the unproductive movements and the changing profile and surface of the
arms. It might well be that today's swimmers, and in particular the females, are diminishing
both the length of time to stretch forward with the hands together (see Amanda Beard in 2004
- http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/ ab160200.htm) and the width of the "hand-
spread" before engaging in propulsion.
No matter the position of the hands/arms on the full recovery, the hands/arms have to be in a
position where propulsion can be established. The first action then is to position the arms
apart so that the initiation of propulsion can be achieved effectively see Frame #3 in Figure
6.6).
Figure 6.6. Agnes Kovacs in 2000 exhibiting a hands-apart recovery forward in her
breaststroke technique.
2. When the arms are positioned, the usual arm adjustments are made to position the
forearms/hands and upper arms for propulsion. The wrists flex slightly, the upper arms
medially rotate, and the elbows flex. At the same time, the upper arms are abducted.
Initial Actions 6.9
3. As the forearms/hands are reoriented to having a substantial horizontal force component,

elbow flexion tends to offset the lateral movements of the lower arms in abduction. Although
not apparent in the Figures above, in some swimmers elbow flexion places the hands closer
to each other than the elbows.
4. The forearms/hands do not become vertical. They develop a vertical force component that
supports the raising of the shoulders and head in the breathing action. Since low-breathing is
better than high-breathing, the size of the vertical force component and the angle of the
forearms/hands are likely to be less than needed for a high-breathing action.
5. The transition from repositioning the forearms/hands to the power-phase of the stroke should
be seamless and fast.

The following features should be evident in a correctly-initiated breast-stroke
• Open the arms to a position where they are comfortable to perform the
stroke-initiation movements.
• As quickly as possible, flex the wrists slightly, medially rotate the upper
arms, and flex the elbows.
• Orient the forearms/hands to being as vertical as possible recognizing the
need to retain some angle to produce a vertical force component to assist
in breathing.
• Seamlessly transition into the acceleration that marks the power-phase.
Butterfly Stroke
Becker and Havriluk (2010) showed that large increases in force occur when the hands first
submerge below the level of the shoulders and the elbows are flexed (the beginning of the power-
phase). Thus, the angle at the shoulder and elbow are important and justify minimizing the time it
takes to correctly reposition the arms for the power-phase.
Figure 6.7 shows two swimmers' initial actions in their strokes. Otylia Jedrzejczak enters with the
hands close together. As she attempts to reposition her arms to where they can apply meaningful
forces they are moved wider. If the entry had been in the position shown in Frame #2, time would
have been saved and no waiting until forces could be initiated would have occurred. The width of the
butterfly stroke entry has to be that which allows immediate repositioning to occur. Ian Crocker's
action is an improvement on Otylia Jedrzejczak's but it is still only marginally close. At least he can
immediately flex his wrists and elbows and only has to wait briefly for abduction of the upper arms
to occur and establish his posture where meaningful force production is possible.

Initial Actions 6.10
Figure 6.7. Initial stroke actions of two elite butterfly swimmers.

The elements of good initial arm actions in butterfly are as follows:
1. Enter with the hands sufficiently wide so that immediate repositioning can occur. While
abduction of the upper arms will widen the pull, the swimmer should be concerned with
directly applying force backward by medially rotating the upper arms, slightly flexing the
wrists, and flexing the elbows to at least 90°.
2. The repositioning should be direct and fast so that the start of the power-phase will occur
with already significant momentum.
3. There should be a difference in the vertical orientation of the forearms/hands between
breathing and non-breathing strokes. Vertical forces have to be developed to raise the head
and partial shoulders to breathe. It is commonly observed that the unnecessary actions of
partly raising the head and shoulders occur in non-breathing strokes. Mechanically, nothing
has to be raised in a non-breathing stroke and that should be a feature that is coached. If no
unnecessary lifting actions occur, the forearms/hands should be close to vertical when no
breathing is required and greater propulsive forces generated.
The similarity of the repositioning actions of breaststroke and butterfly stroke is such that it is a
reasonable instructional strategy to teach the same actions to young swimmers.

The following features should be evident in a correctly-initiated butterfly-stroke
• Enter the arms in a position where it is comfortable to perform the stroke-
initiation movements.
• As quickly as possible, flex the wrists slightly, medially rotate the upper
arms, and flex the elbows.
• Orient force production directly backward despite the elbows widening.
• Seamlessly transition into the acceleration that marks the power-phase.
• In non-breathing strokes, do not lift the head and/or shoulders.

Initial Actions 6.11
TEACHING POINTS FOR INITIAL ACTIONS IN ALL STROKES
INITIAL ACTIONS IN CRAWL STROKE INITIAL ACTIONS IN BACKSTROKE

• Reach fully forward over the water; • Reach fully forward over the water;
enter fingers first on a flat hand. enter with the back of the hand.
• The shoulder should be fully • The shoulder should be fully
extended forward. extended forward.
• The shoulder and upper arm should • The shoulder and upper arm should
remain extended while the body remain extended while the body rolls
rotates to lower the shoulder. to lower the shoulder.
• The upper arm should medially • The upper arm should medially
rotate while the elbow flexes to rotate while the elbow flexes to
position the forearm/hand vertically. position the forearm/hand vertically.
• Abduction of the upper arm • Abduction of the upper arm
commences as part of a continuous commences as part of a continuous
accelerated movement. accelerated movement.
INITIAL ACTIONS IN BUTTERFLY

INITIAL ACTIONS IN BREASTSTROKE STROKE
• Open the arms to a position where • Enter the arms in a position where it
they are comfortable to perform the is comfortable to perform the stroke-
stroke-initiation movements. initiation movements.
• As quickly as possible, flex the • As quickly as possible, flex the
wrists slightly, medially rotate the wrists slightly, medially rotate the
upper arms, and flex the elbows. upper arms, and flex the elbows.
• Orient the forearms/hands to being • Orient force production directly
as vertical as possible recognizing backward despite the elbows
the need to retain some angle to widening.
produce a vertical force component
to assist in breathing. • Seamlessly transition into the
acceleration that marks the power-
• Seamlessly transition into the phase.
acceleration that marks the power-
phase. • In non-breathing strokes, do not lift
the head and/or shoulders.

Recoveries 7.1
RECOVERIES
Reminder
The technique features that were instructed in Microcycles 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 should continue
through this and all subsequent technique microcycles.
shoulders.
• Starting from fully forward, as quickly as possible reposition the forearm/hand propelling
surface(s) to a full propulsive orientation so that the power-phase will be the longest and
most effective possible.
Consideration of the recoveries in all strokes is important because how they are performed will cause
reactions in other parts of a swimmer's posture, which can have varying effects on propulsion. There
are two sets of principles that need to be considered. One is for the alternate strokes and the other is
for the symmetrical strokes.
Executing proper recoveries should have only a marginal effect at best on any of the usual variables.
Any changes will depend upon the individual swimmer.
1. The most common effect of better and more symmetrical recoveries would be that the
swimmer looks "smoother".
Crawl Stroke
In crawl stroke and backstroke what is performed out of the water with one arm has a modifying
effect on the functioning of the other arm underwater. That relationship is governed by the human
body's bi-lateral functioning, that is, what is done with one side of the body is also mirrored to a
degree on the other side of the body.
When coaches modify swimmers' recovery arm actions, any swimmer response is not isolated to
only the recovering arm. It is dangerous to modify recoveries in the alternate strokes without
contemplating or observing what happens with the underwater propulsive action.
The bi-lateral principle when combined with Newton's Third Law explains what happens with
recoveries. Simplified illustrations showing the relevant effects in crawl stroke are included in
Figure 7.1.
Throughout this manual, a basic principle of fluid mechanics requiring propulsive forces to be
developed horizontally, directly, and as close to the mid-line as possible has been repeated and
emphasized. Crawl stroke and backstroke recoveries have to be executed so that they do not alter a
swimmer's attempt to accede to those characteristics.

Recoveries 7.2
Throughout the history of crawl stroke swimming, the emergence of wide- and straight-arm
recoveries has occurred. The increased lateral forces associated with those recoveries causes the
underwater propulsive forces to be modified by being wider, that is, they are further from the mid-
line and require extra unnecessary counter-balancing actions to keep the swimmer tracking directly
down the lane. If wide/straight-arm recoveries are swept wide, the amount of body-roll exhibited
will be reduced. That would result in a loss of potential propulsive power. When a straight-arm
recovery has height emphasized as well, the pull path is not so wide but deeper than would be in an
efficient pull. Counter-balancing actions to negate the vertical component of the underwater arm-
action would have to be performed. The energy for those added actions would cause a swimmer to
fatigue earlier than when an efficient stroke was swum.
Figure 7.1. The bi-lateral counter-balancing effects involved in two crawl stroke
recoveries.
One of the major reasons for advocating straight-arm recoveries is that the ballistic characteristic that
emerges particularly in sprint events is beneficial. It is commonly opined that 1) stroke rates are
increased, 2) the water is "attacked" and results in greater propelling forces, and 3) greater efforts are
encouraged. One could argue persuasively and at length that assumptions #2 and #3 are false, but
that there is some support for the contention of increased rating. The question then becomes: Are the
benefits from increased rating greater than the losses of direct propulsive force components and the
addition of non-propulsive counter-balancing actions? There has been no research conducted to
answer that question but the hypothesis that the benefits from straight-arm recoveries do not
outweigh benefits lost from those recoveries can be argued strongly and anecdotally when the
performances of swimmers who change to straight-arm swimming are compared to non-straight
recovery performances. Additionally, one has to ask further: If straight-arm recoveries are beneficial,
why are they not used in 200 m and longer races?
As is typical with actions in a complex machine such as the human body, there is another reaction in
wide sweeping recoveries that reduces the efficiency of a swimmer who employs such an
inadvisable movement element. Figure 7.2 presents a diagram of further instances of Newton's Third
Law causing swimmer problems during the recovery.
As a consequence of the action-reaction relationship with parts of the body's posture when a wide
recovery is executed, further unnecessary movements that result are the hips move to the side of the
wide-recovery and the legs move to the opposite side. That results in increased frontal resistance
through disruption of streamline, an added requirement of extra movements needed to correct the
Recoveries 7.3
inefficiencies that have been produced, and a lowering of the swimmer's stroke rate because the extra
movement ingredients take more time. When the counter-balancing wide arm-pull is insufficient to
fully offset the lateral forces produced by the sweeping recovery, these extra features will be evident.
Figure 7.2. One instance of Newton's Third Law in action in a wide crawl-stroke
recovery.
The classic "High-elbow" recovery has advantages for improving crawl-stroke efficiency. Its
characteristics are described below.
1. The recovery is initiated by the elbow exiting the water first. That action is followed by
increased elbow flexion that allows the lower arm to hang almost vertically in a brief but
relaxed manner.
2. The high-elbow relaxed recovery is moved forward along an almost direct line so that lateral
forces are minimized.
3. An emphasis on lifting the elbow high in the mid-recovery will enhance the performance of
beneficial body-roll.
4. The recovery is timed with the propulsive arm action. Recovery initiation occurs as the
propelling arm begins to be repositioned; the mid-recovery position where the elbow
achieves its highest position is coordinated with the mid-stroke propulsive position; and the
entry of the hand occurs as the elbow of the just-finished propulsive arm is picked up to
initiate its recovery. This timing is that of a balanced stroke and minimizes any inertial lags
in the total cyclic action.
5. The flat finger-tips-first hand entry occurs when the arm can stretch no further forward.
There is no sliding of the hand forward underwater or hand-entry thumb first. Those
unnecessary actions increase resistance and/or require added actions that are unnecessary.
6. The entry is made in front of the shoulder or wider. [Less flexible swimmers will enter wider
than the shoulder.]
Figure 7.3 shows the features listed above being performed by Yannick Agnel in his Gold Medal
200 m race at the 2012 Olympic Games.
In 50 and 100 m sprint events there is a strong trend in world swimming to recover with sweeping
actions. Whether that is in accord with the unfounded lore of swimming or a forced requirement of
the sprint events is not known. One artifact of a wide sweeping recovery in sprint events was shown
in a comparison of the underwater strokes of Alexandre Popov and Michael Klim in 1998

Recoveries 7.4
(http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/klimpop.htm). Klim performed an overtaking stroke and

Popov a balanced stroke, with Popov recording the better result.
Figure 7.3. Yannick Agnel's right-arm recovery in the 200 m at the 2012 Olympic
Games.

The following features should be evident in a correct crawl-stroke recovery.
• Initiate by first lifting the elbow out of the water.
• Recover forward along a direct line.
• Emphasize an elbow-lift in mid-recovery.
• Time the recovery with the propulsive arm's action.
• Enter fully forward, flat hand, finger tips first, in front of or wider than the
shoulder.
Backstroke
The general mechanical properties of the crawl stroke recovery are also appropriate for the
backstroke recovery. Microcycle 4 also covered the early stages of the backstroke recovery. To be
least disruptive, the recovery needs to:
1) be along the most direct path parallel to the mid-line to minimize any lateral force
component;
2) be coordinated with the propulsive action of the pulling arm; and
3) enter the water in such a manner that repositioning the arm to the power-phase occurs with
the least amount of movement in the shortest time possible.
The "straight-arm" backstroke recovery has advantages for improving backstroke efficiency. Its
characteristics are described below.
1. After attaining the end-of-stroke position, the arm extends fully and is somewhat deep (see
Figure 4.2).
2. From the deep position, a straight-arm recovery is used to generate lift propulsion by
sweeping the arm upward and slightly inward (i.e., sculling). That force's main function is to

Recoveries 7.5
counter-balance the vertical forces of the entering arm. Taking over that function from the
legs means that the size of the kick at that time should be small.
3. The vertical arm-lift requires some internal rotation (flexion) of the shoulder which has the
beneficial effect of lowering/angling the shoulder of the propulsive arm. This raising-of-the-
shoulder action occurs in the very early stages of the upward sculling action and often signals
the swimmer to inhale as it is the stage of the full cyclic action that requires the least
exertion.
4. The long inward/upward sculling exit of the propelling arm means that the thumb should
emerge first, not the little finger that has been taught for many years. The upward scull
should provide ample time for the other soon-to-propel arm to enter the water and be
adjusted to the initial power-phase position. There is no overtaking stroke in backstroke in
top flight swimmers.
5. The head should be stable and oriented directly upward while being submerged. Soon after
the thumb-first exit, the hand should rotate so that the back of the hand leads the vertical arm
action through the full arc. The long straight arm with the raised shoulder produces a fixed-
arc arm recovery that brushes the ear/side-side-of-the-head as it approaches the water.
6. The entry of the hand should be behind the recovery shoulder or wider and back-of-hand
first, not the little-finger first. From there, the initial reposition actions take place. When the
shoulder rotates down after the entry and the upper arm medially rotates, the hand will be
automatically rotated at least 90º to be ideally positioned (see Figures 6.3 and 6.4). When a
"little-finger entry" is adopted, the inappropriate hand position usually provokes the swimmer
to sink the often-locked arm deeply and to exert pressure to the side instead of directly
backward.
7. The transition from the recovery to the initial repositioning action should be seamless.
One of the most common errors in backstroke recovery is to enter too far across the head instead of
behind the shoulder or wider. It would be better to enter too wide rather than crossing behind the
shoulder and head. Figure 7.4 illustrates what happens when an exaggerated behind-the-head entry is
made.
Figure 7.4. A former Australian backstroke champion exhibiting an inappropriate

behind-the-head entry.
In Frame #9, a left-arm entry is to be made across behind the head instead of behind the shoulder.
The reaction to that lateral movement is for the hips to move to the left and the legs to move to the
right. The right arm is approaching the upward sweep action at a significant distance from the

Recoveries 7.6
swimmer. The orientation of the recovery arm to the feet is an arc with the hips prominent rather
than in a streamlined position.
Frame #10 shows a further problem with this swimmer's entry. The hand has entered little-finger-
first. The hips appear to have moved further to the left accentuating the curved posture.
In Frame #11, the left arm presses to the side rather than executing a repositioning movement as
described in Microcycle 6. To counter-balance some of the lateral force created by the entered-arm,
the other arm sweeps inward as well as upward. The swimmer's posture remains in an arc waiting for
some other movements (probably kicking) to occur to bring the hips and body back into streamline.
The simple act of making an incorrect hand entry in the swimmer's backstroke causes: 1) streamline
to be lost as the hips move one way and the legs move the other, that is, frontal resistance is
increased; 2) the swimmer has to execute unnecessary actions to correct the postural/streamline
disruption and the inappropriate lateral arm forces resulting in more energy being expended than
would be necessary with a correct entry; 3) the entry into the power-phase will be delayed resulting
in decreased propulsion; and 4) the extra movements inserted into what should be a relatively simple
action will consume time resulting in a lowered stroke rate and a longer inertial lag before
propulsion is effected.

