UNIT-I

PRINCIPLES OF CORRECT USE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Vowel: A vowel is a letter standing for an open sound that can be spoken independently. Vowels have
open sounds. While speaking them, our breath comes out of the mouth without being stopped
anywhere. These are voiced letters/sonants/vowels i.e. a, e, i, o, u (5 letters).
Consonant: A consonant is a letter that can sound with the help of some vowel or semi-vowel only.
These letters do not have open sounds. While speaking any consonant, the breath is once completely
stopped in the mouth by the throat, tongue, teeth or lips. These 21 letter require the help of vowels to
be spoken of. That is why, they are non-vowels or consonants i.e. b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k l, m, n, p, q, r, s,
t, v, w, x, y, z (21 letters)
Semi-vowels: Two consonants of the English alphabet stand in between the vowels and the non-
vowels/consonants. Sometimes, they sound as vowels and sometimes as non-vowels i.e. double
character and these w and y are called semi-vowels.
e.g. ‘w& y’ as non-vowels/consonants- was, wait, want, walk watch, yes, year, yellow, yesterday etc.
while ‘w & y’ as vowels- cow, few, dew, how, row etc. (sound as long u); my, cry, fry, fly, sty etc.
(sound as long i).
Semi-consonant: A vowel which has a double character and mostly sounds as a vowel but in a few
words, it sounds like the consonant ‘y’, is called semi-consonant.
e.g. ‘u’ as a vowel- cup, put, cube, fuel, pulse, rule etc. while ‘u’ as a consonant- unit, university,
use, union, university etc.

Words: Sounds and letters are the seeds of the English language. When they join together, it gives
births to words which are building blocks of the English language.

Phrase: A phrase is a group of words that does not make a complete sense, and does not contain a
finite verb, expressed or understood, but is uses as a single part of speech i.e. a word-group that makes
some sense but not complete sense.
e.g. at the point of, in the corner, at the dead of night, in a hurry, over the stream, in the afternoon, all
of a sudden, at once, at present, at the end of the day etc.

Clause: A clause is a group of words having a subject and a predicate of its own, but forming part of
a bigger sentence i.e. a sentence forming part of a bigger sentence. e.g. after he has gone, before he
comes, as soon as he arrives, as he is ill etc.
a) Dependent/ Subordinate clause: A clause which is dependent on another clause.
b) Principal clause: It is the clause which stands by itself and on which the Subordinate clause
depends.
e.g. As he is ill (Subordinate clause), he cannot come (Principal clause). This is the boy (Principal
clause) who did it (Subordinate clause) etc.
c) Co-ordinate Clause:Co-ordinate clause is of the same rank as another and is connected by a Co-
ordinating conjunction with the latter. e.g. He went home (stand itself i.e. not dependent on other) and
then (he) left for Delhi (stand itself i.e. not dependent on other). He is poorbut (he) will help you.

Sentence: A sentence is a word-group that gives clear and complete meaning i.e. complete sense. e.g.
The chair is lying in the corner. The teacher is in a hurry.etc.

PHONETICS
1

Phonetics originated from the Greek word “phone” meaning sound or voice. Phonetics is the branch
Page

of linguistics that deals with the sounds of speech and their production, combination, description and
representation by written symbols. It is concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds
(phones) and their production, reception, and perception. Broadly speaking, phonetics is the study of
sounds of human speech.
A basic understanding of the sound system of the English language is very important in effective oral
communication. the ability to produce individual sounds, both in isolation and in combination with
other sounds, also plays a significant role in effective oral communication. Pronunciation is far more
than the accurate production of individual sounds. Pronunciation is the way a word or a language is
usually spoken or the manner in which someone utters the words of language.
To develop oral communication skills, it is important to understand the sound system of English,
including various aspects such as individual sounds- consonants and vowels, production of speech,
word stress, sentence stress, and intonation or the variation of pitch.

