Science – system of acquiring
knowledge. It uses observation and
experimentation to describe natural
phenomena.
CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCE
NATURAL SCIENCE – Study of natural
world such as Biology, chemistry,
physics, earth science, astronomy.
SOCIAL SCIENCE - study of human
behavior and society. Anthropology,
Economics, psychology, sociology,
history.
BRANCHES OF SCIENCE
1. BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE – science of
living things. Zoology, Botany, and
Ecology.
2. PHYSICAL SCIENCE – science of
matter and energy. Physics and
Chemistry.
3. EARTH SCIENCE - system of the
earth. Geology, Meteorology, and
Astronomy.
PURE SCIENCE – search for scientific
knowledge.
TECHNOLOGY – application of science.
 Scientific Theory – reasoned,
explanation tested by many
observations. Theories can be changed
or modified by new evidence.
 Scientific Method - way of thinking
about solving problems. Logical
method.
STEPS:
Starts with
observation.Question.Gather data.
Form hypothesis. Design experiment .
More observation. Draw conclusion
CHARACTERISTICS OF
LIVING THINGS
1. COMPLEX ORGANIZATION. The
tissue is a series of cells that accomplish
a shared function.
2. METABOLISM. Involve the release on
use of chemical energy.
3. RESPONSIVENESS. Able to respond
to stimuli in external environment.
Hormones- system of
nerves and a number of chemical
regulators coordinate activities.
4. GROWTH.
5. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION. Two
parents contribute to the formation of a
new individual.
6. EVOLUTION.
7. ECOLOGY. Study of the relationships
between organism and the environment.
NATURAL SELECTION – the strong
survived.
ANIMAL GROUPINGS
1. Kingdom , 2. Phylum, 3.
Classes, 4. Orders, 5.
Families, 6. Genera, 7.
Species
Earliest simple microscope –
magnification 10x of the actual size
HANS JANSSEN @ ZACHARIAS
JANSSEN (16th century)
- Invented first compound microscope
when they put two of their lenses
together in a tube.
- Invented 2 ft. long and extremely
heavy microscope.
ROBERT HOOKE
- English Father of Microscopy.
Discover cell which look like small
monastery.
- Saw dead plant cell. Publishes his
book MICROGRAPHIA, which
contain his drawings of sections of
cork.
ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOEK
- First person to see live cells. 270x
magnification.
- Pioneer to discover protozoa.
- ANIMACULES- small organism.
- Robert Koch – discover two
infectious bacteria and monumental
discovery in microbiology.
MICROSCOPE TECHNOLOGY
 COMPOUND LIGHT - Objective lenses have their
MICROSCOPE- use glass lenses just magnification written on them.
like the early microscope of Robert - Ocular lenses usually magnify by 10x.
Hooke. Modern Compound light
microscope- images up to 1000x CARING MICROSCOPE
w/out blurring. 1. Clean with soft cloth
Modern microscope is TRANSMISSION 2. Must be in flat surface
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (TEM) and 3. Carry with two hands
SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE (SEM) USING MICROSCOPE
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE- 500, 1. Start on the lowest magnification
000X magnification 2. Don’t use coarse adjustment knob on
CONVEX LENSES- are curved glasses high magnification
used to make microscopes. Bend light 3. Place slide on stage and lock clips
and focus it in one spot. 4. Adjust light source or mirror
PARTS AND FUNCTION OF THE 5. Use fine adjustment to focus
MICROSCOPE CYTOLOGY- STUDY OF CELLS
1. EYEPIECE/ OCULAR LENS- magnify THE DEVELOPMENT OF CELL
the specimen. Look through to view the THEORY
object placed on the stage. MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN- plants are
2. BODY TUBE- support the eyepiece and made up of cells
lenses. Maintains the proper distance
between the eyepiece and the objective THEODORE SCHWANN- animals are
lenses. made up of cells
3. NOSE PIECE- holds the objective
RUDOLF VIRCHOW- cells comes from
lenses and can be turned to increase
pre-existing cell.
the magnification.