The following features should be evident in a correct backstroke recovery.
• Initiate by raising the recovery-arm shoulder and sweep the straight arm
upward in a sculling motion.
• Exit the hand thumb-first from the water.
• Sweep a long, high vertical arm with the back of the hand leading.
• Time the recovery with the propulsive arm's action.
• Enter fully forward behind the shoulder or wider with the back of the hand.
Breaststroke
The symmetrical breaststroke and butterfly stroke recoveries can affect what is done underwater by
the body parts on the other side of the center of buoyancy as well as any resistance they create
themselves.
There have been a variety of breaststroke recoveries throughout the recent years. Some have been
misguided by false tenets. Recovering over the water in the belief that resistance will be reduced;
lifting high out of the water to breathe (for some unknown reason); driving forward and down to
establish a "wave"; are three false reasons for actions that come to mind. What has not been evident
is an attempt to form a recovery in breaststroke that adheres to principles of physics and mechanics.
It is asserted that when a swimmer is not being propelled the time of non-propulsion (an inertial lag)
should be as short as possible. Added to that are the following:
1) Actions that occur in non-propulsive phases of strokes should be as minimal as possible;
2) Any necessary actions during non-propulsion should be as simple as possible;
3) Any non-propulsive actions should create as little resistance as possible; and
4) Non-propulsive actions should occur in the shortest possible time.

Recoveries 7.7
The above principles are not inventions but principles that are steeped in scientific verification and
applied demonstrations involved with nautical and aeronautical engineering. For example, it has
been observed that the non-propulsive phase appears to be a key negative factor for better
breaststroke performance (Takagi et al., 2004; Yoshimura, et al., 2005). Breaststroke swimmers
should avoid rapid deceleration during the non-propulsive phase by adopting a low resistance
posture and reducing the lag time between propulsive phases of the stroke. Breaststroke recoveries
are where they are today largely because coaches have not bothered to determine true and false
principles of movement design. It is not possible at this time to illustrate a correct form of
breaststroke recovery, despite the current Olympic champions exhibiting a variety of non-propulsive
actions. In this writer's opinion, Rebecca Soni comes closest to a desirable recovery. If the
shortcomings of her recovery are corrected then perhaps a most-desirable form of breaststroke
recovery will be devised. It is in the spirit of proposing a form of recovery that has yet to be
demonstrated commonly that the following content in presented. Figure 7.5 shows Rebecca Soni's
stroke finish, recovery, and stroke initiation. The finish has already been discussed in Microcycle 4
(Figure 4.4).
Figure 7.5. Rebecca Soni's breaststroke finish, recovery, and initiation.

Rebecca Soni's recovery is close to being correct. It does hint of what should be done to improve the
efficiency of this part of the stroke. Of particular note is what is not done.
After propulsion, a number of common actions need to be altered.
1. Bringing in the hands to under the chin is a useless action that extends the duration of the
recovery and increases resistance in a number of ways. What should be done is that the hands
should turn very quickly after propulsion and thrust forward at an angle so that they meet just
short of or at full stretch. Rebecca Soni illustrates keeping the hands apart but could extend
them further before bringing them together (Frames #2 through #4). The hands come together
too early probably because she breaks the surface briefly believing there is some benefit from
that action. If the hands had been kept underwater and progressed directly to the full stretch
position, the too early closure would have been unnecessary.
2. For the same reasons as with the hands, the elbows should be kept wide and not brought in
tight alongside the body. It is doubtful that a positioning of the elbows and arms along side
the body offers any less frontal resistance than if they are kept away from the body (Rebecca
Soni Frames #1 through #4). The added large amount of frontal resistance caused by close-
to-the-body arms (see Liping Li Figure 2.7) far exceeds any resistance saving from the close-
finish if there is any at all [this writer doubts if there would be but that will not be known
until the appropriate research has been completed].
3. If the hands are thrust forward at an angle and the elbows are kept wide after the end-of-
stroke position, the elbows will follow the hands/forearms as they move forward. By moving

Recoveries 7.8
in the resistance turbulence created by the hands/forearms, the elbows will create less
resistance. The advantage of doing this must increase a swimmer's efficiency.
4. Rebecca Soni does not drive her hands forward in the horizontal plane. She raises them out
of the water (Frame #4) which produces a momentary reduction in resistance on the arms but
causes greater resistance from developing forces to produce the vertical movement.
Additional forces have to be developed to accommodate re-entering the water to halt the
negative acceleration from the re-entry and stopping the swimmer from going unnecessarily
deep. As well, the distance travelled by Rebecca Soni's arms lengthens the time taken for her
recovery. These unproductive movements increase resistance as well as increase the energy
demand and time to perform the detrimental action elements. Rebecca Soni would improve if
she eliminated as much as possible the vertical movement elements involved with her
recovery. She would:
1) reduce the energy cost of her stroke and therefore increase her endurance for use in races;
2) take less time to complete a stroke cycle and therefore reduce inertial lags and increase
her stroke rate; and
3) probably travel further each stroke because of reduced resistance in the recovery, which
is an unproductive part of the stroke.
5. Rebecca Soni returns her head and shoulders into the water before the arms are fully
stretched forward and the legs are drawn up to kick. That is a good feature because the kick
should thrust a streamlined swimmer forward. There is no delay waiting for a slowed post-
breathing action to occur. After inhalation, swimmers should return the head and shoulders to
streamline as quickly as possible (to minimize increased frontal resistance).
Unnecessary features in the common recovery arm actions have to be counter-balanced by forces
developed elsewhere. One possibility is that a vertical impulse is created prior to the recovery and
the various actions occur during the time it takes for that force to dissipate. Another possibility is
that extra movements occur, such as extra hyper-extension of the lower back, or the legs are drawn
with the knees deeper than should be expected. These are simply violations of the principle:
Unnecessary movements require added forces to be developed to accommodate them. The extra
movements require greater energy to be expended each stroke.
One further feature worthy of criticism in traditional breaststroke recoveries is the orientation of the
hands. Some swimmers thrust the hands forward palms-down, others with the hands together as in a
praying position, and still others with the palms facing up (see Liping Li Figure 2.2). At other times
the palms up or down positions are held but with one hand on top of the other. It is unlikely that the
different positions would produce any differential benefit because the frontal and surface resistances
are very much the same in them all. What would be detrimental is having to perform extra actions to
reposition the hands to where they could pull. The prayer position would require turning each hand
as much as 90º before propulsion could be produced. The palms-up position might require 180º of
rotation. The extra rotary movements particularly since they would be at the leading edge of a
swimmer's shape going through the water, would be detrimental to progression.
A new form of breaststroke recovery is required; one that takes the least time, causes the least
development of resistance, and requires no extraneous counter-balancing movements.

Recoveries 7.9

The following features should be evident in a correct breaststroke recovery.
• Keep the elbows and hands away from the side of the body.
• The hand movements should prescribe a direct line to the full-stretch
position.
• Movements should only be in the horizontal plane.
• The head and shoulders should be returned to streamline before the arms
are fully stretched forward.
Butterfly Stroke
Many coaches look at the rocker action of the shoulders and hips in butterfly swimming as being a
particular part of the stroke. Swimmers are often encouraged to make the hips and shoulders go up
and down, particularly in the early stages of learning the stroke. Such a perception is simply a failure
to understand what occurs in the stroke, particularly with regard to Newton's Third Law. Figure 1.7
indicated what happens with the various forces and reactions in stages of the stroke. The following
are the important features that concern the recovery.
1. As the arms progress over the water, the shoulders sink as a reaction. If a breathing error was
performed and both arms and the shoulder and head were out of the water, the body would
angle sharply and a relatively huge kick would need to be performed to support all the body's
mass that is above the surface. But if the correct breathing timing is performed then the
shoulders are forced down.
If the height of the recovering arms is deliberately exaggerated, the shoulders would sink
even more.
2. Upon entering the water with both arms, there is considerable vertical force developed. That
reverses the attitude of the shoulders and they rise as a consequence. If a deliberate forceful
movement is performed on entry, the height of the rise of the shoulders will be exaggerated.
If the entry follows a deliberately high recovery, the entry has to be more forceful and
vertical to return the shoulders to a normal height because they would have been depressed
unusually deep.
The above two factors describe what causes the shoulders to go "up and down". It has nothing to do
with the kick or any wave-action that travels down the body to the kicking legs. There are so many
bogus reasons that permeate swimming coaching for why the shoulders move up and down that it is
not possible to cover them here.
The main point of the double-arm recovery is that it has no other body segment that can counter-
balance the out-of-water forces and so the shoulders react. The propulsive arm counter-balances the
recovery arm in both crawl stroke and backstroke, removing the necessity for the shoulders to
perform any vertical movements. The shoulder reaction movements are a result from no capability to
produce any double-arm recovery counter-balancing force.

Recoveries 7.10
Figure 7.6 shows Michael Phelps' breathing action in the 200 m race at the 2012 London Olympic
Games. Frames from this collage have been shown in Microcycle 2 using his breathing action as a
very good model.
Figure 7.6. Michael Phelps' recovery in the 200 m butterfly race at the 2012 Olympic
Games.
The butterfly stroke recovery is relatively simple although to look at many swimmers it would seem
to be quite varied and often difficult. The recovery has to meet certain criteria to be acceptable.
1. The action should involve as little vertical movement as possible. The hands should always
be close to the water. In Frame #5 in Figure 7.6, Michael Phelps' hands are the last arm
features to leave the water. As they exit they are being swept low and forward. That is very
different to the common spectacle of the hands being thrust upward and further backward
only to have to change direction suddenly when at a relatively considerable height. By not
elevating the hands, the shoulders when they return to the water will have less force behind
them than if arm forces were transmitted through them.
2. The elbows should exit the water first (Frame #4). The elbows should lead the recovering
arms forearm/hand sections forward, not upward.
3. Once the arms are clear of the water, the head and shoulders should be returned to the water
(Frame #6). The return will be helped by the recovery. As both arms are raised, the kick
mostly counter-balances their downward vertical force but some portion of their force can be
used also to force the shoulders down (see Figure 1.7).
4. The arm-carry should have the arms long with a hint of flexion at the elbows. The backs of
the hands should lead the low sweep (the thumbs are closest to the water). For as long as
possible, the arms should be relaxed.
5. By the time the arms are fully to the sides (Frames #6 and #7), the head and shoulders should
be covered. From then only sufficient forces to keep the two arms above the water surface
are required. Since an adult head usually weighs between 8 and 10 pounds, if the head is held
late in the recovery, considerable underwater forces have to be produced to retain head and
other body parts above the water.
6. As the arms approach entry, the hands should rotate so that flat hands enter the water finger-
tips first. That entry is facilitated by slight wrist flexion (see Frame #8).
7. The entry width should be at least slightly more than the shoulders. The width is governed by
the swimmer's ability to immediately reposition the arms to commence the power-phase of
the stroke with as little movement and delay as possible.
The butterfly stroke recovery can be simple and easy to learn. Unfortunately, it is not treated that
way in many swimming instruction programs. As occurs with Michael Phelps, a low elbow-led
recovery that minimizes the development of vertical force components can occur in a relatively short

Recoveries 7.11
time requiring minimal effort. The crucial feature to achieving a good recovery is the timing of the
breathing action so that the head and shoulders do not interfere with simple arm actions.

The following features should be evident in a correct butterfly stroke recovery.
• Execute a correctly timed breathing movement.
• The elbows exit first with a forward movement soon after breaking the
surface.
• The arms should sweep low and forward in a relaxed manner.
• The hands should be ready to reposition the forearms when the arms are at a
comfortable width (usually more than the shoulder width).
Recovery Forces
When butterfly stroke recoveries occur, the shoulders are forced down into the water by the
downward force created by the arms as they rise to move over the water. The lower the arms are in
the recovery, the less is the downward force but it is never eliminated. In the recoveries of the
alternating-arm strokes, the crawl stroke arms also create a downward force even if a high-elbow
arm action is performed. In backstroke, with the long-arm high-hand recovery action, the downward
force is even greater. In the above-water recoveries of the alternating strokes, the downward pressure
created by the recovering arm mostly is counter-balanced by the pulling arm's surface not being
exactly vertical. Usually, the counter-balancing in the propulsive-phase is a non-conscious (reflex)
action that does not need teaching. There is a possibility the counter-balancing will be largely
accommodated with the upper arm as it abducts and adducts with mostly an angular orientation. In
correct power-phase execution in both crawl and backstrokes, there is only a moment when the
upper arm is vertical. Understanding how that occurs is the subject for some yet to be engaged
scientific study. Those are the reasons why in Microcycle 5 there was no mention of this slight
modification of a desirable vertical propulsive surface due to the need to counter-balance the above-
water arm recovery. No matter what counter-balancing actions occur, the conscious efforts of every
swimmer should be to maintain streamline and propel with the greatest horizontal force component
that can be developed.

Recoveries 7.12
TEACHING POINTS FOR RECOVERIES IN ALL STROKES
BACKSTROKE RECOVERY
CRAWL STROKE RECOVERY • Initiate by raising the recovery-
• Initiate by first lifting the elbow arm shoulder and sweep the
out of the water. straight arm upward in a sculling
• Recover forward along a direct motion.
line. • Exit the hand thumb-first from the
• Emphasize an elbow-lift in mid- water.
recovery. • Sweep a long, high vertical arm
• Time the recovery with the with the back of the hand leading.
propulsive arm's action. • Time the recovery with the
• Enter fully forward, flat hand, propulsive arm's action.
finger tips first, in front of or • Enter fully forward behind the
wider than the shoulder. shoulder or wider with the back
of the hand.
BUTTERFLY STROKE RECOVERY

BREASTSTROKE RECOVERY
• Execute a correctly timed
• Keep the elbows and hands away
breathing movement.
from the side of the body.
• The elbows exit first with a
• The hand movements should
forward movement soon after
prescribe a direct line to the full-
breaking the surface.
stretch position.
• The arms should sweep low and
• Movements should only be in the
forward in a relaxed manner.
horizontal plane.
• The hands should be ready to
• The head and shoulders should
reposition the forearms when the
be returned to streamline before
arms are at a comfortable width
the arms are fully stretched
(usually more than shoulder
forward.
width).