WORD STRESS
Accent or stress is an important aspect of spoken English. Developing effective word accent and
sentence accent is very important to speak intelligible English. The following rules can help one get
the proper accent:
a) If a word ends with –ion or –logy, the syllable preceding these endings is accented. Examples:
ex-hi-_bi-tion, ter-mi-_na-tion, an-thro-po-_logy, bi-_o-logy, etc.
b) If an adjective ends with –ic, the main accent is normally on thesecond syllablefrom the end.
Examples: a-_to-mic, sym-_bo-lic, etc.
c) If a verb ends with –fy, -ate, -ise, -ize or –yse, the main accent is on thethird syllablefrom the
end. Examples: ex-_em-pli-fy, _i-mi-tate, _fac-to-rize, e-_co-no-mize, _a-na-lyse, etc.
d) If an adjective ends with –iical, the main accent is normally on thethird syllablefrom the end.
Examples: psy-cho-_lo-gi-cal, _gra-phi-cal, etc.
e) If a word consisting of three or more syllable ends with –ity, the main accent is on the third
syllable from the end. If it has only two syllables, the main accent is on the first syllable.
Examples: _en-mi-ty, act-_ti-vi-ty, _pi-ty, _ci-ty, etc.
f) If an adverb ends with –cally, the main accent normally falls on the fourth syllable from the end.
Examples: geo-_gra-phi-ca-lly, _lo-gi-ca-lly, etc.
g) If a word ends with –ee, -eer, or –ette, the main accent normally falls on the last syllable.
Examples: em-plo-_yee, auc-tion-_eer, ci-ga-_rette, etc.

*** Weak Forms and Strong Forms: The weak form of a word is used when the word has no stress
and is phonetically distict from its strong/full form. A weak form is an unstressed syllable. A word
may have multiple weak forms or none. There are about 45 words in English with two or more
pronunciations- one strong pronunciation and one weak pronunciation/weak form. Words of this kind
may be called weak form words. Since almost all native speakers of Received Pronunciation
(RP)/BBC English/the Queen’s English/ Standard English (widely understood and internationally
intelligible accent) use weak forms in their pronunciation, it becomes difficult for a learner of RP to
understand without learning those words properly. The words with weak forms in RP are:
a, am, an, and, are, as, at, be, been, but, can, could, does, for, from, had, has, have, he, her, him,
his, just, me, must, of, shall, she, should, some, than, that, the, them, there, to, us, was, we, were,
who, would, you. Words such as auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, pronouns, prepositions, articles, etc.
fall into this category, all of which are pronounced in their strong forms in certain circumstances but
are more frequently pronounced in their weak forms. There are certain contexts where only the strong
form is acceptable and others where the weak form is generally used.
2

Examples:
Page

1) And: bread and butter (Weak); You should not put ‘and’ (Strong/Full) at the end of a sentence.
2) Can: Malinican (Weak) speak English better than I can (Strong).
3) Of: I am fond of (Weak) fruits. Fruits are what I am fond of (Stron).
4) Have: Have (Weak) you finished? Yes, I have (Strong).
5) Should: I should (Weak) forget it. So, you should (Strong).
6) To: It is time to (Strong) act. Try to (Weak) stop.
7) His (Strong) name was mentioned. Give me his (Weak) books.
8) Some: Have some (Weak) more coffee. I have got some (Strong).

SENTENCE STRESS
Look at this sentence. This acid is very harmful.Let’s try and speak this sentence without stressing
any word. Our utterance may not send the intended meaning to our listener. But when you give
emphasis on ‘this’, the importance is on the kind of acid. When we stress the word ‘very’, the
importance shifts to the nature of the harm.
In English sentences, each word does not have the same prominence and some words stand out from
the rest due to stress or greater breath force. Just as in a single polysyllabic word, one syllable gets
more stress than the others, in a sentence one or two words get more emphasis than the others.

INTONATION
The intonation of a language refers to the patterns of pitch variations or the tones it uses in its
utterances. In normal speech, the pitch of our voice goes on changing constantly- going up, going
down, and sometimes remaining steady. Different pitches of the voice combine to form patterns of
pitch variation or tones, which together constitute intonation.
Intonation is closely linked to stress because important changes in pitch occur with stressed syllables.
These changes generally take place on the last stressed syllable in an utterance, and hence this syllable
is called the nucleus. The followings are the main functions of intonation:
a) Distinguishing different types of utterances such as statements, commands, requests, and
questions
b) Differentiating the speaker’s emotional attitude such as curiosity, apprehensions, friendliness, and
politeness
c) Drawing the listeners’ attention to those segments of an utterance that one considers important.
A segment of speech carrying one intonation pattern is called a tone. A tone group may, thus, consist
of one or more syllables. A short utterance quite often forms a single tone group, while a longer one is
made up of two or more. While speaking, we divide long utterances into small and manageable
groups of words, between which we pause. Hence, a tone group may also be defined as a stretch of
speech between two pauses.