4. OBJECTIVE LENSES- magnify the CELL THEORY
images of the specimen to form an
enlarged image. 1. All living organisms are made up
5. STAGE CLIPS- holds the slide/ of one or more cells
specimen in place on the stage. 2. Cells comprise of the smallest
6. DIAPHRAGM- controls the amount of functional unit of life
light on the slide or specimen. 3. Cells comes from pre-existing
7. MIRROR- reflects the light to the lens of cells.
the microscope.
8. ARM- frame which the body, base and FUNDAMENTAL
stage are attached. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
9. STAGE- support the slide/specimen. a. Obtain energy
10. COARSE ADJUSTMENT KNOB- b. Use energy
moves the stage up and down. c. Excrete waste
LARGER focusing of the image. d. Show order
11. FINE ADJUSTMENT KNOB- moves e. Homeostasis
the stage slightly to SHARPEN the f. Evolve
image for precision focusing. g. Reproduce
12. BASE- supports the microscope and h. Move
use for carrying microscope. i. Respond to the changes in the
environment
- To determine magnification, multiply the LESSON 2:CELLS STRUCTURES
ocular lens by the objective lens. AND FUNCTIONS
- Why study cells? Body is made up of cells.
(RBC, nerve, skin, muscle and White
blood cells, T@B cells, reproductive c,
Stem cells)
- Certain cells can make us sick (Protist,
cancer cell, bacterial cells)
CELL DIVERSITY
- Cells within the same organism show
enormous diversity in:
1. Cell size is limited by a cell’s surface
area to volume ration.
- A smaller cell is more effective in
transporting materials, including waste
products, than a larger cell.
- As cells grow, their volume increases
faster than the surface area.
- As the cells grows bigger, the surface
area becomes too small to maintain its
life function.
Cells are
SMALL FOR 2 REASONS
a. Limited in size by the RATIO between
their Outer Surface Area and Their
Volume.
b. The cell’s nucleus (the brain) can only
control a certain amount of living, active
cytoplasm.
2. CELL SHAPE. The shape of a cell
depends on its function.
-cell grows, volume increase
-volume increase, surface area
increase
-cell larger, surface area greater to
required to maintain it
-cell grows bigger, surface area
becomes to small
3. INTERNAL ORGANIZATION:
*PROKARYOTIC CELL ( Cell
membrane and cytoplasm). lack a
nuclear envelope, smaller [bacterial
cells]
*EUKARYOTIC CELL ( cell
membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus,
organelles), have distinct nuclei, larger
[plants, fungi, animals, protists]
BASIC TYPES OF
CELLS
- One thing that all cells have common
is a PLASMA (CELL) MEMBRANE
- PLASMA MEMBRANE- boundary
which allows things into and out of the
cell.
1. Prokaryotes – Cells without a
membrane-bound nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles. Do
not have structures surrounded by
membranes
- Unicellular organisms like
bacteria. Notice the DNA is not
found in a nucleus and organelles
are absent (except ribosomes).
- Prokaryotes, which includes all
bacteria, are the simplest cellular
organisms. They have genetic
material but no nucleus.
Prokaryotic Cell Parts
and Functions
1. Capsule – sticky outer layer for
protection
2. Cell wall – structure for rigidity and
shape to the cell
3. Plasma membrane – serves as
permeability barrier
4. Plasmid – genetic material
5. Nucleoid – DNA containing region in
the cytoplasm
6. Cytoplasm – where DNA /
chromosomes are found
7. Ribosome – site for protein
synthesis
8. Pilus/pili – hair-like appendage for
adhesion
9. Flagellum – facilitates bacterial
movement
2. Eukaryotes – Cells with a
membrane-bound nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles.
- A nucleus is the central
organelle of a cell that contains
the genetic material (DNA).
- Organelles are like organs for
the cell. They are special
structures that perform vital
functions necessary to the cell.
 - Animals, plants, protists (like
paramecium and amoeba), and
fungi are all eukaryotic organisms. - SMOOTH ER- Plays a role in
- 3 MAIN PARTS (cell
membrane, cytoplasm,
nucleus)
a. CELL MEMBRANE (Plasma
membrane)
- Cell wall for plant cells. Provides
shape and flexibility
- Outer membrane of cell that
regulates movement in and out of the
cell
- Double membrane
- The ability to allow only certain
molecules in or out of the cell is
referred to as selective
permeability or semi permeability.