Kicking 8.1
KICKING
Reminder
The technique features that were instructed in Microcycles 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 should continue
through this microcycle.
shoulders.
• Starting from fully forward, as quickly as possible reposition the forearm/hand propelling
surface(s) to a full propulsive orientation so that the power-phase will be the longest and
most effective possible.
• Recover so that the actions do not disrupt underwater stroking in the alternate strokes or
create unnecessary resistance in the symmetrical strokes.
This microcycle first discusses non-propulsive kicking in crawl stroke, backstroke, and butterfly
stroke. The two propulsive kicking forms of breaststroke and double-leg kicking will complete the
presentation.
The Appropriateness of Kicking
Kicking is perhaps the least understood and most inappropriately stressed element in competitive
swimming strokes. The tenacity with which the fictitious properties of kicking are retained and
promoted is a remarkable testimony to the ease of retaining beliefs as opposed to altering those
beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.
Kicking has been mentioned in most of the
previous macrocycles and the reader is
referred to the index to locate information
that might not be repeated here.
Centers of Buoyancy and Mass (Gravity).
A swimmer suspended horizontally in
water has a central location through which
the hydrodynamic forces are equalized to
promote that suspension. Many individuals
are not suspended horizontally but do
establish equilibrium about the center of
buoyancy. That is a location that is usually
distinct from the center of mass (aka center
of gravity). The reason the two are very
often different is that in fluids, the
anatomical cavities (stomach, lungs, cranial
cavities, etc.) and the differing densities of
Kicking 8.2
body parts, react to the water in a manner that is dissimilar to what occurs on land. In water, the
central force reacts through the center of buoyancy while gravity acts through the center of mass.
Figure 8.1 illustrates the relationship between the
centers of buoyancy and gravity and how that
relationship affects the natural floating position. The
central features of the illustration that were first
presented in Microcycle 1 are retained. The main
implication of this phenomenon is that for swimmers
who do not naturally float horizontally, forces have
to be developed to raise the lowered angle to bring
the body up to streamline. Those forces are produced
by a vertical-force component from kicking and are
always required when trying to sustain streamline.
Figure 8.2 illustrates a relatively rare individual who
naturally floats horizontally in fresh water and in this
example because of lower-than-normal specific
gravity, floats higher than normal. In such individuals, no kicking effort is required to establish
streamline and so this natural capacity always remains an advantage over most swimmers.
When an angle-floating swimmer progresses forward, the pressure on the underside of the swimmer
increases and rotates the swimmer upward decreasing the angle. That results from propulsive forces
overcoming an exaggerated frontal resistance and surface and wave resistances. In a swimmer,
decreasing the angle through swimming requires greater velocities to be achieved the less the angle
becomes. Thus, establishing streamline through arm propulsion conveys a great cost on potential
propulsive forces. Swimming efficiency is enhanced when propulsion is the major function of the
arms and small vertical-force components are created by kicking 24 to produce streamline and to
counter-balance vertical forces produced by the arms.
Leg Structure. When in a streamlined swimming posture, the leg structures are inefficient and
ineffective for developing horizontal-force components. For the legs to be propulsive, they have to
move so that substantial horizontal-force components are produced. As well, the length of time in a
propulsive position (if ever), would have to be substantial. A short time in a position where it is
possible that a minor propulsive force component is produced, does not develop propulsion because
as the kicking action accelerates, water moves away until such time that the forces build enough to
exert pressure on barely moving fluid. In the three strokes considered here, those forces would have
to be produced by the top of the foot and ankle. If a kick breaks the water surface, then as the
leg/foot re-enters the water, water is moved away for considerable time because of inertial cavitation
(the displacement of water by a force)25, most obviously seen through a high splash as water very
rapidly fills the created cavity. Big splashes from kicking indicate poor swimming and useless
kicking. The legs are not structured to produce propulsive forces because they cannot be positioned
to do so (although in breaststroke they can but through a very different action).
24
For the time being, kicking largely refers to crawl stroke, backstroke, and butterfly stroke. Breaststroke kicking is
propulsive and will be treated separately.
25
Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavitation) explains cavitation: "the formation and then immediate implosion
of cavities in a liquid - i.e. small liquid-free zones ("bubbles") - that are the consequence of forces acting upon the liquid.
It usually occurs when a liquid is subjected to rapid changes of pressure that cause the formation of cavities where the
pressure is relatively low.
Kicking 8.3
The back of the leg is rarely considered as a feature that affects a swimmer's progress. When the
Achilles' tendon, calf muscle, and to a lesser extent the knee and hamstrings are presented to on-
coming flow, such as at the top of a kick or the bottom of a backstroke kick, large amounts of
resistance are created. As the leg moves from the horizontal upwards (or downwards), the frontal,
surface, and wave resistances26 created by the back of the leg increase. The leg moves upward in
crawl and butterfly strokes and downward in backstroke to produce vertical and if possible,
horizontal-force components. After moving past the scope of a "small kick" the extra forces created
will be less than the amount of resistance produced. Consequently, when a swimmer executes a big
kick extra force production is experienced but not so the excessive resistance that is created. It is
difficult to convince a big-kicking swimmer who feels they are doing good work that what they
really are doing is using excess energy to produce no further benefit over what could be achieved
with a small kick.
Kick-board Propulsion. A paradox is presented when forward movement is produced by kicking-
alone holding on to a board or in a non-moving-arms prone-floating posture. In those activities, the
function of the legs is to produce propulsion. They result in positions of the legs and body that allow
some propulsive forces to be produced. The magnitudes of those forces never reach the level of
propulsive forces that are possible through the arms.
The dynamics of effective isolated kicking have been described (Mookerjee & Weller, 2006) but are
not observed in efficient free-swimming. Other features of kick-board kicking make it an
inappropriate training activity for serious competitive swimmers although it might be helpful for
children with some swimming competency (Oliveira et al., 2011). Some problems with isolated
kicking follow.
1. The postural section forward of the center of buoyancy is manipulated so that frontal and
sometimes surface resistance is reduced. That allows propulsive maneuvers of the legs to
produce sometimes impressive progression. In this case, the legs produce propulsion with the
swimmer in a different postural attitude and upper-body function to that which occurs in free
swimming.
2. In kicking drills, the orientation is always flat which prevents practicing effective body roll.
The volume of kicking that is practiced on a board is largely irrelevant to the complex body-
roll kicking that occurs in crawl stroke and backstroke and in the shoulder involvement
action of butterfly stroke. There would be little, if any, beneficial training effect transfer from
board-kicking to free swimming.
3. Slow kicking does not train anything of value for competitive swimmers but does provide a
form on irrelevant activity for active recovery (Mookerjee et al., 1995; http://coachsci.sdsu.
edu/ swim/biomechs/mookerje.htm).
The worst thing that a swimmer could do would be to try and free-swim with a kick-board action.
Free-swimming Kicking. The other part of the paradox mentioned above pertains to the change in
function and accompanying leg actions when the arms are used for propulsion. The arms have much
greater capacity and effectiveness for producing propulsion and therefore, should be the priority
action and propulsion source in the three competitive swimming strokes considered here.
When the arms are the dominant force producers, leg kicks serve to counter-balance vertical, and to
a lesser extent lateral forces produced by parts of the total arm actions. [This manual has attempted
26
As the velocities of the swimmer and leg movements increase, wave resistance increases to the point that at high
sprinting velocities it can be as much as 40% of the total kicking resistance.
Kicking 8.4
to make those irrelevant, but sometimes inescapable forces minimal in swimming techniques.] When
kicks act as the sources of counter-balancing forces, their function (role) is different to that of
propulsion on kick-boards. Thus, the legs can perform two functions, each with extremely different
results. That is the crux of the paradox: no one action can serve two movement functions effectively.
Board-kicking and free-swimming kicking are very different.
In free-swimming, the actions of the legs should be that of counter-balancing forces created by the
arms when they are developing or completing propulsion. They are not propulsive (Brooks, Lance,
& Sawhill, 2000). Figure 8.3 illustrates Laure Manaudou, who mainly swam with a two-beat kick,
kicking with a counter-balancing function. It should be considered along with that of Ian Thorpe in
Figure 1.2. The kick in both swimmers has to be resistive to produce a vertical-force component to
counter-balance unproductive forces from arm recovery and entry and breathing actions in their
strokes.
Figure 8.3. The counter-balancing forces of one kick and arm entry in Laure
Manaudou's two-beat kicking action.
In free-swimming, when arm forces are not maximal, the need for counter-balancing kicking is
reduced. Depending on the breathing and arm actions, instead of continuous kicking being required,
it is common to observe a two-beat kick (e.g., Brooke Bennett - http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/
champion/benne215.htm; Laure Manaudou - http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/
lm340400.htm; Kate Ziegler - http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/ kz1175WC.htm; and Kieren
Perkins - http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/ kp15570.htm). Others who have a technique
deficiency, such as two different underwater arm actions or arm recoveries, might require further
isolated kicks. Sun Yang primarily uses a three- beat kick (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/
sy1225.htm) while that of Federica Pellegrini is varied (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/
FP190400.htm). Although some champion swimmers have been instructed to use a six-beat kick
(Oussama Melloulli http://coachsci. sdsu.edu/swim/champion/OM1415.htm; Rebecca Adlington
http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/ champion/ra725800.htm) when largely it is superfluous, it should be
recognized that kicking should only occur to serve the counter-balancing function when needed and
not be a forced but unnecessary feature of technique.
A further paradox exists with crawl-stroke kicking. Sprint swimmers normally use a six-beat kick
although some very high-raters defer to a four-beat kick. The more frequent and energetic kicking of
sprinters is because in the high-intensity mode, kicking enhances the effectiveness of arm propulsion

Kicking 8.5
(Deschodt, 1999). It should be expected that when a two-beat distance swimmer competes, in most
of the race that kick will be used. However, when the final "sprint home" begins, kicking usually
changes to six beats. It is wrong to infer that such distance swimmers would fare better in distance
races if they "kicked" the whole way. Distance races are best swum at even pacing and to sustain the
desired pace or even speed-up more at the end, a final desperate sprint is acceptable. The second
paradox is that sprinters kick continually and distances swimmers most likely should not.
Emphasized Kicking or "Big" Kicking. Hard and board-kicking have already been discussed in
relation to body roll in Microcycle 3. Figure 8.4 illustrates the crawl-stroke kicking action in a
female USA Olympic Games Trials qualifier. She expressed the belief that speed was gained by
kicking as hard as she could. When questioned, she also believed that the kick was propulsive.
In the series of frames in the collage, the details of the right leg are clearer than for the left leg. It
seems both legs kicked in a similar manner.
Figure 8.4. Kick-dominated crawl stroke in a female 2012 USA Olympic Games
Trials qualifier.
• Frame #1: The right leg kick is at the bottom of its downbeat. In this position the right leg
cannot be propulsive. The amount of "milky" turbulence27 on the rear of the foot and ankle
shows that considerable resistance has been created by the front of the foot and ankle. The
swimmer's posture is flat, suggesting that the power for the right arm would come almost
completely from the internal rotator muscles of the shoulder (see Microcycle 3). The left arm
is half-way through its sweep and is sliding upward. The depth of its trailing turbulence
indicates a stroke with a lot of verticality and less than admirable horizontality. The right arm
is just entering. The kick does not appear to be functioning in a counter-balancing role. The
bottom half of the left leg is above the water surface (it is "kicking air").
• Frame #2: The right leg rises and creates considerable downward vertical force, which would
provide no beneficial propulsion. The left leg is halfway through its downward kick. [By
acting opposite each other, it is likely that both kicks are counter-balancing their excessive
irrelevant force productions.] The entered right arm is suspended near the surface and the left
arm has risen further (instead of pushing back to a desirable end-of-stroke position).
27
The pressure in milky or turbulent water is less than in undisturbed water. It is difficult to discern if any of the
turbulence consists of cavitation "bubbles" or diffused light from the water's movement.
Kicking 8.6
• Frame #3: The right leg is positioned to "kick air" and the left leg is at the bottom of its
downbeat. In this position, the left leg is creating forces that have a notable rearward action
and therefore, hinder the swimmer. The back of the right leg has increased the frontal
resistance of the swimmer and hinders progress. The right arm is still suspended.
• Frame #4: The right leg begins its kick by flexing at the knee and hip. The knee drop disturbs
streamline. The right lower leg is breaking the surface and will cause cavitation. Although
the leg might be oriented to exert a small horizontal force backward, its effectiveness is
greatly reduced because of turbulence in the top ~4-6" of water and cavitation. The right arm
has been lowered slightly.
• Frame #5: The right leg extends at the knee placing the foot and lower leg in a position that
generates mostly all vertical force and a small retarding forward horizontal force. The right
arm begins to move.
• Frames #6 through #10: The ineffective kicking continues for the six-beat count. The action
of the right arm is tied to six kicks. For a full two-arm stroke cycle, 12 large kicks would
have to be executed.
From this set of frames, the following features can be inferred.
1. The excessively deep kicking action is mirrored by an arm action that goes deep and then
slides up from the deepest point to exit. Optimal horizontal propulsion is not developed.
2. The arm waits in a forward position, then does its deep stroke, and is timed with the duration
of the six-kicks. The arm action is restricted to how long it takes for the kicks to be
performed and because of its depth suggests that the arm is counter-balancing characteristics
of the kick, rather than the other way round. With that interpretation, it is projected that the
swimmer will never rise to the heights of more successful arms-dominant swimmers.
3. Body roll is hardly perceived. It certainly is not performed to the extent justified and
described in Microcycle 3. This also verifies that excessive kicking restricts the performance
of good body roll and arm actions.
4. The obvious "hard work" of the kicks performed by this swimmer results in very little, if any,
productive work. Thus, the energy available for propulsion will be reduced by the irrelevant
work exhibited in this swimmer's kicking.
5. Hard kicking increases resistance at a much greater rate than any potential propulsion or
small fast kicking.
6. The time after the left arm has exited (Frame #3) to when the right arm begins to be pushed
down (Frame #6) is a period where no propulsive forces are generated and would cause the
swimmer to negatively accelerate in that inertial lag.
There is no value or justification for performing a "big kick" of this form. Hard kicking increases
resistance at a much greater rate than any derived benefit. The above factors pertain to crawl stroke,
backstroke, and butterfly stroke with adjustments and modifications of the presented content being
made for backstroke and butterfly stroke. In those three strokes, kicking should only counter-balance
arm actions to foster arm-dominant stroking patterns. Kicking should be neither dominant nor
considered propulsive.

Kicking 8.7

If a swimmer's kicking changes from big to small and fast, the amount of irrelevant work in and
duration of each stroke cycle should be reduced.
1. The number of strokes per length could decrease slightly.
2. The number of repetitions per set should improve slightly because of the reduction in
irrelevant work.
3. As fatigue increases in a set, the return to an "old" form of kicking could occur. As training
sessions are repeated, the onset of "return-to-old-kicking" should be delayed more and more
until the small and fast kicking actions are displayed for a swimmer's expected number of
race-pace completions in a set.
4. Bow- and lateral-wave heights could decrease, particularly in swimmers with excessive
kicking actions.
5. Kicks should look faster when compared to those exhibited in the early microcycles.
Crawl Stroke
All the factors discussed above pertain to crawl-stroke kicking. The main implication is that kick-
dominated (emphasized) swimming is inadvisable because it will not result in the best crawl stroke
in serious swimmers. The following is a summary of the features that should govern the coaching of
kicking in crawl stroke.
1. The general description of crawl-stroke kicking should be to "kick fast and small". The aim
of that instruction is to have kicking completed in a short time so that the rate of the arms is
not hindered and no preventable inertial lag occurs.
2. Swimmers should attempt to control their kicking effort-levels to match or be slightly less
than that exerted in their arm strokes. As the effort-level of the arms is reduced as task-
distance increases, the effort of kicking should be adjusted accordingly. It is possible that a
swimmer with reasonable flotation will change to a broken-tempo or two-beat kick at a
certain point in the arms' effort reduction. This concept should result in the legs acting
reflexively to the arms and should result in a minimal kicking action [the kick will consist of
the forces to counter-balance the arms plus the forces needed to sustain streamline].
3. All kicking should be splashless. Whether in free-swimming, drills, or board-kicking
swimmers should be instructed "not to kick air" or make splash. This will avoid useless effort
and the complications of transferring force to the water that results from cavitation.
4. The kicking pattern should be consistent. Anomalies such as cross-over kicking (caused by a
reaction to an inappropriate lateral force produced by an arm and/or breathing action) and
varied-intensity kicking (one leg kicks harder/more than the other which usually is produced
by unbalanced arm-actions) should be corrected.
5. There should be some side-to-side rotation in the kicking pattern that is associated with hip
rotation. However, the amount of foot rotation does not appear to be as great as the actual hip
rotation (see Figure 3.1).
There have been attempts to "improve" sprint crawl-stroke swimmers by having them perform
butterfly kicking in their stroke. This is a ridiculous combination, because it has no scientific
verification or mechanical justification. Instances have been observed where it has actually cost
swimmers Olympic medals (e.g., Alex Popov - http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/stupap.htm;
Kicking 8.8
and Michael Klim - http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/stupmk.htm and http://coachsci.sdsu.

edu/swim/champion/kdferror.htm). There are indisputable reasons why crawl-stroke kicking is of the
form that it is. Substituting butterfly kicking for crawl-stroke kicking is a very bad idea.

The following features should be evident in correct crawl-stroke kicking.
• Kick small and fast.
• The effort of kicking should match the effort of the arm strokes.
• Kick splashless.
• Kick consistently.
• Some side-to-side rotation should occur.
Backstroke
Backstroke kicking should adhere to almost the same features as crawl stroke. However, since the
swimmer is rotated 180º from the crawl stroke position, with a large knee flexion the leg does not
come out of the water. However, such a kicking action could lead to other problems. The features of
good backstroke kicking are as follows.
1. Kick fast and small. Usually, backstroke swimmers perform a six beat kick. High raters use a
very small kick so that the time it takes to complete a full six kicks accommodates one arm
pull. If a backstroker cannot increase rating, the coach should look at the size of the kick. The
duration of the kicking action might be too long to facilitate a higher rate. A likely alternative
is to decrease the duration of the six kicks by making the kicks smaller.
2. The effort level of kicking should match the effort level of the arms. Attempts to "over-kick"
lead to kicking-technique problems. The kicking intensity of a 200 m race would be less than
in a 100 m and even more so than in a 50 m race.
3. All kicking should be splashless. There is no point in having the toes or part of the foot
emerging from the water at the end of an up-kick. If that happened, upon changing to a
down-kick, the foot would cause cavitation. A big splash off the legs in backstroke usually
indicates a kick is too big and is "kicking air".
4. The kicking pattern should be consistent so that arm strokes can be consistent.
5. There should be some side-to-side rotation in the kicking pattern that is associated with hip
rotation. However, sideways rotation can disguise an excessive kick as is shown below in
Figure 8.7.
6. No part of a leg should break the water surface.
Figures 8.5 through 8.7 show the kicks of three elite male backstrokers. They are shown to provide
some indication of what can occur with excessive backstroke kicks. There are no female examples,
for only females with good kicks are exhibited below. This suggests that as in breaststroke, the
genders offer different technical features. However, the gender difference might solely reside in the
fact that at the elite level, females generally exhibit better techniques than males (Cappaert,
Kolmogorov, et al., 1996; Dutto & Cappaert, 1994).