PHRASAL VERBS
1) Break
a) Break down (go out of order):His health has broken down due to overwork.
b) Break up (close/end up): The meeting broke up at 4.00 p.m.
c) Break into (burgle): The burglars broke into the house at night.
d) Break out (start/spread out): Cholera has broken out in the city.
2) Bring
a) Bring up (rear): Parents bring up their children with loving care.
b) Bring about (cause to happen): The new MLA has brought about many changes.
c) Bring in (yield): This house brings in a monthly rent of Rs. 1500/-
3

d) Bring forth (bear/grow): Trees bring forth new leaves during Spring season.
Page
3) Call
a) Call on (see a person): Mohen called on me yesterday.
b) Call in (send for): Call in the doctor, at once.
c) Call off (end/stop): The teacher has called off the class.
d) Call up (remind/make a call): He didn’t call me up yesterday.
4) Carry
a) Carry away (take with/away): The boat was carried away by the current.
b) Carry off (cause to die): Malaria has carried off many lives this year.
c) Carry on (continue): Carry on your work, please.
d) Carry out (act u to): Carry out the wishes of your parents.
5) Come
a) Come about (happen): How has it come about?
b) Come across (meet by chance): I came across an old friend in the market.
c) Come of (belong): She comes of a respectable family.
6) Get
a) Get at (reach): The fox could not get at the grapes.
b) Get down (come down): Get down from the roof at once.
c) Get over (overcome): He got over all his difficulties.
d) Get rid of (be relieved): I want to get rid of this problem.
7) Give
a) Give away (distribute): The principal gave away the prizes.
b) Give up (leave off): Give up all your bad habits.
8) Go
a) Go on (continue): Go on with your work, please.
b) Go off (be fired): The gun did not go off luckily.
c) Go up (rise): Prices are going up day by day.
d) Go out (extinguish): The candle went out in wind.
e) Go through (study): I have gone through this story.
9) Look
a) Look after (care for): Parents look after their children.
b) Look at (fix eyes on): look at the whiteboard, please.
c) Look down upon (hate): Never look down upon the poor.
d) Look for (search for): He is looking for Tomba.
e) Look into (consider): He promised to look into the matter.
10) Make
a) Make up (cover): You must make up your deficiency in English.
b) Make faces (tease): Roma is making faces at me.
11) Put
a) Put on (wear): Put on these clothes, please.
b) Put out (extinguish): Put out the candle, please.
c) Put off (postpone): Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today.
d) Put up (stay): In which hotel are you putting up?
e) Put up with (bear): I cannot put up with this insult.
12) Run
a) Run into (be under): He has run into heavy debt.
b) Run over (be crushed under): The blind man was run over by a vehicle.
4

c) Run short (be finished): The lamp ran short of oil and went out itself.
Page
13) See
a) See off (bid goodbye): I went to see off my friend at the bus-stand.
b) See through (understand): I am alert enough to see through your trick.
14) Set
a) Set in (begin): The winter has set in.
b) Set out (begin): He set out on his journey in the morning.
c) Set up (establish): He has set up a factory at Imphal.
15) Stand
a) Stand by (help): I shall stand by through thick and thin.
b) Stand first (to top): Romesh stood first in his class.
c) Stand for (indicate): The symbol of tiger stands for bravery and courage.
16) Take
a) Take down (write): Please take down what I speak.
b) Take off (undress): He takes off his cloths to jump into the river.
c) Take place (happen): Her marriage took place at Thoubal,Melaground.
17) Turn
a) Turn up (reach): You have turned up a bit late.
b) Turn down (reject): He turned down my request for help.
c) Turn on (open): Turn on the tap and fill the bucket.
d) Turn off (shut/close): Turn off the tap to avoid wastage of water.
e) Turn out (show up): He turned out to be a thief.

ANTONYM: An antonym is a word which has opposite meaning of another word. There are many
words which have expressions of the opposite language that have contrast or directly opposite
essential meaning in some or all senses.
Acknowledge Deny, Disown Arrive Depart
Acquit Convict Attract Repel
Advance Retard, Retreat Beginning End
Ancient Modern Bold/Brave Timid, Coward
Bright Dark Blunt Sharp
Care Neglect Busy Idle
Cheap Dear Confident Diffident
Consent Dissent Confess Deny
Debit Credit Defend Offend
Deep Shallow Diligent Lazy
Fertile Barren/Sterile Fresh Stale
Freedom Bondage/Slavery Friendly Inimical/Hostile
Green Ripe Happiness Misery
Haste Delay Hope Despair
Humble Proud Import Export
Include Exclude Join Disjoin/Separate
Kind Unkind/Cruel Knowledge Ignorance
Legitimate Illegitimate Lend Borrow
Liberty Bondage Majority Minority
Narrow Broad/Wide Neither Either
Optimism Pessimism Oral Written
Oppose Support Persuade Dissuade
Peace War Philanthropist Misanthropist
5