- Singer-Nicolson Fluid mosaic
model describe that Plasma
membrane is a mosaic of proteins
embedded to a bilayer of lipid
- Proteins are globular entities
floating on a lipid bilayer
- Regulates substances that enter /
exit the cell
- Solvent for integral membrane
proteins that run across the lipid
bilayer ( fluid) .
- 1925 Evert Gorter and Francois
Grendel hypothesized that the cell
membrane is a lipid bilayer
- Found that plasma membrane has
layer facing inward- hydrophobic
- Another layer facing outward the
environment of the cell –
hydrophilic
b. CYTOPLASM- Gel-like mixture.
Surrounded by cell membrane where
cell organelles and cellular inclusions
are found.
CYTOPLASMIC
ORGANELLES
1. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM -
Moves materials around in cell.
Membrane-enclosed sac and tubules
Network of intercommunicating
channels in the cytoplasm
- ROUGH ER -Make proteins. Folding,
quality control and dispatch
Manufacture and metabolism of
lipids and Biosynthesis of steroid
hormones
2. GOLGI APPARATUS- Sets of
cisternae and vesicles filled with fluid.
Processing, packaging and sorting of
secretory materials.
3. MITOCHONDRIA- Powerhouse of the
cell. Produces energy through
chemical reactions – breaking down
fats & carbohydrates. Produces
energy in the form of ATP
- Controls level of water and other
materials in cell
- Recycles and decomposes
proteins, fats, and carbohydrates
- Cristae are numerous folds in the
inner membrane
- Matrix is the space inside the
inner membrane
- Cells that are most active. E.g.
liver have more mitochondria
compared to those less active
4. LYSOSOME- Contains enzymes for
intracellular digestion . Digestive
'plant' for proteins, fats, and
- Digests invaders
- Transports undigested material
to cell membrane for removal/
Garbage disposal of the cell
- Aid in cell renewal
- Break down old cell parts
- Cell breaks down if lysosome
explodes
5. SECRETORY GRANULES - fuse
with cell membrane to create:
enzymes, proteins and signals
molecules out of the cell
6. LIPID DROPLETS - store fatty acids
and sterols
PARTS of cell
1. CYTOPLASM- semiliquid material that
fills the cell.
2. NUCLEUS- control most cell processes,
contains hereditary information (DNA)
3. CHLOROPLAST- capture energy from
sunlight and convert it into chemical
energy
4. VACUOLE- sac-like structure that stores
water, salts, food , etc.
5. RIBOSOMES- manufacture proteins
6. MITOCHONDRIA- convert chemical
energy stored in food into ATP
7. CELL MEMBRANE- regulates what
enters and leaves the cell, protection and
support
8. CELL WALL- outer layer in plant cells,
support and protection
CYTOPLASMIC INCLUSION
- non membranous substances and
structures suspended in cytoplasm.
- CYTOSKELETON- Framework of the
cell. Contains small microfilaments and
larger microtubules. They support the cell,
giving it its shape and help with the
movement of its organelles.
1. RIBOSOMES- Most numerous in
cytoplasmic structures
-Site for Protein synthesis;
-protein needed by the cells float freely in
the cytoplasm
-Proteins exported outside are produced
by those attached to the ER 2.
CENTRIOLES - Found only in animal cells
- Paired organelles found together near
the nucleus, at right angles to each
other.
- Role in building cilia and flagella
- Play a role in cellular reproduction in
formation of mitotic spindles
3. MICROTUBULES- Long slender
protein tubes
- Form cytoskeleton of the cell
- Linear polymers of tubulin
- Forms spindle apparatus during cell
division
- Form cores of the cilia and flagella
- Maintain cell shape
4. MICROFILAMENTS- Support cell to
maintain structure and shape
- important in cytoplasmic streaming
5. GLYCOGEN GANULES - Abundant
in liver cells. Plays a role in glucose cycle
6. PIGMENTS- Possess own color.
Abundant in plant cells
c. NUCLEUS- Where nucleic
acid are produced thus directs
cell activities in eukaryotic cells .