Kicking 8.9
In Figure 8.5, Aaron Peirsol exhibits problematic kicking in Frame #6. He flexes at the hip and knee
while in poor streamline. If the hips had been in streamline and the action performed, the knee would
have broken the water surface. In Frame #7, Peirsol's lower right leg adds considerable frontal
resistance to an already inefficient body alignment. As water flows down the swimmer's back and
over the buttocks, it is redirected slightly upward to the knee where it encounters the lower leg. The
redirection of the water at the lower leg exaggerates the angle of flow-change making the fault even
more intense. The lesson from this example is do not allow hip flexion in a kick for it causes the kick
to exaggerate its resistance as well as disrupting streamline.
Figure 8.5. Aaron Peirsol (see Figure 2.3 for full sequence).
Figure 8.6 exhibits Lenny Krayzelberg performing errors similar to those of Aaron Peirsol in Figure
8.5. If anything, the errors are exaggerated more by Krayzelberg. His left knee appears to break the
surface in the left frame and the angle of knee flexion is also greater. In the right frame, the angle
and depth of the right leg kick is also more extreme. Perhaps this swimmer has slightly better
streamline than Peirsol.
Figure 8.6. Lenny Krayzelberg (2000).

Figure 8.7 includes two perspectives of Ryosuke Irie's kick in the 200 m race in which he set a new
world record (2009). He also exhibits the same errors as the above two athletes. His streamline is
less than desirable and his kick is large and increases resistance markedly (top left, bottom right
frames). The bottom three frames show that with hip rotation a big kick can be performed without
breaking the surface. The amount of turbulence that surrounds his legs in all frames appears to be
extremely excessive. The resistance created by his kicking would be detrimental.
Figure 8.7. Two perspectives of Ryosuke Irie in his world record of 2009.

Kicking 8.10
One might argue that the position of Irie's lower leg in the top left frame would add some propulsion.
However, in that position, the water trailing the leg would be turbulent because of the increased
active frontal resistance caused by the rear of the leg. When the leg actually kicks backward and
upward in the arc associated with rotation about the knee, any horizontal-force component would
diminish through that movement until the lower leg is horizontal. But more importantly, when the
leg first starts to extend at the knee, it is kicking in turbulence which would significantly decrease
any developed forces. At the most important position for developing horizontal propulsion, the
disturbed water reduces the possibility of virtually any very short-term benefit.
There just is no value to performing large kicks in backstroke. It should be remembered that when
one arm enters the water, there is a considerable vertical-force component with that action. It is
counter-balanced by the exiting other arm and the kick. Unlike the vast majority of crawl stroke
swimmers where only the kick counter-balances the entry, in backstroke the vertical-force
component of the entry is much greater and the two counter-balancing forces are needed. The use of
large kicks illustrates the contention that once the kick size extends outside the "small" range, more
resistance is created than propulsion. As well, streamline is disrupted to keep the legs underwater
because of the exaggerated leg movements.
Figures 8.8 and 8.9 illustrate good small kicking. Kirsty Coventry (Figure 8.8) is streamlined with a
small kick. Natalie Coughlin also is streamlined with a small kick. She shows knee flexion in the
kicking action can be tolerated if it remains small. There is much less disturbed water (resistance) in
the two swimmer's kicks than in the males.
Figure 8.8. Kirsty Conventry (2009).
Figure 8.9. Natalie Coughlin (2004).

It is somewhat strange to use three of the best backstroke swimmers in history to illustrate technique
errors. That is done to show where further improvements in swimmers' techniques are possible.
Swimmers must conform to what is known about basic fluid mechanics and physics if the highest
degree of progression efficiency is to be attained. That is the goal of most nautical designers and
engineers. There is no reason why swimmers and their coaches should be excused from such a goal.
The tendency to mimic current champions' techniques will not advance swimming performances in a
credible way. Only when defensible and valid technique elements are exhibited is a swimmer
excused from the expectation of improving in those elements. This manual attempts to direct
coaches to develop only valid technique features.

Kicking 8.11

The following features should be evident in correct backstroke kicking.
• The effort of kicking should match the effort of the arm strokes.
• No part of the kicking action should break the water surface.
• Kick consistently.
• Some side-to-side rotation should occur.
Butterfly Stroke
Butterfly stroke kicking is not understood by very many coaches at all. The criticisms of some very
common errors in understanding are as follows.
1. The kicking action does not mimic the movement of a dolphin.
2. Exaggerating actions of the hips and shoulders does not assist the kick or propulsion.
3. The kick itself does not produce much, if any propulsion, despite what is performed in
double-leg kicking out of turns and after dives.
4. Big kicks do not benefit swimmers in their quest to go forward.
5. Underwater kicking after turns and dives does not have the same actions as that which occurs
in a correctly executed butterfly stroke.
A difficulty for many coaches is the failure to understand the complex reactions that occur within a
full butterfly stroke cycle. In that cycle, the manifestation of Newton's Third Law of motion is
frequent. The following are some of the features of butterfly stroke.
1. As was explained in the previous microcycle, the shoulders go down as a result of both arms
recovering up and over the water. As the arms enter the water, the shoulders react by going
up as a reaction to the negative vertical forces developed upon and for some time after the
entry.
2. The double-leg kick in butterfly is a reactionary kick. It occurs when the arms enter and exit
the water.
• On arms-entry, the kick counter-balances some of the arms' vertical forces but it also
propels the hips upward. The kick should cause the hip elevation to match the shoulder
elevation to maintain streamline.
• At the arms-exit, the hips will have dropped as a result of the head and shoulders having
risen to breathe. The legs kick in time with the exit to bring the hips back to streamline.
An exaggerated kick will propel the hips unnecessarily high (often out of the water).
3. With big butterfly kicking, there usually is an increase in the magnitude of the hip
movement. The continual movement of the hips produces much water movement, the energy
for that coming from the swimmer. Big hip movements are normally accompanied by big leg
movements resulting in a slow kicking-rate, which produces fewer propulsive impulses, and

Kicking 8.12
bigger movements produce increased resistance that eventually exceeds any increased
beneficial forces.
The hips and shoulders move as a reaction to forces created by the legs and arms, and should not be
consciously performed or magnified by the swimmer. If the kicking actions and body posture were
adhered to correctly, butterfly has the potential to be even faster than current performances.
There have been a number of scientific investigations concerning butterfly kicking. De Jesus et al.
(2011) showed that as a 100 m race progresses the sequencing of the hip-knee-ankle kick remains
the same but as fatigue develops the amplitudes of the knee and ankle actions increase and the
overall fatigued kick takes more time. In the latter stages of a butterfly race, a conscious effort to
keep the kick small should lead to maintaining the duration of the kick and not generating extra
resistance as the kick amplitude increases.
Ide (2010) reported a case study of stroke modification in an elite butterfly swimmer. The aim was to
maintain streamline better by teaching a straight knee/leg kick. The modification would keep the
kick small and minimize the amount of vertical movements in the hips. Swimming velocity and
distance per stroke improved significantly. Maintaining a small kick in fatigue was improved,
although not performed all the time.
Features of good butterfly kicking are as follows.
1. The kick should be small and fast to so that the hip movement remains small.
2. Body streamline should be maintained for as long as possible in the stroke cycle.
3. The kick should be splashless and rhythmical, being performed in time with the elements of
the arms' actions.
4. No part of the kicking action should break the water surface.
5. In the latter part of races, a conscious effort to maintain small and fast kicks should result in
better performance characteristics and velocities in fatigue.
6. At no time should the effort of the kick exceed that which is only sufficient to counter-
balance the required arm elements in the stroke.

The following features should be evident in correct butterfly-stroke kicking.
• Body streamline should be maintained as much as possible in the stroke
cycle.
• Kick splashless and rhythmical.
• No part of the kicking action should break the water surface.
• Keep the kick small and fast in the latter part of races.
• The kick effort should never exceed that which is needed to counter-balance
the required arm-stroke elements.
The two following kicking actions are propulsive and contain movement elements that do not occur
in the non-propulsive kicking forms.

Kicking 8.13
Breaststroke
The kick in breaststroke is critical for racing success. Yoshimura et al. (2005) measured the velocity
curves of a variety of male breaststroke swimmers. In the lesser performers, at the stage where the
legs were drawn up to kick, forward velocity approached 0 m/s. Better performers did not slow as
much or for as long. Kicking effectiveness played a large part in producing better performances.
There have been a variety of breaststroke kicks taught to low-level swimmers. Names such as frog-
kick, whip-kick, wedge-kick, circular sweep, etc. have been used to label kicks with different
elements in what should be a simple comfortable movement. Perhaps the most unfounded
frequently-coached elements are keeping the knees close together as the legs are drawn up, kicking
in a sweeping arc, and snapping the legs together at the end of the kick. As with any kick, there are
principles that have to be followed to maximize propulsion from kicking within the total stroke.
The variations on breaststroke kicking are dangerous and cannot optimize performance. A good
breaststroke kick would have to fulfill the following criteria.
1) Any propulsion that is developed would embrace the greatest amount of direct force
backward to propel the swimmer forward.
2) The propulsive surfaces are the insides of the feet, ankles, and lower legs. To position those
surfaces, the legs and knees need to be naturally apart.
3) The position of the knees when the legs are drawn-up would not be injurious to the swimmer
and would keep added frontal resistance low. The thighs should be drawn up comfortably
apart rather than in a dangerous position resulting from forcing the knees together.
4) The degree of contraction and extension of the legs would result in the fastest propulsive
forces possible.
5) The preparatory leg action would not slow the swimmer unnecessarily. [It would be hoped
that the resistance developed would never exceed the propulsion produced.]
6) The preparation and propulsive phases of the kick would occur in the shortest time possible.
Coaches have to make sure that serious swimmers do not retain poor kicking dynamics that were
developed in the initial instruction process.
Perhaps more than in the other three strokes, breaststroke form is governed by the physical structure
of the swimmer. It is not a stroke for swimmers who do not streamline well. A test of the ability to
streamline is the push-and-glide in the prone-float position. Since a good deal of breaststroke is
performed with the arms, head, and body in a streamlined position, poor dynamics of the physical
characteristics of a swimmer in streamline would be a hindrance.
One of the greatest drawbacks to breaststroke kicking is the extra frontal resistance it creates when
the knees are drawn up preparatory to kicking. Generally, if a swimmer pulls the legs up as far as
possible, the thighs are vertical to the water flow. In a maximally compressed state, it is likely that
the amount of extra resistance created will exceed any gains in propulsion from the extra distance
added to the kick. As well, when the legs are maximally compressed the speed with which the
kicking action starts will be relatively slow. Fast movements do not occur when joints are maximally
flexed or extended. There is a range of movement within the total movement extent where fast
movements occur. For the breaststroke kick, there is a hint in some swimmers that the kick is less
than maximal in range of movement but covers the range of maximum movement velocity. That
being said, not all great breaststrokers demonstrate those characteristics. It is worthwhile to examine
the kicking actions and their properties of elite breaststroke swimmers.

Kicking 8.14
Figure 8.10 is the kicking action of Cameron Van Der Burgh in the second lap of his Gold Medal
100 m race at the London Olympic Games. His full stroke analysis is at http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/
swim/champion/cvdb75.htm.
Figure 8.10. Cameron Van Der Burgh's kick in his winning 100 m breaststroke race at
the 2012 London Olympic Games.
In Frame #9, the swimmer's legs are drawn up and the feet are being everted. This is an example of a
fully compressed leg position with the thighs almost vertical. What is notable about the position is
the closeness of the feet to the buttocks. In swimmers with large thigh and calf girths, the bulk of the
legs prevents such a tight position being achieved. It seems that Cameron Van Der Burgh has
relatively slim lower legs which allow close compression. That compression also appears to have the
ankles and feet outside the buttocks.
Frame #10 also illustrates another problem that occurs with the fully compressed leg position. The
speed with which the hips extend from a flexed position is slower than that which is possible with
the knees. In this frame the lower legs have opened to a much greater degree than the slower moving
thighs. Frame #11 shows the result of the kick. While the legs have kicked backward and extended at
the knees, the hips have not completely extended. Therefore, the kick has developed a negative
vertical force component because the knees have extended on a less than streamlined slower-moving
set of thighs. That vertical force component forces the hips to rise (Frame #11). As the leg kick is
completed the hips complete their extension and the legs are raised to streamline (Frame #12).
One of the outstanding features in Cameron Van Der Burgh's swimming is his speed of movements.
He executes all his movements very quickly. Some have opined that he has the fastest movement
elements ever seen in any breaststroke swimmer. That exemplary speed of movement allows the less
efficient movement positions to be sustained for very brief periods, consequently lessening their
effect. Cameron Van Der Burgh exhibits excellent body streamline during the kick, despite his
recovery having the hands break the water surface.
There is one further common feature among most elite breaststroke swimmers. The legs kick
backward to the extent that is possible by an effective kick. Because the thighs are partly rotated in
the hip joint at the start of the kick, as the legs extend, some of that hip rotation is lessened and knee
flexion occurs naturally without any rotation (something that is required in the frog-kick and the
whip-kick). The feet finish apart by a distance that is somewhat similar to the distance apart that
occurs with the knees at the start of the kick. From there, the feet are drawn together into a
streamlined position. Because of the velocity of the swimmer moving through the water after a
successful kick, the pressure of the oncoming water on the outside of the legs also assists their
coming together. There is a timing factor involved in the total stroke. As the legs come together, the
hands part so that the initial actions of the arms in the pulling phase of the stroke start when the
swimmer has the legs together in maximum streamline (Frames #11 and #12).
Kicking 8.15
Figure 8.11 shows Leisel Jones' World Championship 200 m performance in 2007. A full analysis of
her stroke is available at http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/lj3020WC.htm.
Figure 8.11. Leisel Jones' kick in her winning 200 m breaststroke race at the 2007
World Championships.
In Leisel Jones' preparatory action, the thighs are flexed but not to the same degree as Cameron Van
Der Burgh. As well, the distance of the feet from the buttocks is greater. This preparatory position
would generate less frontal resistance and probably allows the kick to accelerate faster because the
compression of the legs is not extreme. With the shorter range of movement by the thighs, the time
for the thighs to get to streamline is close to being the same as the time to knee extension. That
results in the kick finish position (Frame #13) being closer to streamline than that exhibited by the
previous swimmer. This suggests that a non-maximum compression of the thighs will allow the
swimmer to produce less resistance at the start and end of the kick.
Figure 8.12 illustrates Rebecca Soni's kick in 2011 (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/
rs60200.htm).
Figure 8.12. Rebecca Soni's kick in her winning 200 m breaststroke race at the 2011
World Championships.
Rebecca Soni demonstrates features that are similar to those of Leisel Jones. At the preparatory
compression, the thighs are angled, the lower leg is close to vertical, and the knee flexion is not
maximal. When the kick is executed, the durations of the thigh and lower leg extensions are similar
so that the swimmer finishes in a streamlined position (Frame #13). The early part of the kick occurs
as the arms, head, and body are achieving streamline. The two groups of actions are not as separated
as they are with Cameron Van Der Burgh and Leisel Jones.