Proficient Deficient Prosperity Adversity

Page

Punish Reward Remember Forget

Superior Inferior Sympathy Antipathy
Severe Mild Strict Lenient
Sweet Bitter Theoretical Practical
Unity Diversity Virtue Vice

SYNONYM: According to Webster, a synonym means “one of two or more words or expressions of
the same language that have the same or nearly the same essential meaning in some or all senses”. In
practice, we find it rather difficult to substitute one word for another though the two words may have
“nearly the same essential meaning”.
Abduct Kidnap Accidental Casual
Accompany Escort Accuse Charge, Impeach
Adapt Adjust, Accommodate Adjudicate Adjudge
Alone Lonely, Solitary Ambiguous Equivocal
Amicable Amiable Anger Fury, Wrath, Rage
Agree Consent Astonish Surprise
Authentic Genuine Avenge Revenge
Banish Exile Begin Commence
Brave Courageous, Fearless Bad Evil, wicked, Naughty
Below Under, Beneath, Underneath Carcass Corpse
Confusion Chaos, Disorder Contented Satisfied
Contagious Infectious Crime Vice, Sin
Declare Announce, Proclaim Effective Effectual, Efficient, Efficacious
Epidemic Endemic Eternal Everlasting
Harmless Innocent Haste Hurry
Liberal Generous Offend Insult
Pride Vanity Quote Cite
Rebellion Revolt, Uprising, Coup Rely Depend
Resist Withstand Remunerate Compensate
Secret Clandestine Shore Coast, Beach
Smuggled Contraband Sorrow Grief, Anguish
Wealthy Rich, Opulent Wing Feather, Plume

TENSES
A) Present Tenses
1) Present Indefinite: Subject + 1st Form of the verb....+ Object
3 Person Sing. Subject: Subject + 1st Form of the verb + s/es....+ Object
rd

2) Present Continuous: Subject + is/am/are + 1st Form of the verb + ing....+ Object
3) Present Perfect: Subject + has/have + 3rd Form of the verb….+ Object
4) Present Perfect Continuous: Subject + has/have been + 1st Form of the verb + ing ….+ Object
B) Past Tenses
1) Past Indefinite: Subject + 2nd Form of the verb……….+ Object
2) Past Continuous: Subject + was/were + 1st Form of the verb + ing….+ Object
3) Past Perfect: Subject + had + 3rdForm of the verb….+ Object
4) Past Perfect Continuous: Subject + had been + 1st Form of the verb + ing ….+ Object
C) Future Tenses
1) Future Indefinite: Subject + shall/will + 1st Form of the verb….+ Object
2) Future Continuous: Subject + shall/will be + 1st Form of the verb + ing….+ Object
3) Future Perfect: Subject + shall/will + have + 3rdForm of the verb….+ Object
6

4) Future Perfect Continuous: Subject + shall/will + have been + 1st Form of the verb + ing ….+
Page

Object
 UNIT-II
COMMUNICATION
Communication is an activity or processof expressing ideas and feelings or of giving people
information. It has a central role in our lives. We spend a lot of time communicating with others-
relatives, friends, colleagues, employers, or even unknown people. We have various social needs,
such as pleasure, affection, relaxation, inclusion etc. can be fulfilled by communication with others.
Communication is essential for the existence of our society and it plays a prominent role in the
functioning of different professional organizations. In fact, it has a vital role to play in today’s
technical and professional world as it helps people seek required information and take important
decisions. Further, research shows that communication skills directly affect the success of both job
seekers and employees. Apart from the technical skills required for a particular job, one must have
effective communication skills to get optimum results at the workplace.
 Latin word “Communicare”meaning “to share or to make common” which means to share
information, ideas, and knowledge between a sender & a receiver.
 Communication is a process of transferring information from one entity (Sender) to another entity
(Reciever) thereby understanding and sharing meaning (exchange of meaning and understanding).
 It is a skill acquired by an individual to exchanges, facts, ideas, opinions and even express
emotions thereby maintaining relationship that involves interaction between participants.
 Communication skill is acquired either without any conscious effort or by conscious effort
through education.
 Meaning is central to communication and transmission of meaning is the central objective of
communication.
 Good communication is determined not by how we say things but by how well we have been
understood.
 The modern world today calls for high-scale effective communication skills in order to win the
heavy competition in all spheres of life.