Brain of Cell
 Bordered by a porous membrane
- nuclear envelope.
 Contains thin fibers of DNA and
protein called Chromatin.
 Contains a small round nucleolus
 produces ribosomal RNA which
makes ribosomes.
1. NUCLEAR MEMBRANE- Layer
that separates it from the cytoplasm.
Contains ribosomes on the outer
membrane and continuous with the
ER. Surrounds nucleus. Made of
two layers. Openings allow material
to enter and leave nucleus .
2. NUCLE0PLASM- Dense protein
rich substance. Nucleolus
(ribosome formation) is suspended
in it. Rich in protein and nucleic
acids where RNA is transcribed and
assembled.
3. NUCLEAR PORE- Act as selective
channels between the cytoplasm
and the inside of the nucleus. Allow
molecules which contain the correct
localization signals to pass in and
out.
4. CHROMATIN - Made up of DNA
and proteins. Forms chromosomes
during cell division which contain the
genes inherited by the offprings
from their parents.
5. CHROMOSOMES- Made of DNA.
Contain instructions for traits &
characteristics
6. NUCLEOLUS-Inside nucleus.
Contains RNA to build proteins
 PLANT CELLS
STRUCTURES
1. CELL WALL- Extra structure
surrounding its plasma membrane in
plants, algae, fungi, and bacteria.
Composed of cellulose embedded in
hardening compounds such as
pectin and lignin. (Cellulose –
Plants) (Chitin – Fungi)
(Peptidoglycan – Bacteria)
2. VACUOLE- Sacs that help in food
digestion or helping the cell maintain
its water balance. Store enzymes
and waste products. Found mostly in
plants and protists.
- Membrane-bound sacs for
storage, digestion, and waste
removal
- Contains water solution
- Help plants maintain shape
3. PLASTIDS- carry out the
photosynthetic function in plants.
a. CHLOROPLAST- Double
membrane; Contains green
pigment chlorophyll
 Center section contains grana
 Thylakoid (coins) make up the
grana.
 Stroma - gel-like material
surrounding grana
 Found in plants and algae.
 Usually found in plant cells
 Contains green chlorophyll
 Where photosynthesis takes
place
b. CHROMOPLAST – synthesize
and store pigments such as
yellow that assist in trapping
light energy.
c. LEUCOPLASTS- store food
such as starches.
CELL MODIFICATION AND
ADAPTATIONS
SPECIALIZED CELLULAR
MODIFICATIONS- alterations in cells
that distinguished them from one
another.
a. MICROVILI- extension on the cell
membrane that help increase the surface
area of the cell.
b. NERVE cell- facilitate the transmission
of impulses from the brain and the spinal
cord to different parts of the body
c. RED BLOOD cells- allows for easy
movement through blood vessels.
d. TRACHEAL cell – have cilia that beat
and drive air impurities or foreign
particles and mucus secretions up the
trachea to the mouth.
e. SPERM CELL- have tail and flagellum
which propels toward the egg cell
f. ROOT HAIRS- elongated outgrowths
from the outer layer of cell in a root that
help absorb water and minerals.
CELL-CELL JUNCTIONS- points where
two cells come together
STAGES OF CELL CYCLE
Cell Cycle – the period of growth,
maturation, and reproduction of the cell.
INTERPHASE – is the longest phase in
the cell cycle.
Stages of Interphase:
1. Gap 1 (G1) stage – In this stage,
the cell increases in mass and/or
size and organelles increase in
number in preparation for cell
division.
2. Synthesis (S) stage – this stage
begins with the replication of
cellular DNA.
3. Gap 2 (G2) stage – the
chromosomes start to condense
and become visible, and the cell
enters prophase.
Cell Division – process by which parent
cell divides into two or more daughter
cell.
MITOSIS – period of continuous activity
which is necessary for the survival of all
eukaryotic organism.
4 phases of Mitosis
 Prophase – the chromatin
condenses into more discrete
chromosomes.
 Metaphase – the spindle fibers
are fully developed and the
chromosomes align at the
equatorial plate.
 Anaphase – characterized by
the separation of the
chromosomes.