Kicking 8.16
Figure 8.13 is of Daniel Gyurta in the early stage of his 200 m winning race at the London Olympic
Games (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/champion/dg30200.htm).
Figure 8.13. Daniel Gyurta's kick early in his winning 200 m breaststroke race at the
2012 London Olympic Games.
Daniel Gyurta's kick embodies the desirable features of the two female breaststroke swimmers
presented above. However, the extension of the hips and knees does not lead to perfect streamline.
The feet seem to be driven slightly downward (Frame #10) leading to a slight rise in the hips (Frame
#11). When the feet come together (Frame #11) they are still low but then rise (Frame #12) to
streamline.
The above four swimmers suggest the following characteristics with regard to the breaststroke kick.
1. The knees should be brought up to an angled position relative to the water flow so that
frontal resistance is reduced.
2. The lower legs are flexed at the knees and ankles to the point that when the propelling
surfaces are thrust backward the thrust is direct and largely horizontal.
3. The time it takes for the lower legs to extend should match the time it takes for the hips to
extend so that the finish position is horizontal. When the knees are drawn up too much, the
lower leg kick finishes before the hips extend the thighs producing a vertical force that raises
the hips and normally lowers the feet.
4. The width of the knees at compression seems to be that which is most comfortable for the
swimmer. The knees are not arbitrarily forced close together.
5. As the legs kick backward, the arms, head, and body should be in streamline (although
Daniel Gyurta and Rebecca Soni seem to be late in doing this).
6. The intent of propelling with the legs is to develop direct forces as much as possible given
the restrictions of how the leg joints work.
7. The time it takes to complete the two stages of a kick, is quite short, usually between .0.5 and
0.75 seconds.
8. There is an absence of any circular locus of movement in the kick backward.
It appears that this group of elite swimmers largely satisfies the criteria for an effective kick;
1) The amount of resistance developed is minimized;
2) The duration of the whole kicking cycle is quite short;
3) The movements used are natural, comfortable, and quick;
4) The propulsive forces developed are mostly directly backward and horizontal; and
5) The non-functioning body parts are streamlined during the propulsive phase of the kick.

Kicking 8.17
There is one further element in breaststroke kicking that is not considered in any other stroke. The
breaststroke power-phase is meant to accelerate the swimmer but then is halted when the elbows are
close to the shoulder line. From there the recovery is initiated at the same time as inhalation in the
breathing movement occurs. During that time, the swimmer would be slowing. The legs should then
be drawn up very quickly, which would add further to resistance but if quick enough, the effect
would be minimized. The kick back should be faster than the arm-pull was executed. It would be
wrong to have fast accelerating arms followed by a big slower sweeping kick or vice versa. The kick
has to match or preferably exceed the arm velocity. The overall relationship between those two
velocities might best be described as an accelerated stroke. If a velocity curve of the stroke was
drawn, it would have two peaks. The first peak would reflect acceleration from the arm pull. The
next trough would reflect the inertial lag between the end of the pull and the initiation of the kick.
The second peak would result from acceleration gained from the kick and should be higher than the
arms' peak. The amount of kick acceleration would depend upon the effectiveness and speed of the
kick. The kick's effect should be greater than that achieved by the arm-pull. The two-peak
acceleration curve is a characteristic that defines an effective breaststroke kick within the total
stroke.
• The kicking velocity should exceed the arm-pull velocity so that acceleration occurs in both
phases of the stroke with greater acceleration being achieved through the kick.
DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE ACHIEVED IN BREASTSTROKE KICKING

The following features should be evident in correct breaststroke kicking.
• The legs should be pulled up very quickly with the knees comfortably
apart, the thighs angled, and the lower legs vertical.
• The propulsive surfaces are the insides of the feet, ankles, and lower legs.
• The time it takes to extend the thighs and the knees should be similar so
that the kick ends with most of the swimmer in streamline.
• The arms, head, and body should be streamlined for the duration of the
kick.
• The intent of the kick is to kick backward as fast as possible.
• The kicking velocity should exceed the arm-pull velocity so that
acceleration occurs in both phases of the stroke.
• The legs will end apart at the completion of the hip and leg extensions.
• To complete the kick cycle, the legs should be closed to streamline while
at the same time the arms are opened to the position where the stroke's
initial actions begin.
Double-leg Kicking
"Double-leg" kicking is the propulsive kicking that occurs after dives and turns. It is necessary to
explain this term because it is a better label for this propulsive activity than the commonly used term
of "dolphin kicking". There is much more difference than similarity between double-leg kicking and
the kicking performed in butterfly stroke. A separate term needs to be used to avoid any confusion
that could easily occur with the misuse of the "dolphin kicking" label.

Kicking 8.18
When comparing double-leg and dolphin kicking, some of the major differences are as follows:
1. Double-leg kicking is propulsive and butterfly's dolphin-kicking is reactive. When two
movements have different functions their mechanics are different.
2. Dolphin kicking is associated with arms, body, and head movements. Double-leg kicking
requires the arms, head, and body to be stationary and streamlined.
3. Double-leg kicking is more efficient when performed at depths of 1.5 m or more whereas
dolphin kicking is performed at the surface.
4. The velocities that can be achieved with double-leg kicking are much greater than that which
can be achieved with dolphin kicking and surface swimming.
Several of the general features associated with the previously discussed forms of kicking are also
appropriate for double-leg kicking despite functional differences. Research at the Western Australian
Institute of Sport has showed that there is an optimal magnitude for double-leg kicks. It led to the
conclusion that small fast kicking is better than larger kicking. The main reason for that conclusion
is that when kicks are performed they develop resistance. As the magnitude of the kick increases so
does resistance. Propulsive forces are also developed with the kick as the magnitude of the action is
increased. The problem is that the resistance develops to a much greater extent with larger kicks than
propulsion. Despite big kicks feeling powerful to a swimmer, what they do not appreciate is that the
large amount of developed resistance more than cancels out the propulsion that is felt. Very
sophisticated analyses clearly showed the turn point in the relationship between propulsion and
resistance in double-leg kicking. That relationship led to the conclusion that a "small kick" is better
for propulsion than a large kick when performing double-leg kicking. Because of individual
differences, it is not possible to state an exact magnitude for small kicking.
Houel et al. (2010) observed that double-leg kicking amplitude was governed by the hip and ankle
movements. Small amplitudes produced the fastest velocities. Water pressure on the feet during the
kick moves them into the best angle they can achieve during the kick. This study suggested that to
achieve the best velocity, the head, torso, and arms should be streamlined and motionless. The kick
should be governed by very small hip movements and short sharp ankle thrusts. The knees should be
monitored to guard against too much flexion.
Hill Taylor (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vox9KOxC1ZA; and http://swim-links.blogspot.
com/2011/03/hill-taylor-100yd-underwater-dolphin.html) is perhaps one of the best exponents of the
double-leg kick. His video of 50 m long course backstroke kick in 23.10 seconds gives some idea of
the frequency of "fast" in the "small and fast" recommendation. At 25 m in his swim, Hill Taylor
performed three kicks in 1.28 seconds. He also demonstrated that double-leg kicking is faster than
surface swimming. The implication from his swimming is to encourage swimmers to perform as
many kicks as possible in a time period by concentrating on what the feet are doing. At the same
time, not moving the torso, head, and arms and remaining streamlined should also be stressed. These
two general directives should encourage swimmers to perform as many "stabs" as possible by
focusing on the tops of their feet pushing backward against the water. The instructions for
performing on the back and front are the same. Because of flotation problems, kicking on the side, a
once touted way of doing underwater kicking that was based on spurious reasoning, is inadvisable. A
human swimming on the side does not have the same properties as a swimming fish (Davis, 2000).
The depth at which double-leg kicking is performed is important. Marinho, Barbosa, Mantripragada,
et al. (2010) used a model to control depth and measure drag coefficients and forces at various
depths. Table 8.1 contains their results. The implication of their study was that the deeper a swimmer

Kicking 8.19
performs double-leg kicking the likelihood of improved performance is increased. The most likely
depth in races is between 1.50 and 2.00 m, with post-dive kicking being easier to perform at the
greater depth. The slowing effect of the water is reduced by ~40-45% at those depths. When a
swimmer is capable of performing substantial (more than 10 kicks) kicking after a turn, it might be
advantageous to push off the wall at an angle that will take the swimmer to a deeper orientation than
if the off-the-wall push was horizontal.
TABLE 8.1. DRAG COEFFICIENTS AND DRAG FORCES AT VARIOUS DEPTHS FOR A
HUMAN MODEL (Marinho, Barbosa, Mantripragada, et al., 2010).
Depth 0.20 m 0.50 m 1.00 m 1.50 m 2.00 m 2.50 m 2.80 m

Drag
0.67 0.62 0.53 0.44 0.36 0.30 0.28
Coefficient
Drag
100.20 92.30 80.50 65.40 53.40 44.70 42.00
Force (N)
The following are features of good double-leg kicking, whether on the front or back.
1. Keep the arms, head, and torso streamlined and move the hips slightly but fast. [The most
common error is moving the hips too much, which in turn causes the arms, head, and body to
also move.]
2. Focus on "stabbing" the feet backward within the feature of kicking small and fast. [Avoid
big knee movements.]
3. Perform the kicking at a depth between 1.5 and 2.00 m.
DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE ACHIEVED IN DOUBLE-LEG KICKING

The following features should be evident in correct double-leg kicking.
• Keep the arms, head, and torso streamlined and still.
• Kick small and fast by "stabbing" the tops of the feet backward.
• Perform the kicking at a depth between 1.50 and 2.00 m.

Kicking 8.20
TEACHING POINTS FOR NON-PROPULSIVE KICKING IN THREE
STROKES
DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE
ACHIEVED IN CRAWL STROKE
• The effort of kicking should
match the effort of the arm
strokes.
• Kick consistently. DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE
• Some side-to-side rotation should ACHIEVED IN BACKSTROKE
occur. • Kick small and fast.
strokes.
ACHIEVED IN BUTTERFLY
STROKE • Kick splashless.
• Kick small and fast. • No part of the kicking action
should break the water surface.
• Body streamline should be
maintained as much as possible • Kick consistently.
in the stroke cycle. • Some side-to-side rotation should
• Kick splashless and rhythmical. occur.
• No part of the kicking action
• Keep the kick small and fast in
the latter part of races.
• The kick effort should never
exceed that which is needed to
counter-balance the required
arm-stroke elements.

Kicking 8.21

TEACHING POINTS FOR PROPULSIVE KICKING IN BREASTSTROKE
AND OUT OF THE DIVE AND TURNS
ACHIEVED IN BREASTSTROKE
KICKING
• The legs should be pulled up very
quickly with the knees
comfortably apart, the thighs
angled, and the lower legs
vertical.
• The propulsive surfaces are the
insides of the feet, ankles, and
lower legs.
• The time it takes to extend the
thighs and the knees should be DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE
similar so that the kick ends with ACHIEVED IN DOUBLE-LEG
most of the swimmer in KICKING
streamline.
• Keep the arms, head, and torso
• The arms, head, and body should streamlined and still.
be streamlined for the duration of
the kick. • Kick small and fast by "stabbing"
the tops of the feet backward.
• The intent of the kick is to kick
backward as fast as possible. • Perform the kicking at a depth
between 1.50 and 2.00 m.
• The kicking velocity should
exceed the arm-pull velocity so
that acceleration occurs in both
phases of the stroke.
• The legs will end apart at the
completion of the hip and leg
extensions.
• To complete the kick cycle, the
legs should be closed to
streamline while at the same time
the arms are opened to the
position where the stroke's initial
actions begin.

Postscript 9.1
POSTSCRIPT
This manual was intended to supplement the 2011 book, Swimming pedagogy and a curriculum for
stroke development (Second Edition) with regard to developing swimmers' techniques. In this
writing and initial use some observations were made of intended and unintended consequences.
There is no doubt that the actual content of how strokes should be performed will collide with
current swimming dogma. The manual's content is based on published research and basic principles
of fluid mechanics, biomechanics, applied anatomy, and physics. There was an attempt to document
all the premises that are offered in terms of one or more of the objective fields upon which they were
developed. The explanations very often were supported by visual evidence of elite swimmers
performing in successful international races. One set of video frames of Rebecca Soni was in a non-
competitive setting. There is formidable strength in the visual and research evidence and the
underlying scientific principles of biomechanics and supportive justification for the descriptions of
competitive swimming techniques contained in this manual.
There will be swimming coaches who will dispute some or all of this manual's contents. To such
individuals the listener should ask for scientific evidence, visual evidence of the best swimmers in
specific-race settings, and a full explanation of what happens to the swimmer doing what is counter-
proposed in a full setting. Those offering alternative depictions likely will not present a full-picture
concept that shows a complete understanding first of the science and secondly how scientific
principles and discoveries support what they propose.
Perhaps an example of how criticisms of the specific technique content of this manual are couched
will help explain the reactions often from "reputable" coaches. With regard to the breaststroke
technique flaw of recovering in breaststroke with the hands out of the water for a brief period, one
criticism was this:
When the hands are out of water there is less resistance and consequently the swimmer will
go faster. It is as simple as that and why you cannot see it is beyond me.
That is typical of the limited knowledge and descriptions of technique elements that are offered by
swimming "gurus". It fails on a number of matters.
1. It does not meet the full-picture concept of the breaststroke recovery. There is no
consideration of the energy expenditures involved in diverting the swimmer's momentum to
propel the hands and most of the forearms out of the water. Forces have to be generated to
lift the relatively large mass of head, arms, and shoulders out of the water, even for just a
brief period. That need reduces the amount of energy that can be directed toward propulsion.
2. There is no consideration of the consequences of the elevated movement when its large mass
returns to the water. Actual forces, including gravity, displace the water. Often added actions
are performed to stop the swimmer going too deep upon the return. Any action that
overcomes a resistance consumes energy. To lift and then prevent unsatisfactory positioning
upon the return, considerable energy is consumed which reduces the total energy resources
that might have been available for propulsion.
3. Newton's Third Law must be accommodated in explanations. The Third Law is present in
every atmospheric internal and external movement of the human body. Thus, the reactions to
the up and down movements of a large portion of a swimmer's mass have to be included. To
deny them, is both inadequate and frankly, silly.