LANGUAGE AS A TOOL OF COMMUNICATION

Languages arose out of the human need to communicate. It is well-established fact that effective
communication is made possible with the help of language. One does not have to be a linguist in order
to acquire good language skills. However, a basic knowledge of the theory of language will certainly
help to understand the intricacies of writing and speaking clearly. Language is a system of words and
sounds to communicate ideas in a meaningful way. By changing the word order in a sentence, one
can change its meaning, and even make it meaningless.
Language is closely related to people and cannot exist in isolation. It is specific to individuals and our
use of language reflects our personality and gives an insight our thinking.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE
Famous linguists Noam Chomsky and Ferdinand de Saussure classified language as Artificial,
Restricted, Abstract, Arbitrary, Creative, Redundant, and Recursive.
1) Language is artificial: Language is created by people. It does not exist in isolation or outside the
minds of people. It is created by humans based on their needs. Every symbol is attached to a
particular thought or thing, called a referent. There is no natural connection between a symbol and
its meaning. Humans attach meanings to words according to needs, and modify these meanings
according to changing needs. e.g. as far as youths are concerned, words and expressions change
7

meaning very fast. What was ‘I am fine, thanks’ a few decades back changed to ‘I am cool’ and
Page

has now given way to ‘I am good’. This is why, we say that language is artificial.
2) Language is restricted: When we think and translate our thoughts into language, some meaning is
lost in the process. No symbol or word can transmit our exact perception. That is one reason we
sometimes find ourselves saying that we cannot find words to express our feelings. This is
because language is restricted.
3) Language is abstract: Language is abstract because it represents generalized ideas of things or
thoughts. A word could represent different ideas at different times. e.g.‘dress’ can represent
anything from a frock to a sari. Even if you are more specific and use the word ‘business suit’,
you are still employing an abstraction, as a business suit can come in a variety of sizes and
colours.
Abstractness is an important feature of language. It is this feature that makes all generalizations
possible. An existing word takes many similar ideas under its umbrella. A ‘table’ can be of
different shapes and sizes, and still be called a table. Even if you have never seen a table with
three legs, you can still identify it as a table. This happens because meanings get associated with
symbols and users keep expanding the range of meanings.
4) Language is arbitrary:there is no direct relationship between a word and the idea or object it
represents. When language first came into being, a community of people agreed to represent a
certain object or idea by a specific sound or symbol. So, at a particular point of time, people
speaking English accepted that a piece of furniture with four legs and a wooden plank used for
keeping things will be called a table. Language has evolved as a cultural system of agreements in
which words represent certain symbols or thoughts. Learning these agreements is part of learning
a particular language. To summarize, language keeps changing to include new concepts, and
words can assume a number of specific and arbitrary meanings.
5) Language is creative: Language is indeed very creative, and its ability to generate so many words
everyday is a marvel. Every year innumerable words are added to the dictionary. These words can
be added by different processes: a) borrowing (taking over words from other languages such as
‘alcohol’ form Arabic and ‘boss’ from Dutch, b) constructing portmanteau words (words made
by combining the sound and meaning of two different words e.g. netiquette= net + etiquette,
edutainment = education + entertainment), c)back formation (where a word of one type, usually a
noun, is reduced to a word of another type, usually a verb, like ‘opt’ from ‘option’ and ‘emote’
from ‘emotion’) etc. As the need arises, a word is created to explain that particular thought or
process. As computers entered offices, new words such as ‘keyboard’ and ‘emoticons’ came into
usage.
6) Language is redundant:Whatever language we use, it has the capacity for redundancy or
repetition. This may either improve or impede effective communication e.g.A couple of girls are
riding their bicycles; here, ‘girls and bicycles’, ‘are riding’, ‘couple and their’ indicate the
presence of more than one person repeatedly. Repetition of information makes the meaning clear.
7) Language is recursive: Recursive is the characteristic of language which enables one to generate
any number of sentences using the same basic grammatical templates. It also allows one to
express any idea, thought or feeling using the same finite vocabulary. It implies that there is no
limit to the potential length of a sentence e.g.‘this man who is wearing a crumpled suit, which he
borrowed from me to wear to his interview, which was on Wednesday, which was the day it was
raining….’ This sentence can continue to any length if we keep on adding qualifying clauses for
every noun. This is because the recursive quality of language here allows one to keep repeating
the clause pattern.