 Telophase – the complete sets
of chromosomes during
telophase are cordoned off into
new distinct nuclei of the
daughter cells.
CYTOKINESIS – the stage that follows
right after the process of mitosis and
completes the full stage of the cell cycle.
MEIOSIS – another process of cell
division that takes place in sexually
mature organisms.
Meiosis I (reduction division)
 Prophase I – the nuclear
membrane and the nucleolus
start to disappear.
 Metaphase I – the paired
homologous chromosomes
(tetrads) are moved by the
spindle fibers to the equator of
the cell.
 Anaphase I – homologous pairs
of chromosomes (dyads)
separate and migrate toward
their respective pole.
 Telophase I – two daughter cells
are completely divided.
INTERKINESIS – short pause between
meiosis I and meiosis II
Meiosis II
 Prophase II – the nuclear
envelope and nucleoli disappear
and the chromatids start to
shorten and thicken.
 Metaphase II – characterized by
the movement of chromosomes
to the cell equator.
 Anaphase II – centromeres
joining the chromatids divide,
allowing microtubules attached to
the kinetochores to pull the sister
chromatids apart.
 Telophase II – chromosomes
uncoil and lengthen.
Dyad – chromosome is composed of two
sister chromatids held together by a
centromere.
Tetrad – a paired homologous
chromosome is composed of four sister
chromatids.
Chiasma – crossing over takes place
between two non-sister chromatids
along a point.
Gametogenesis – the process where
diploid cells undergo cell division and
differentiation through meiosis to form
mature haploid gametes or sex cells.
Spermatogenesis – the process of
sperm formation.
Oogenesis – the process of egg
formation.
CELLULAR TRANSPORT
Cellular Transport – this condition
makes the plasma membrane an
extremely important cellular structure
because it is selectively permeable.
DIFFERENT TRANSPORT
MECHANISMS
PASSIVE TRANSPORT – the
movement of substances across
membranes without energy expenditure.
Diffusion – the net movement of
substances from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration, down the concentration
gradient.
Osmosis – the diffusion of water
molecules across a selectively
permeable membrane.
Hypertonic solution – a region of less
concentrated solution.
Hypertonic – a region of more
concentrated solution.
Isotonic – solute concentration is equal.
Facilitated Diffusion – it is the
movement of solutes through protein
channels down the concentration
gradient, and without energy
expenditure.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT – it is the meas
of moving solutes across a membrane,
up the concentration gradient.
Carrier Proteins – process requires the
expenditure of energy through the
transport proteins.
Andenosine Triphosphate (ATP) – the
energy currency of the cell.
Active transport is essential to the
cell mainly because of three reasons:
1. It enables the transport of
nutrients to the cell even when
their concentration on the inside
is already higher.
2. It makes possible the removal of
waste materials from the cell
despite their higher concentration
outside the cell.
3. It enables the cell to maintain the
concentration of essential ions
such as K+, Na+, Ca2+, and H+.
BULK TRANSPORT – water and small
solutes enter and leave the cell through
passive and active diffusion.
Exocytosis – is the process of removing
material from the cell through the
vesicles that fuse with the plasma
membrane.
Endocytosis – the reverse process of
exocytosis wherein cells engulf
materials.
Endocytosis happens either through:
1. Phagocytosis – occurs when an
undissolved material enters the
cell.
2. Pinocytosis – occurs when
dissolved substances enter the
cell.
Dialysis – a treatment given to
patients with temporary or
permanent kidney failure.
Matter- anything that takes up space
and has mass
Atoms- smallest particle of matter (10
nm)
Nucleus- dense core of an atom
Proton- positively charged
Neutron- Uncharged subatomic particle
Atomic number- number of protons in
an atom
Atomic Mass- sum of the masses of the
protons and neutrons of an atom
Electron- negatively charged subatomic
particle
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
1. Pure substance- form of matter with
properties that are distinct and definite
2. Mixtures- made up of two or more
substances that can be separated by
physical means
PURE SUBSTANCES
A. Elements- composed of only one
type of atom. Cannot be broken down
into simpler substance
B. Compound- two or more elements
are chemically bonded together
>Organic compound- contain
carbon in combination with another atom
of carbon or with other elements
Chemical Bonds- attraction between
atoms results in the formation of
compounds
Covalent bonds (electrons are shared)-
pair or pairs of electrons that are shared
by two or more atoms
>Single covalent bond- only one
electron pair is shared between two
atoms
>Double Covalent Bond- two
electron pairs are shared between two
atoms
Ionic bonds (charged atoms resulting
from the gain or loss of electrons)
Complete transfer of electrons
>cation- positively charged ion
>Anion -negatively charged ion
Hydrogen bonds- bond between the
negative pole of a polar molecule
Van der Waals forces- asymmetrical
distribution of the charge
Mixtures- combination of two or more
substances.