Postscript 9.2
4. The actual principles of fluid mechanics that explain humans progressing through water
rather than over it at a relatively low velocity must be considered. They need to be disproven
to justify "recovering out of the water".
One could continue at length and with detail describing most of the elementary arguments that are
needed to determine what the hands/arms should do in the breaststroke recovery. This example was
deliberately chosen because most of the world's elite breaststroke swimmers recover at some stage
with the hands fully or partly out of the water. It is a stroke part that could be changed to improve
performances.
On several occasions while writing this manual it was necessary to appeal to principles of human
movement and science in general to describe what should be done. Some will criticize explaining
events in terms of movement elements that have not yet been commonly performed. If one does not
adventure forward with suggestions of what could be better elements, how can human performance
improvements be accelerated? It is only when hypothetical improvements are tested objectively is it
possible to verify or dispute their validity.
The other element in the swimming community of which the reader should be wary, are the pseudo-
scientists and self-appointed educational gurus. While suffering most of the deficiencies that are
revealed in coaches' inadequate explanations, these individuals who usually do not practice avidly in
swimming or coaching are often more aggressive and combative. They usually are best handled by
being ignored.
This writer experienced the wrath of most of the swimming community when qualified colleagues
and he published a refutation of lift-theory/Bernoulli's Principle/S-curve hand paths in the Journal of
Swimming Research (Rushall et al., 1994)28. Such a reaction is likely to this manual as it was with
yet another scientifically justified proposal to change training and energy theory a few years ago
(Rushall, 2011b).
Reacting critically and negatively to new ideas are part of human nature. It has occurred seemingly
throughout history. A few quotes from diverse sources from over the past 600+ years should show
that it is natural for critical arguments and reactions to be provoked by this manual whether the
content is true or false.
A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the
light but rather its opponents eventually die and a new generation grows up that is familiar
with the truth. [Max Planck]29
"When a true genius appears in the world, you may know him by this sign, that the dunces
are all in confederacy against him. [Jonathon Swift (1667 - 1745) Ireland.]30
Man will occasionally stumble over the truth, but usually manages to pick himself up, walk
over or around it, and carry on. [Winston Churchill (1874-1965)]
"There is nothing more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain
its success, than to take the lead in the introduction of a new order of things, because the
28
Eventually, the positions of Rushall et al. were accepted.
29
In Wissenschaftliche Selbstbiographie. Mit einem Bildnis und der von Max von Laue gehaltenen Traueransprache.,
Johann Ambrosius Barth Verlag, (Leipzig 1948), p. 22, as translated in Scientific Autobiography and Other Papers,
trans. F. Gaynor (New York, 1949), pp.33-34 (as cited in T.S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions). [From
Wikiquote http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Max_Planck]
30
Swift, Johnathon, (1706). A satirical essay titled Thoughts on Various Subjects, Moral and Diverting. [Substituting
scientific innovator for genius would be more appropriate for this context.]
Postscript 9.3
innovator has for enemies all those who have done well under the old conditions, and
lukewarm defenders in those who may do well under the new" (Machiavelli 1446-1507).31
Readers should expect criticisms of this book. One should not be discouraged by them and should
ask for the foundational principles and knowledges that support any alternative descriptions. The
swimming world in general is not adept at understanding or implementing scientific evidence-based
propositions and guidelines.
The structure of the manual is deliberate. The order with which the elements of complex swimming
movements are presented cannot be altered. If the sequence is changed, the outcomes that should be
expected are unlikely to occur.
The "center-to-periphery" principle was the first major feature that determined the sequencing of
microcycles. In activities that involve the limbs, the structures upon which they act, the non-
productive masses, have to be as solid as possible. For the arms to function efficiently, the trunk has
to be solid. It can rotate about a horizontal axis, but the structure itself, particularly the ribs and
spine, should be fixed. If a swimmer were to breathe during a crawl-stroke power-phase, the forces
generated would be reduced because the arms and the shoulder transition areas would be functioning
on a moving base. If the base upon which limb forces are developed is not stable, it acts like a shock-
absorber; preventing the production of maximum or optimum forces with the arms. The arms
functioning on a moving torso is analogous to running with the legs driving on a moving base such
as sand. The first three microcycles addressed establishing solid streamlined bases for limb
movements. The threats to that stability, breathing actions and body roll, need to be developed and
controlled before any consideration is given to limb movements. It would be a gross coaching error
to ignore the center-to-periphery principle.
The second procedure of importance was the presentation of backward shaping. The developments
of arm movements were formed in the order of: 1) end-of-stroke, 2) power-phase, 3) initial actions,
and 4) recovery. Although little-known and contrary to intuition, backward shaping as employed
here is very effective, more so than if one started first with the entry. It would be a gross coaching
error to ignore the backward-shaping sequence of instruction when developing arm actions in all
strokes.
One further technique of teaching that was exposed early in the manual's testing was the need for
concentrated masses of repetitions. While many coaches try to "teach" techniques by attending to
perceived needs in every swimmer, the number of trials, the frequency and quality of feedback, and
the attempt to change the behavior from the coach's to the swimmer's control, mostly are never
considered or provided by coaches.
Good instruction has the potential to alter an undesirable movement pattern or element very quickly.
Unfortunately, such changes are stored in short-term memory. If the next step in instruction is not
taken, the behavior change will be lost and the individual will revert to the old established feature.
Consequently, if an athlete displays a desired behavior change and usually it is believed that learning
has occurred and the coach need not attend to it any more. Unfortunately, that very often is a
coaching response and it is false.
To convert a changed-behavior from short-term memory to long-term memory, many trials are
required with very meaningful feedback provided on each trial. The number of trials required for the
development or change of behaviors was estimated by Richard Schmidt (Schmidt, 1988) as being: 1)
31
Nicolo Machiavelli, N. 1446-1507. "Concerning new principalities which are acquired by one's own arms and ability",
in Chapter VI, The Prince.
Postscript 9.4
300 trials to create a bad habit, and 2) 3,000 trials to correct or undo the error. When instruction is
poor or haphazard, those numbers balloon dramatically. The 3,000 trials are not swimming strokes.
They are strokes associated with meaningful feedback, whether it is one or a mix of self-, peer-, or
coach-feedback. Since the latter is hard to administer for effective change, if swimmers are taught to
self-reinforce as well as engage in peer-reinforcement, attaining sufficient trials to promote change is
more likely. The need for great numbers of reinforcements is another reason to focus on only one
new and previous microcycle elements when progressing through the structure of this manual. Self-
and peer-reinforcement is covered in Rushall (2011a; Section 4).
In trialing the various sections of this manual, on several occasions it was obvious that the coaches
were coaching elements outside the instructional restriction of the microcycle or microcycles that
preceded it. That lessens the likelihood of successful development. Swimmer techniques will not be
changed for the better until all correct elements are in place. Coaches have to wait until the
appropriate microcycle is presented to work on particular elements. With each microcycle, at least
one week of coaching has to focus on the element at every practice session for every swimmer so
that many reinforced trials occur. As the microcycles are presented, what is taught in one microcycle
can be corrected, re-instructed, and refined in the following microcycles. For example, it is possible
that eventually what was focused on in Microcycle 1 is not totally concluded until Microcycle 3 in
some swimmers. That is acceptable because the number of repetitions of providing feedback for an
element lessens as the macrocycle progresses. There will be considerable inter- and intra-individual
variation in the length of instruction required for the microcycles in this program.
Progression from one microcycle to the next will be determined by the large majority of swimmers
performing the element correctly most, if not all, of the time. "Slow" learners will require more
instructional resources as they work on more than the element presented in each microcycle.
Coaches have to work hard at providing high rates and frequencies of reinforcement for the
microcycle element for all individuals. One should not stray to other elements unless they have
occurred in a previous microcycle. There is no place for jumping ahead of the structured
development program described in this manual.
For effective implementation of the technique macrocycle, three procedures have to be rigorously
adhered to and not altered in any way.
1. The central non-propulsive masses of the swimmer have to be positioned so that they incur
minimal resistance and are sufficiently stable to allow the limbs of the swimmer to function
maximally and effectively.
2. The teaching progressions allow for techniques to develop simply and effectively.
Particularly with regard to propulsion, the arm strokes have been broken down into three
phases. Those phases should be developed in reverse order to what intuitively would seem to
be appropriate. The reasons for that sequencing are explained in the Introduction to this
manual and in Rushall (2011a; Section 6).
3. As many meaningful trials as possible for stroke cycles should be provided without
distraction. It is suggested that at a minimum one week should be devoted to each
microcycle. Meaningful trials are those that have the potential to alter behavior and rely on:
1) the swimmer clearly understanding what is to be done, and 2) each trial being
accompanied by relevant reinforcement, preferably from the swimmer him/herself or peers.
Any time these three procedures are altered will produce a delay in the development of the
microcycle content. This requirement is not a modification of most coaches' behaviors but a radical

Postscript 9.5
departure. That will require coaches to work as hard at how they coach as they do in any other aspect
of the sport.
It is very satisfying to observe the number of swimmers exposed to the correct execution of this
macrocycle improve in their performances. The few who did not improve had valid reasons for the
lack of progress. Interruptions such as absences from practices, vacations, examinations, and health
issues took swimmers away from full and correct participation. Once a swimmer misses a
microcycle there is nothing that can be done to accelerate their progress so that they do not miss out
on the later microcycles to which the rest of the group is being exposed. Since it is recommended
that the macrocycle be repeated at least twice in both the short- and long-course seasons, those who
failed to have full participation in the first macrocycle can relearn everything in the second and
subsequent repetitions32.
In several cases, the program was trialed on talented individual swimmers. One case involved the
swimmer and his coach having access to all the materials. That had interesting consequences. The
coach and swimmer had to discuss the content so that there was agreement on what and why a
particular technique element had to be done. That consensus made it easier for the swimmer to
understand what, why, and how a technique element needed to be performed as well as clarifying
fully how and what should be done for the coach. It seemed to the two parties involved that the rate
and quality of change improved much better than in the coach-dominant circumstances that preceded
the introduction of this macrocycle.
In the case of a 16 year-old male who received the materials and coached himself, the results showed
dramatic improvements. The coach was aware of what the swimmer was doing and supported the
venture. Apparently, the materials of this manual are understandable by teenage swimmers who take
their sport seriously and can be used effectively for self-improvement.
The above examples illustrate a valuable side-effect of this program. If swimmers are responsible for
reading and understanding the content of each microcycle, they become "students" of the sport and
appreciate the value and need for each of the technique elements that are instructed. It remains to be
seen how long the details and clarity of the content remains with swimmers. It should be a long time
if periodic refresher readings are required and the macrocycle is repeated a minimum of three to four
times per year.
The repetition of the macrocycles is required to refine the techniques of swimmers as they grow.
Growth modifies the physical resources in a swimmer and alters the sensations of the swimming
strokes. With age-group swimmers, it is false to believe that once they perform a technique the way
it should be done that it will be appropriate for the rest of their careers.
The learning or modification of swimmers' established techniques is not enhanced by drills, the use
of equipment, or slow swimming velocities. Unfortunately, the belief that such activities are
beneficial is rife among those who adhere to the dogma of the sport. Techniques are specific to
swimming velocities. Thus, this macrocycle should be instructed in programs that focus on ultra-
short training at race-pace (Rushall, 2011b). If that is done, what is learned will transfer directly into
races. Transfer does not happen when training consists of slower-than-race-pace swimming,
exhaustive swimming, or the use of drills and/or equipment.
When writing this manual, there was an honest attempt to combine scientific information and
terminology for mainly explanatory purposes and directions for what to do at practices when
analyzing, instructing, and reinforcing swimmers' techniques. The "test" coaches indicated they
32
Assuming there are no further absences or interruptions.
Postscript 9.6
believe that was achieved and effectively at that. In the swimming world, there are some coaches
who like to "dumb-down" content in the false belief that an original was too hard for their
swimmers. The youngest swimmer to use these materials was 13 years-old. He had no difficulty with
the manual content. It is recommended that coaches talk to their swimmers in the language and
content of this manual. There is no need for it to be altered.
The two appendixes of the manual include coaching aids. Appendix A includes reproductions of all
the "Teaching Point" pages that are the last page of each microcycle. They are meant to be used as
"lesson notes" for the coach to refer to when on the pool deck in each microcycle. While a
microcycle might have a single name such as "power-phase", on the Teaching Point page there is a
list of characteristics of the movements to produce a power-phase. A suggested use of these pages
follows.
1. The appropriate page should be copied and carried by the coach at every practice session
involving the microcycle.
2. During every practice session, the list of characteristics for the strokes should be consulted to
cue the coach to emphasize all features of the microcycle's element.
3. The characteristics initially should be instructed with equal emphasis. Since some features
are learned more easily than others, towards the end of the microcycle some features will
warrant a greater emphasis than others.
4. It is intended that the microcycle element will not be learned appropriately by a swimmer
unless it contains all the features listed for the four strokes (or fewer strokes where
appropriate).
5. Before a practice session, the coach should plan what features of the microcycle element will
be stressed.
6. The result of consistently teaching defined features of stroke elements should result in
swimmers learning all the necessary features to execute the element correctly and
consistently. If that occurs, a coach can ask swimmers questions about the details of their
strokes. For example: "What are the sensations on your forearm in the power-phase of your
backstroke pull?" If that question is not answered with the features explained in this manual,
then instruction has been inadequate or the swimmer has not been participating as fully and
intently as needed.
7. Finally, the use of the teaching-point lists will keep the coach consistently on task and give
the appearance of being fully focused on technique to a level that is not often seen in
swimming coaches.
Appendix B contains all the illustrative items from the manual. It is recommended that they be
copied and then laminated. In that condition they can serve as illustrations and added to coach
explanations at the pool. They can be handed to individuals in the water to show what the coach is
explaining. Since not all individuals respond appropriately to verbal instruction, the addition of
visual stimuli should produce more effective instructional outcomes.
The Teaching Point Sheets and Visual Aids appropriate for the microcycle in question should be
taken and carried by the coach at every practice in the technique macrocycle. It is time to teach
serious swimmers correct techniques that foster performance improvements.

References 10.1
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Marinho, D. A., Barbosa, T. M., Mantripragada, N., Vilas-Boas, J. P., Rouard, A. H., Mantha, V., Rouboa, A. I., & Silva,
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References 10.2
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Rouboa, A. I. (2010). Swimming propulsion forces are enhanced by a small finger spread. Journal of Applied
Biomechanics, 26, 87-92.
Marinho, D. A., Barbosa, T. M., Reis, V. M., Vilas-Boas, J. P., Alves, F. B., Kjendlie, P. L., Rouboa, A. I., & Silva, A. J.
(2009). The effect of finger spread on the propulsive force production in swimming. ACSM 56th Annual Meeting,
Seattle, Washington. Presentation number 599.
Millet, G. P., Chollet, D., Chalies, S., & Chatard, J. C. (2002). Coordination in front crawl in elite triathletes and elite
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performance in swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 38(5), Supplement abstract 1616.
Mookerjee, S., Bibi, K. W., Kenney, G. A., & Cohen, L. (1995). Relationship between isokinetic strength, flexibility,
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Oliveira, R., Marinho, D. A., Garrido, N. D., & Costa, A. M. (2011). The relationship between front crawl swimming
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Appendix A – Instructional Cue Sheets 11.1
APPENDIX A
MAJOR INSTRUCTIONAL CUE SHEETS FOR MICROCYCLES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE Page
How to Use the Instructional Cue Sheets A.2
Technique Microcycle 1 - Teaching Points for Streamline Positions in All Strokes A.3
Technique Microcycle 2 - Teaching Points for Breathing in All Strokes A.4
Technique Microcycle 3 - Teaching Points for Body Roll in Crawl Stroke and Backstroke A.5
Technique Microcycle 4 - Teaching Points for End-of-stroke Positions in All Strokes A.6
Technique Microcycle 5 - Teaching Points for Power-Phase Movements in Crawl Stroke
and Backstroke A.7
Technique Microcycle 5 (Continued) - Teaching Points for Power-Phase Movements in
Breaststroke and Butterfly Stroke A.8
Technique Microcycle 6 - Teaching Points for Initial Actions in All Strokes A.9
Technique Microcycle 7 - Teaching Points for Recoveries in All Strokes A.10
Technique Microcycle 8 – Teaching Points for Non-propulsive Kicking in
Three Strokes A.11
Technique Microcycle 8 (Continued) – Teaching Points for Propulsive Kicking
in One Stroke and Out of Dives and Turns A.12

HOW TO USE THE INSTRUCTIONAL CUE SHEETS

At the end of each technique microcycle explanation there is a single page of the teaching points to
be instructed in the microcycle. Those pages are reproduced here. They should be printed so that
coaches have the notes of what to teach in each microcycle in hand at all practices. It would be
helpful to have a couple of staff meetings each week to discuss teaching techniques, plans, the
reactions of swimmers, and how any problems were solved.

TEACHING POINTS FOR STREAMLINE POSITIONS IN ALL STROKES
BODY POSITION IN
BACKSTROKE
BODY POSITION IN CRAWL • Head back and eyes looking
STROKE directly up at the ceiling of the
pool.
• The head should be down with the
eyes looking directly at the • The head depth should be such
bottom of the pool. that some water travels over the
swimmer's face. This will entail at
• The head depth should be such
least both ears being below the
that some water travels over the
water line.
swimmer's cap.
• The top of the swimmer's hips
• The top of the swimmer's
should be at the same height as
buttocks should be at the same
the top of the swimmer's chest
height as the top of the
and face. Some part of the hips
swimmer's head.
should be visible throughout the
• The postural line between a swim- stroke.
mer's head and buttocks should
• The postural link between the
center of a swimmer's head and
center of the hips should be firm
along the horizontal axis.
BODY POSITION IN
BUTTERFLY STROKE BODY POSITION IN
BREASTSTROKE
• Head, body, and hips stream-
lined for as much of the stroke as • Head, body, and hips streamlined
possible. for as much of the stroke as
possible.
• When breathing, the head should
be low and forward through the • When breathing, the deflection
bow-wave. from horizontal should be as little
as possible. Therefore, breathe
• Do not tolerate a "rocker action"
low and forward through the bow-
because it wastes energy. The
wave.
entry and exit of the arms and
both kicks should not disrupt • Do not tolerate a "rocker action"
streamline (although it is because it wastes energy. Spend
common to see this fault as much time as possible in a
exhibited by the best butterfly streamlined position.
swimmers of today).

TEACHING POINTS FOR BREATHING IN ALL STROKES
BREATHING IN CRAWL STROKE
• The head turn is independent of the
shoulder turn.
• Breathe out explosively as the head BREATHING IN BACKSTROKE
starts to turn to the side on the • A fixed and unmoving head should
horizontal axis. be held back with the eyes looking
• Breathe in fast when the mouth is directly up at the ceiling of the pool.
just clear and return to look at the • The head depth should be such that
pool bottom very quickly (before the some water travels over the
recovery arm is vertical). swimmer's face.
• Time the turning action with the arm • Exhalation should be explosive and
exit (the time of least effort). occur as the arm sculls upward.
• Streamline should be maintained at • Inhalation should be completed
all times. before the recovering arm
• The postural line between a approaches vertical.
swimmer's head, shoulders, and
hips should be firm along the
horizontal axis.
BREATHING IN BUTTERFLY
STROKE
• The head and shoulders should rise BREATHING IN BREASTSTROKE
the least amount possible and be • The head and shoulders should rise
completed by the middle of the the least amount possible to
propulsive phase of the arm strokes. minimize streamline disruption.
• The hips should remain at the • The hips should remain at the
surface even in the breathing action. surface even in the breathing action.
• The chin should be thrust through • The chin should be thrust through
the bow-wave on the water's the bow-wave just above the water
surface. surface.
• Exhalation should be explosive and • Exhalation should be explosive and
occur as the elbows begin to round- occur immediately after the arms
out. complete propulsion.
• Inhalation should be completed as • Inhalation should be completed in
the hands exit the water. the early stage of the recovery.
• The head should be returned to a • The breathing action and return to
streamlined position before the streamline should be completed
arms are half-way through the before the draw-up of the legs
recovery. preparatory to kicking is completed.
• Breathe every two strokes but not at
all in the finish zone.

TEACHING POINTS FOR BODY ROLL IN CRAWL STROKE AND
BACKSTROKE

• Body roll consists of the hips and shoulders rotating to ~45° to both sides.
This reduces frontal resistance and positions the propelling arm closer to
the mid-line.
• The harder a swimmer kicks, the greater is the amount of resistance
developed. Kicking should remain small and fast and deviate to each side
in concert with the roll of the shoulders/hips.
• In the middle of the propulsive phase of crawl stroke, a line from the
recovering elbow through both shoulder points to the propelling arm elbow
should be straight.
• Backstroke should also emphasize body roll. Usually, a vertical recovery
that lifts the shoulder facilitates the roll.

TEACHING POINTS FOR END-OF-STROKE POSITIONS IN ALL STROKES
BACKSTROKE
CRAWL STROKE • This part of the arm stroke should
feel the strongest and fastest part of
• This part of the arm stroke should the total-arm movement. It marks the
feel the strongest and fastest part of end of propulsive acceleration.
the total-arm movement. It marks the
end of propulsive acceleration. • The adducted elbow should be as far
• The adducted elbow should be as far swimmer.
swimmer. • The forearm and hand should be
• The forearm and hand should be backward.
backward. • The arm should then extend back
and down and remain away from the
• The next movement after achieving body.
the arm's end position should be the
elbow being raised out of the water • In a continuing motion, the hand
to initiate the arm's exit. should be turned in and the arm
swept inward and upward in a
• The hand and forearm should sculling motion.
"round-out" as they exit the water.
• The exiting-arm shoulder should rise
to initiate the exit.
END-OF-STROKE POSITION IN END-OF-STROKE POSITION IN

BREASTSTROKE BUTTERFLY STROKE
• This part of the arm stroke should • This part of the arms' stroke should
feel the strongest and fastest part of feel the strongest and fastest part of
the total-arm movement. It marks the the total-arms movement. It marks
end of propulsive acceleration. the end of propulsive acceleration.
• The elbows should not pull past the • The elbows should be as far back as
line of the shoulders. possible alongside the swimmer.
• The total arms and hands should feel • The forearms/hands should be
they are applying force directly vertical and pressing directly
backward. backward.
• As much of the swimmer as possible • The next movement after achieving
should be kept underwater. the arms' finish-position should be
• The recovery is initiated by thrusting the elbows being raised out of the
the hands forward and in, rather than water to initiate the arms' exit.
pulling the total arms in tight against • The hands and forearms should
the body. "round-out" as they exit the water.

TEACHING POINTS FOR POWER-PHASE MOVEMENTS IN CRAWL
STROKE AND BACKSTROKE
BACKSTROKE
• This part of the arm stroke should
feel increasingly faster and
stronger as acceleration is
POWER-PHASE ACTIONS IN developed.
CRAWL STROKE • Immediately upon entry, the
• This part of the arm stroke should forearm/hand should rotate to be
feel increasingly faster and vertical through elbow flexion
stronger as acceleration is while the upper arm medially
developed. rotates and remains extended
• The forearm/hand should rotate forward.
to be vertical while the upper arm • Downward shoulder and hip roll
medially rotates and remains should be completed by the time
stretched forward. the forearm/hand is vertical.
• As the upper arm abducts, the • As the upper arm abducts, it
shoulder and hip should be at the increasingly becomes involved in
deepest point of body roll. developing a propulsive surface.
• As the upper arm adducts, the • As the upper arm adducts, the
shoulder and hip should have shoulder and hip should have
rotated upward. completed upward rotation.
• The finish-position should be • The finish-position should be
completed as the recovering arm completed as the recovering arm
begins to enter the water. begins to enter the water.
• The post-finish-position arm
extension and inward and upward
sculling actions should be as fast
as at any stage in the propulsive
action.


TEACHING POINTS FOR POWER-PHASE MOVEMENTS IN
BREASTSTROKE AND BUTTERFLY STROKE
BREASTSTROKE
• From a full stretch, the hands POWER-PHASE ACTIONS IN
open quickly to shoulder width or BUTTERFLY STROKE
slightly more apart. • The head and shoulders should
• Direct propulsion is sought from rise the least amount possible
the outset. The upper arms and be completed by about the
medially rotate, the elbows and middle of the propulsive phase of
wrists flex, and abduction of the the arm strokes.
upper arms occurs. • Acceleration should develop
• As the elbows move wider due to markedly. The adduction stage of
abduction, the elbows flex more the pull should be the quickest
to keep propulsion directly and most forceful part of the
backward. phase.
• As soon as the elbows approach • The orientation should be to
or are level with the shoulders, propel the swimmer forward, not
propulsion ceases and the upward.
quickest, shortest recovery • The hands should enter
forward is performed. sufficiently wide so that an
• Since the forearms/hands are immediate "grab" on the water
never vertical in the pull because occurs.
they have to supply some force to • The role of the upper arms in
raise the head and shoulders in developing propulsion should be
the breathing action, the hands emphasized.
will always be forward of the • The thrust off the forearm/hand
elbows. surfaces should be emphasized
• The total arm movement from the through to the end-of-stroke
initial opening to the sudden position.
cessation of propulsion should
accelerate consistently.

TEACHING POINTS FOR INITIAL ACTIONS IN ALL STROKES
INITIAL ACTIONS IN CRAWL

STROKE INITIAL ACTIONS IN BACKSTROKE
• Reach fully forward over the • Reach fully forward over the
water; enter fingers first on a flat water; enter with the back of the
hand. hand.
• The shoulder should be fully • The shoulder should be fully
extended forward. extended forward.
• The shoulder and upper arm • The shoulder and upper arm
should remain extended while the should remain extended while the
body rotates to lower the body rolls to lower the shoulder.
shoulder. • The upper arm should medially
• The upper arm should medially rotate while the elbow flexes to
rotate while the elbow flexes to position the forearm/hand
position the forearm/hand vertically.
vertically. • Abduction of the upper arm
• Abduction of the upper arm commences as part of a
commences as part of a continuous accelerated
continuous accelerated movement.
movement.
INITIAL ACTIONS IN
BREASTSTROKE INITIAL ACTIONS IN BUTTERFLY
STROKE
• Open the arms to a position
where they are comfortable to • Enter the arms in a position where
perform the stroke-initiation it is comfortable to perform the
movements. stroke-initiation movements.
• As quickly as possible, flex the • As quickly as possible, flex the
wrists slightly, medially rotate the wrists slightly, medially rotate the
upper arms, and flex the elbows. upper arms, and flex the elbows.
• Orient the forearms/hands to • Orient force production directly
being as vertical as possible backward despite the elbows
recognizing the need to retain widening.
some angle to produce a vertical • Seamlessly transition into the
force component to assist in acceleration that marks the
breathing. power-phase.
• Seamlessly transition into the • In non-breathing strokes, do not
acceleration that marks the lift the head and/or shoulders.
power-phase.

TEACHING POINTS FOR RECOVERIES IN ALL STROKES
BACKSTROKE RECOVERY
CRAWL STROKE RECOVERY • Initiate by raising the recovery-
• Initiate by first lifting the elbow arm shoulder and sweep the
out of the water. straight arm upward in a sculling
• Recover forward along a direct motion.
line. • Exit the hand thumb-first from the
• Emphasize an elbow-lift in mid- water.
recovery. • Sweep a long, high vertical arm
• Time the recovery with the with the back of the hand leading.
propulsive arm's action. • Time the recovery with the
• Enter fully forward, flat hand, propulsive arm's action.
finger tips first, in front of or • Enter fully forward behind the
wider than the shoulder. shoulder or wider with the back
of the hand.
BUTTERFLY STROKE RECOVERY

BREASTSTROKE RECOVERY
• Execute a correctly timed
• Keep the elbows and hands away
breathing movement.
from the side of the body.
• The elbows exit first with a
• The hand movements should
forward movement soon after
prescribe a direct line to the full-
breaking the surface.
stretch position.
• The arms should sweep low and
• Movements should only be in the
forward in a relaxed manner.
horizontal plane.
• The hands should be ready to
• The head and shoulders should
reposition the forearms when the
be returned to streamline before
arms are at a comfortable width
the arms are fully stretched
(usually more than shoulder
forward.
width).

TEACHING POINTS FOR NON-PROPULSIVE KICKING IN THREE
STROKES
ACHIEVED IN CRAWL STROKE
strokes.
• Kick consistently. DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE
• Some side-to-side rotation should ACHIEVED IN BACKSTROKE
occur. • Kick small and fast.
strokes.
ACHIEVED IN BUTTERFLY
STROKE • Kick splashless.
• Kick small and fast. • No part of the kicking action
• Body streamline should be
maintained as much as possible • Kick consistently.
in the stroke cycle. • Some side-to-side rotation should
• Kick splashless and rhythmical. occur.
• No part of the kicking action
• Keep the kick small and fast in
the latter part of races.
• The kick effort should never
exceed that which needed to
counter-balance the required
arm-stroke elements.


TEACHING POINTS FOR PROPULSIVE KICKING IN BREASTSTROKE
AND OUT OF THE DIVE AND TURNS
ACHIEVED IN BREASTSTROKE
KICKING
• The legs should be pulled up very
quickly with the knees
comfortably apart, the thighs
angled, and the lower legs
vertical.
• The propulsive surfaces are the
insides of the feet, ankles, and
lower legs.
• The time it takes to extend the
thighs and the knees should be DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE
similar so that the kick ends with ACHIEVED IN DOUBLE-LEG
most of the swimmer in KICKING
streamline.
• Keep the arms, head, and torso
• The arms, head, and body should streamlined and still.
be streamlined for the duration of
the kick. • Kick small and fast by "stabbing"
the tops of the feet backward.
• The intent of the kick is to kick
backward as fast as possible. • Perform the kicking at a depth
between 1.50 and 2.00 m.
• The kicking velocity should
exceed the arm-pull velocity so
that acceleration occurs in both
phases of the stroke.
• The legs will end apart at the
completion of the hip and leg
extensions.
• To complete the kick cycle, the
legs should be closed to
streamline while at the same time
the arms are opened to the
position where the stroke's initial
actions begin.

Appendix B - Visual Aids 12.1
APPENDIX B
VISUAL AIDS FOR MICROCYCLE INSTRUCTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE Page
How to Use These Visual Aids 12.2
Flotation Features 12.3
Head Positions in All Strokes 12.4
Butterfly Streamline and Head Positions 12.5
Breaststroke Streamline 12.6
Breaststroke Streamline 12.7
Crawl Stroke and Backstroke Breathing 12.8
Breathing – Butterfly and Breaststroke 12.9
Body Roll Dynamics 12.10
Overtaking (Catch-up) Stroke 12.11
Body and Hip Roll 12.12
Crawl Stroke Finish Positions 12.13
Backstroke Finish Positions 12.14
Breaststroke Finish Positions 12.15
Butterfly Stroke Finish Positions 12.16
Crawl Stroke Power-phases 12.17
Crawl Stroke Power-phases (continued) 12.18
Backstroke Power-phases 12.19
Breaststroke Power-phases 12.20
Butterfly Stroke Power-phases 12.21
Crawl Stroke Initial Position (Repositioning) 12.22
Backstroke Initial Position (Repositioning) 12.23
Breaststroke Initial Actions 12.24
Butterfly Stroke Initial Actions 12.25
Crawl Stroke Recovery 12.26
Recoveries for Backstroke, Breaststroke, and Butterfly 12.27
Flotation and Crawl Stroke Kicking 12.28
Backstroke Kicking 12.29
Breaststroke Kicking 12.30

HOW TO USE THESE VISUAL AIDS

Good verbal communication skills are a requirement for good coaching. However, some concepts
particularly those involving positions of the body and limbs can be well-served by providing relevant
pictures of what is required. Much of what is desirable in swimming, particularly underwater, can
often be better communicated with a picture of it being done correctly.
The second most-influential visual aid for instruction is that of a model of an esteemed famous
individual. In this manual pictures of World and Olympic champions and world-record holders in
actual races earning those accolades are presented. They are exactly what the models do in the best
of their races. Consequently, they should be very influential when part of an instructional process.
How to Use These Aids
Each visual aid is a compilation of pictures included to serve as examples of what is described in the
text of this manual. Their content should be well known to the coach using this manual.
These aids should accompany a coach to practices and liberally presented to show individual
swimmers what they should look like, and in some cases, why they are to do what the coach
advocates.
To prepare the visual aids for use in a wet pool-side environment, it is recommended that the
following be done to prepare them for extended and repeated use.
1. Copy the full visual-aid pages from this Appendix.
2. Laminate each page with a sufficient margin to prevent water ever leaking in to damage the
page reproduction.
The lamination allows the pages to be wet and reusable.
When instructing, it is possible to hand a laminated picture to a group of swimmers who are in the
pool. This allows a coach to immediately present information or to supplement verbal information in
a most effective and expedient manner.
There are two aids that a coach takes to practices when using this program of a technique
macrocycle.
1. The Teaching Point Sheet, which is the last page of each microcycle, for the microcycle
under instruction. The summary of points on the sheet should serve as a quick reference
source for the coach to ensure that the major important features of the microcycle have been
instructed and made known to the swimmers.
2. The visual aids for the microcycle under instruction. They supplement the coach's verbal
instruction and in many cases introduce concepts in a more meaningful manner.
It is proposed by this writer that technique instruction will not be fully efficient or effective if the
two instructional aids presented in this manual are not used in the manner described.


HEAD POSITIONS IN ALL STROKES

BUTTERFLY








CRAWL STROKE FINISH POSITIONS

BACKSTROKE FINISH POSITIONS

BREASTSTROKE FINISH POSITIONS
Rebecca Soni's Finish Position and Initiation of Recovery

BUTTERFLY STROKE FINISH POSITIONS



BACKSTROKE POWER-PHASES












Index 13.1
INDEX
Abduction 5.3, 6.5 Recovery 7.4

Characteristics of 7.4
Acceleration 4.1 Common errors 7.5
Effective 4.1 Incorrect hand entry 7.5
Negative 4.2 Sculling 4.5
Not maintaining 4.1 Similarity to crawl stroke in the power-
Positive 4.2 phase 5.8
Range of movement 5.3 Technique emphases 4.6
Adduction 4.2, 5.3 Backward Shaping 9.3
Adlington, Rebecca 6.3, 6.5, 8.4 Balanced Stroke 3.8, 5.5
Anchor/Anchoring 4.1 Barrowman, Mike 1.11

Slipping 4.1 Reduced body elevation 1.11
Arm(s) 4.2 Beard, Amanda 6.8

Backstroke extension 4.5
Bending the 5.2 Bennett, Brooke 8.4
Dominant force producers 8.3, 8.6
In initial repositioning 6.4 Biedermann, Paul 3.5
Sensations 4.2
Straight 6.2 Bi-lateral Functioning 7.1
Total 4.9 In recoveries 7.1
Backstroke 1.5 Body Roll (Shoulder and Hip Roll) 3.1

Arm sensations 4.5 Definitive features of 3.10, 3.11
Definitive features of body roll 3.10 Common to crawl stroke and backstroke 3.2
Definitive features of breathing 2.6 Possible effects of 3.1
Definitive features of end of stroke 4.6 Restricted by excessive kicking 8.6
Definitive features of initial actions 6.7 Rhythm 3.7
Definitive features of kicking 8.11 Rise 5.4
Definitive features of the power-phase 5.11 Shoulders and hips 3.2
Definitive features of recovery 7.6 Teaching dynamics 3.9
Definitive features of streamline 1.6
End of propulsion 4.5 Breaststroke 1.9, 2.8
Features of good posture 1.5 Breathing differences for genders 1.10. 1.12
Features of ideal 2.5 Definitive features of breathing 2.10
Initial actions 6.5 Definitive features of end of stroke 4.9
Kicking 8.8 Definitive features of initial action 6.9
Excessive 8.8, 8.10 Definitive features of kicking 8.16
Features if good 8.8 Definitive features of the power-phase 5.14
Position of the head 2.4 Definitive features of recovery 7.9
Definitive features of streamline 1.14
Index 13.2
Desirable dynamics 1.9 Definitive features of kicking 8.12