Homogeneous mixtures- have single
phase and uniform composition
Heterogeneous mixture- consist of two
or more phases
Solutions – homogeneous mixtures of
components
Colloids (emulsions) – heterogeneous
mixtures whose solutes do not settle out
Suspensions – heterogeneous
mixtures with visible solutes that tend to
settle out
The Biological Molecules
1. Carbohydrates- Made of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen
>most abundant organic compound
>Primary fuel source for body cells
Divided into two main classes:
>Simple sugars
>Complex sugars
MONOSACCHARIDES- monomers or
simple sugar
a. GLUCOSE-(hexose or dextrose)
Principle building block of all other
carbohydrates
b. FRUCTOSE-(levulose) Isomer of
glucose
c. GALACTOSE- Not usually found free
in nature in large quantities. Typically
found as a subunit of lactose
DISACCHARIDES-composed of two
molecules of sugar
a. MALTOSE-Composed of two glucose
molecules
b. SUCROSE- Composed of one
glucose and one fructose
c. LACTOSE-Composed of one glucose
and one galactose
OLIGOSACCHARIDES- made up of two
to ten monosaccharide units
POLYSACCHARIDES- consist of
hundreds of linked monomers
2. Lipids- Contain carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen
>to keep body warm
>prevent the watery component of
the cell from leaking out
>Glycerol- a three carbon alcohol
with three hydroxyl groups attached to
each carbon
>Triglycerides, Phospholipids,
Steroids, Waxes
 >Saturated- all the carbon atoms of 5. Defense function:Antibodies: highly
the fatty acids are bonded to atleast two specific proteins that are responsible for
hydrogen atoms. detecting foreign substance, “antigen”.
6. Hormones- chemical messenger
3. Proteins- important biological
molecules that play crucial roles in
4. Nucleic Acid- Large organic
virtually all biological processes. CHON
molecules that carry the “code of life.
>Amino acids- monomers/building Contain C, H, O, N, and P
blocks of proteins
>2 Main types:
>Polypeptides- long chain of amino
1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
acids
2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Levels of Protein Organization >Nucleotides- building blocks of
1. Primary Structure-Simple order. nucleic acids
sequence of amino acid >Three components:
2. Secondary Structure- three 1. pentose sugar
dimensional folding of the polypeptide
chain in the protein. Alpa helix (spiral) 2. Phosphate group
Beta sheet (accordion like pleated sheet) 3. Nitrogenous base/purine or
3. Tertiary Structure- distant segments pyrimidine nucleobase
of primary structure
4. Quaternary Structure- fitting DNA RNA
together of two or more polypeptide
chains Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Nitrogenous Guanine x Guanine x
base Cytosine Cytosine
Functions of Proteins
Thymine x
Uracil x Adenine
1.Structural and Mechanical Adenine
support:Ex: collagen, a fibrous protein
Helix Double Single
in skin and bone.
2.Transport and storage: For
example;Hemoglobin transports oxygen Water
in erythrocytes
>The body is mostly water 70to 90 %
3.Regulatory Proteins: proteins that (~2/3rds of total body weight) so all
bind to segments of DNA and bring chemical reactions in the body occur in
about gene regulation water
4. Catalytic function:Nearly all >has high specific heat
chemical reactions in biological systems
are catalyzed by specific enzymes. >has a high ionizing power
> Exhibits high surface tension

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
6CO2 + 6O2+ sunligh > C6H1206 + 602
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
C6H1206 + 602 >6CO2 + 6O2 + ATP