End of stroke 4.7 Definitive features of power-phase 5.19
Characteristics 4.7 Definitive features of recovery 7.11
Line of shoulders 4.8 Definitive features of streamline 1.9
Features of power-phase 5.13 End-of-stroke 4.9
High ratings 5.14 Features 4.10
Initial actions 6.7 Fly over the water 1.6
Features of 6.8 Good 1.7
Kicking 8.13 Initial actions 6.9
Characteristics of 8.16 Elements of 6.10
Criteria for good 8.13 Kicking 8.11
Physical structure 8.13 Common errors 8.11
Faster than arms 8.17 Exaggerated 8.11
Non-breathing 2.10 Features of good 8.12
Power-phase 5.11 Some features of 8.11
Recovery 4.8, 7.6 Lower magnitudes of movement 5.14
Common actions to be altered 7.7 Poor 1.7
Hands out of the water 4.8, 7.6, 9.1 Power-phase features 5.18
Hand rotation 7.8 Recovery 7.9
Inertial lag 7.6 Acceptable criteria 7.9
Rising high 1.10 Rocker action 1.7
Technique Technique features
Emphases 4.9 End of stroke 4.10
Errors 2.9 Wave action 5.14
What not to do 2.9
Catch-up Stroke (see Overtaking stroke)
Breathing 2.1
Bilateral 2.3 Cavitation 8.2
Considerations surrounding 2.1
Definitive features of breathing 2.6 Center
Equipment 2.4 Of buoyancy 8.1
Possible effects of 2.2 Of force application 3.1
Of mass (gravity) 8.1
Burgh, Cameron Van Der 5.13, 8.14 To Periphery 0.3, 9.3
Kicking 8.13
Power-phase 5.12 Coaching Aids 9.6
Butterfly Stroke 1.6, 2.6, 4.9, 5.14, 5.15 Coughlin, Natalie 5.9
Big kicks 1.6 Unified shoulder and hip roll 5.8
Breathing 2.6
And non-breathing strokes 4.10, 5.16 Coventry, Kirsty 3.5, 5.10, 6.5
Every stroke 5.16
Features of efficient 2.6 Crawl Stroke 1.1
Preferred timing of 2.6 Adduction 4.3, 6.5
Coaching emphases 1.8 Breathing 2.2
Definitive features of breathing 2.8 Common errors 2.2
Definitive features of end of stroke 4.11 Correct repositioning 6.3
Definitive features of initial actions 6.10 Definitive features of breathing 2.4
Index 13.3
Definitive features of end of stroke 4.4 Effective Stroke 4.2

Definitive features of initial actions 6.7 Distance 5.2
Definitive features of kicking 8.8 Length 4.2
Definitive features of the power-phase 5.8
Definitive features of the recovery 7.4 Efficiency
Definitive features of streamline 1.4 Propelling 5.1
End-of-stroke 4.3 Stroke 0.2, 0.6
Major Faults 4.3 Effort
Features of good posture 1.2
Initial actions 6.3 Level 0.2
Elements of 6.4 Phase 2.1
Kicking 8.7 Breathe outside of the 2.1
Features 8.7
Overtaking (catch-up) 3.8 Elbow 5.2
Principles for body roll 3.2 Biceps brachii, brachialis, brachioradialis
Propelling surface 4.3 5.3
Propulsive phase 5.3 Flexion 5.2
Actions 5.3 Muscles 5.2
Balanced stroking pattern 5.3
Consistent acceleration 5.3 End-of-stroke 4.1
Horizontal forces 5.4 All strokes 4.10
Recovery 7.1 And power-phase 5.1
High-elbow 7.3 Backstroke sculling 4.5
Round-out 4.3 Breaststroke 4.7
Shoulder rotation in 5.4 Butterfly stroke 4.9
Streamline 1.1 Crawl stroke 4.2
Head 1.1 Possible effects of 4.2
Hips and legs 1.1 Principles 4.11
With butterfly kick 8.7 Velocity 4.1
Criticisms and Human Nature 9.2 Energy

Supply 0.2
Crocker, Ian 6.9 Transfer 0.1
Dogma 9.3 Evaluations 0.5

Stroke counts 0.5
Double-leg Kicking 8.17
Compared to dolphin kicking 8.18 Fatigue
Depth at which swum 8.18 Physiological 0.4
Definitive features of 8.19
Hill Taylor's backstroke 8.18 Feedback (see Teaching Effectiveness)
Good features of 8.19
Finger spread 6.3
Educational Gurus 9.2

Index 13.4
Floating 8.2 Jones, Leisel 8.15

Angle 8.2 Kicking 8.15
Horizontal 8.2
Kick-board Propulsion 8.3
Frame, Linley 1.10 Inappropriate training activity 8.3
Exaggerated elevation 1.10 Paradox 8.3
Friis, Lotte 2.2 Kicking 8.1

Air 8.5
Front-quadrant Arms 4.1 Appropriateness of 8.1
Backstroke 8.8
Growth and Development 0.4, 9.5 Excessive 8.8
Big (emphasized) 8.5
Gyurta, Daniel 5.11, 8.16 Body roll restricted by excessive 8.6
Kicking 8.16 Breaking the water surface 8.2
Power-phase 5.11 Breaststroke 8.12
Characteristics of 8.16
Hackett, Grant 3.8, 5.7 Criteria for 8.12
Physical structure 8.13
Henry, Jodie 5.6 Butterfly stroke 8.10
Common errors 8.10
Initial Actions 6.1 Crawl stroke 8.7
An inactive arm is a resistive arm 6.1 Depth 8.18
As short as possible 6.1 Detrimental 3.3
Backstroke 6.5 Double-leg 8.17
Breaststroke 6.7 Good features of 8.19
Crawl stroke 6.3 Distance swimmers 8.5
Elements of backstroke 6.6 Excessive in backstroke 5.9
Elements of crawl stroke 6.4 Features 8.6
Features of effective breaststroke 6.8 Free-swimming 8.3
Implications of three principles 6.2 Paradox 8.3, 8.4
Longest effective propulsive strokes 6.1 Hard 3.3, 3.4
Maximize the effective pull 6.1 Increased resistance 8.6
Greatest acceleration possible 6.1 Inertial cavitation 8.2
Minimize inertial lags 6.1 In isolation 3.9
Possible effects of 6.3 Problems 8.3
Two main purposes 6.2 Magnitude 3.5
Minimal time 6.2 Paradox 3.9
Maximum propulsive surface 6.2 Possible effects of 8.7
Two problematic situations 6.2 Resistances 8.3
Kicks too large 6.2 Small and fast 3.5, 8.3
Straight arms 6.2 Sprinters 8.4
Too large 6.2
Jedrzejczak, Otylia 5.15, 5.17, 6.9 Value 8.6
Direct power-phase 5.14
Kitajima, Kosuke 1.13, 6.7

Index 13.5
Klim, Michael 7.3 Momentum 4.2

Butterfly kicking 8.7 Conserving 4.3
Swimmer 4.2
Kovacs, Agnes 5.13, 6.8
Motor Learning
Krayzelberg, Lenny 8.9 And growth and development 0.4
And physiological fatigue 0.4
Irie, Ryosuke 5.9, 8.9 Overlearning 0.3, 0.4
Excessive kick 5.9, 8.9 Reverse sequence 0.3
Three principles of 0.3
Learning 0.4
Newton's Third Law 1.2
Legs 8.2
Back of 8.3 Nuclear Submarines 1.2
Structure of 8.2
O'Neill, Susan 5.15
Li, Liping 2.9, 7.7
Technique errors 2.10 Overtaking Stroke 3.8
What not to do 2.9 Never in backstroke 4.6
No value in 5.4
Lochte, Ryan 1.7, 2.7, 5.15 Versus balanced crawl-stroke 3.8
Butterfly breathing 2.7
Poor butterfly 1.7 Pace
Slow 0.2
Macrocycle 0.2
And conditioning cycles 0.2 Peirsol, Aaron 2.4, 5.10, 8.9
Effective implementation 9.4
Three procedures 9.4 Pellegrini, Federica 8.4
Repetitively using the 0.2, 9.5
Perkins, Kieren 3.3, 3.7, 8.4
Manaudou, Laure 8.4
Phelps, Michael 1.7, 1.8, 2.6, 5.15, 5.16, 7.9
Meagher, Mary T. 5.15 Good butterfly 1.7
Mellouli, Oussama 3.8, 8.4 Physical Conditioning v
Memory, Short- and Long-term 9.3 Popov, Alexandre 5.4, 7.3

Balanced stroke 5.5
Microcycle 0.1, Butterfly kicking 8.7
Week of Training 0.1, 0.3 Movement paths 5.6
Mid-line 3.1 Power

Deviation away from 3.1 Important principles 5.2
Direct horizontal propulsive forces 5.2
Mid-stroke Phase (see Power-phase) 5.1 Longest distance 5.2
As many muscles as possible 5.2
Phase 5.1
Backstroke 5.8
Index 13.6
Breaststroke 5.11 Roudkovskia, Elena 1.11

Similarity to butterfly stroke 5.11 Lower back hyperextension 1.11
Crawl stroke 5.3 Streamlined trailing legs 1.11
Forces 5.15
Possible effects of 5.3 Round-out 4.3
One peak curve 5.4
Scientific Principles 9.1
Principle Visual and research evidence 9.1
Of Specificity v
Unnecessary movements 7.8 Scientists, Pseudo 9.2
Propelling Surface 4.2 Schipper, Jessica 1.8

Crawl stroke 4.2
Staff Meeting 0.3
Propulsive Phase 0.1
Shoulder
Quann, Megan 1.12 -Arm alignment 3.7
Lift in backstroke 5.8
Race-pace Rotation 3.1
Work v, 0.2 In crawl stroke 5.4
In Natalie Coughlin 5.8
Recovery Rotator muscles 3.5
Backstroke 7.4 External 3.6
Characteristics of 7.4 Feel 3.10
Common errors 7.5 Internal 3.6
Breaststroke 7.6 Shoulder capsule 3.2
Butterfly stroke 7.9 To upper-arm angle 3.6
Crawl stroke 7.1 Angular change at the 3.7
Forces 7.11
High-elbow 7.3 Soni, Rebecca 1.12, 4.8, 5.12, 6.7, 7.7, 8.15
Advantages 7.3 Independent body movement 1.12
Possible effects of 7.1 Kicking 8.15
Straight arms 3.2, 7.2 Power-phase 5.11
Unnecessary movements 7.2
Streamline 1.1
Repetitions, Masses of 9.3 Cost of kicking 8.2
Crawl stroke 1.1
Resistance 1.1 Horizontality 1.1
Reducing 0.1, Improve and reduce resistance 1.14
Negative angle 1.4
Reverse Sequence 0.3 Possible effects of 1.1
Riley, Samantha 1.10 Stockbauer, Hannah 5.7

Rocker action 1.10
Straight-arm 3.2, 7.1
Rosa, Norbert 1.9, 1.10, 1.11 Recovery 3.2, 7.1
Rising high 1.9, 1.10, 1.11
Strength 5.1
Index 13.7
Stroke Counts 0.5 Work 5.1

Non-propulsive 5.1
Stroke Length 4.2 Propulsive 5.1
Effective 4.2
Wrist
Swimmer's Shoulder 6.2 Flexion 5.8
Taylor, Hill 8.18 Yang, Sun 1.3, 8.4

Underwater backstroke kicking 8.17
Ziegler, Kate 8.4
Teaching
Effectiveness 0.4
Coach reinforcement 0.5
Coach in the water 0.5
Dynamics 3.9
Feedback 0.4
Peer reinforcement 0.4
Self-generated feedback 0.5
Underwater feedback 0.4, 0.5
Teaching Point Sheet 0.7

All Sheets 11.1
Test Sets 0.6
Thomas, Petria 5.15
Thorpe, Ian 1.3, 5.7, 8.4
Torres, Dara 3.5
Ultra-short Training at Race-pace 9.5
Visual Aids 0.7

All pictures 12.1
Visual Evidence 0.3
Vollmer, Dana 5.16
Wave Heights 0.7

Index of improvement 0.7
Western Australian Institute of Sport 3.5, 8.17

ABOUT THE AUTHOR
[http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/rushall/index.htm]
Dr. Brent S. Rushall is Professor Emeritus of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences at San Diego State
University. He has published 56 books and over 490 articles, book chapters, and psychology tests.
His academic recognitions have included the designation of being the founding scholar in
Behavioral Sport Psychology and a world authority in Coaching Science. He has been the keynote
speaker at many world congresses for both sport and academia. In recent years, Dr. Rushall has
received prestigious awards that recognize his accumulated contributions to the field of sports
science. He has been the writer and producer of his university-sponsored scientific web sites the
Swimming Science Journal (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/swim/index.htm) and the Coaching Science
Abstracts (http://coachsci.sdsu.edu/) since 1994. Professor Rushall has taught in Australia, Canada,
and the USA. His graduate courses have covered performance psychology, applied exercise
physiology, pedagogy, biomechanics, and research methods.
Dr. Rushall is a four-time Olympic Team psychologist for Canada, and has represented Canada at
Commonwealth Games, World Championships, and World Cup events in a number of sports. He is a
member of the Olympic Club of Canada. He has consulted with many international sport teams and
organizations primarily in the field of performance enhancement. His texts, manuals, and assessment
tools have been translated into several languages and are used in elite athlete programs in many
countries.
In swimming, Dr. Rushall has assisted legendary coaches Dr. James (Doc) Counsilman at Indiana
University in the latter half of the 1960s, Don Talbot in Thunder Bay, Canada in the latter half of the
1970s, and Forbes and Ursula Carlile since the early 1960s and with whom his association is still
strong. Dr. Rushall has served the Canadian and USA national swimming teams and has coached
Olympic medalists and world-record holders in Australia and Canada. In swimming, his coaching
certifications have been Elite International (American Swimming Coaches Association), Level III
(Swimming Canada), and Level 3 (Australian Swimming Coaches and Teachers Association).
Public Affiliations with Swimming
NSW Amateur Swimming Association (Australia)
Forbes and Ursula Carlile School of Swimming (Australia)
Indiana University Men's Swimming and Diving Team (USA)
Peru, Indiana YMCA Swimming Team (USA)
Bloomington Swimming Team, Indiana (USA)
Nova Scotia Swimming Association Scientific Training Squad (Canada)
Thunder Bay Thunderbolts Swimming Club (Canada)
Canadian National Swimming Team (Canada)
United States National Swimming Team (USA)
University of San Diego Women's Swimming and Diving Team (USA)
Carlile Swimming (Australia)
Cherrybrook Carlile Swimming Club (Australia)
San Diego State University Swimming and Diving Team (USA)
Team Andrew Indie Swimming (USA)

Brent S. Rushall, Ph.D.
San Diego State University

2013

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Brent S. Rushall, Ph.D.

Sports Science Associates

Sports Science Associates

First edition published January 18, 2013

CERTIFIED COPY HOLDER

November 19, 2018

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The late Professor James Edward "Doc" Counsilman PhD, DFC

Mr. Donald Talbot OBE, AO

The late Mr. Forbes Carlile MBE

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MICROCYCLE TITLE PAGE

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

MICROCYCLE TITLE PAGE

5 THE POWER-PHASE (MID-STROKE) 5.1

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

MICROCYCLE TITLE PAGE

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A SWIMMING TECHNIQUE MACROCYCLE:

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haphazard process of employing "teachable moments" (single instances of instruction/feedback

2. If coaches are to be the source of reinforcement, then it is essential that relevant

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development in humans. If the picture is rotated 90º counter-

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Figure 1.2. Ian Thorpe breathing

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DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE ACHIEVED IN CRAWL STROKE

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DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE ACHIEVED IN BACKSTROKE

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DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE ACHIEVED IN BUTTERFLY STROKE

Figure 1.10. A 3D computer analysis of Norbert Rosza's breaststroke cycle in his

Figure 1.11. A 3D computer analysis of Mike Barrowman's breaststroke cycle in his

Figure 1.12. A 3D computer analysis of Elena Roudkovskia's breaststroke cycle in

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DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE ACHIEVED IN BREASTSTROKE

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Possible Effects for Microcycle 2

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DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE ACHIEVED IN CRAWL STROKE

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DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE ACHIEVED IN BACKSTROKE

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DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE ACHIEVED IN BUTTERFLY STROKE

Figure 2.8. Liping Li at the 2012 London Olympic Games.

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DEFINITIVE FEATURES TO BE ACHIEVED IN BREASTSTROKE

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