FOUR MAJOR COMMUNICATIVE SKILLS- LSRW

8

As we have learnt so far, communication means to convey thoughts, feelings, etc. to the desired
Page

audience. There is no fixed way in which this can be achieved. One can put across one’s thoughts by
talking or speaking, listening as well as by writing, and even through appropriate body language.
Similarly, one can understand a message through listening, reading, or merely observing. The four
major communicative skills- Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing (LSRW) are explained as
follows:
(A) Listening: Listening in relation to communication refers to the ability to understand an oral
message. The listener is required to understand what he/she has heard. The ability to listen
attentively and assimilate the information is very important, in order to communicate effectively.
Listening is also a mode of communicating one’s attitude- this is done through the listener’s
response to the message, which can indicate interest, empathy, boredom etc. In the professional
sphere, one needs to inculcate the power to comprehend the delivered information quickly.
Various business activities such as Interviews, Group Discussions (GDs), Meeting etc. demand
effective listening skills. In fact, listening comprehension involves comprehension of the explicit
as well as implicit meaning of the delivered message. Apart from it, listening comprehension also
includes certain sub-skills such as skimming, scanning, speech decoding etc.
(B) Speaking:Effective speaking is the most frequently required skill in professional as well as social
spheres. It involves the ability to express one’s message effectively to the audience through
spoken words. Messages can be delivered face-to-face or through electronic devices. This skill is
required in various forms such as conferences, meetings, seminars, group discussions, etc.
speaking can be further aided with the help of appropriate gestures and postures.
(C) Reading:Reading is a complex skill to inculcate as it requires decoding and comprehending the
written message. In order to comprehend the content and language pattern of the written text, the
reader has to develop different skills such as vocabulary, fast reading, and intensive reading. Fast
reading skills include both scanning and skimming skills whereas intensive reading includes
through reading and inferential skills.
(D) Writing: Written communication is the second form of communication which is transmitted
through words. When we put a graphic element on a piece of paper, it becomes a written
document. In the professional world, effective writing skills are required to write documents such
as reports, letters, memos, and emails. Written communication is more important than oral
communication because it is a permanent record of our transactions. It can be referred to at any
point of time.
The skill of writing comes through practice. Writing skills can be developed by extensive reading
and writing out one’s experiences. Professionally, it’s difficult to survive without writing skills
because most electronic communication, such as emails or slides for a presentation, carries
written material. For effective writing, one must write, rewrite, and finally learn to edit.

IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION IN ENGLISH

 Communication is one of the essential conditions of social interaction. It pervades the entire range
of social and professional relationships, and plays a significant role in our life.Communication is a
valuable skill and in many ways, is an art form. If we possess strong linguistic skills, this will go
far in effectively helping you communicate in both your personal and professional lives.Effective
communication is not only business skill but it is a life skill and the most important source of
personal power at work, family and social situations.It is very important to communicate the right
things at the right time and at the right place when dealing with partners, customers and
stakeholders. Any miscommunication or ambiguity can pour pails of cold water on our hardwork
and ruin our chances of survival in today’s competitive business environment.
 Business strives to employ people who possess strong oratory and written skills because business
9

communications are an important component of having a successful business.Being able to

Page

successfully communicate in business is a prime qualification which employers look for when
 hiring new staff. Ability to speak and write in English gives an edge over others thereby earning
good reputation. Some of the job profiles require more of communicative competence than
technical know-how. Several employers recruit people with a good command over English for
operations that involve communicating both national and international clients. Organizations exist
through communication; without communication, there would not be any organization.
 Poor communication can provoke a negative response but when we communicate well, people
generally respond to us in a positive way, even if they are not totally happy with our message.
 English is most widely used language in a large number of workplaces in India. The most
common language used by the speakers of different languages around the world. It is impossible
to achieve success in one’s academic or professional career without adequate proficiency in
English.It is the most important source of personal power at work, family and social situations.

REASONS WHY COMMUNICATION IS SO IMPORTANT

1. Prevents misunderstanding- When one clearly communicates his/her wants, needs and intentions,
there will be no misunderstanding. Many of our arguments and disagreements occur, simply
because one of us does not communicate clearly.
2. Strengthens relationships- We get to know each other personally or professionally by talking and
listening. Knowing more about someone strengthens that relationship. The more you
communicate openly and frankly, the more the listener will tend to build his levels of comfort and
confidence in you. Once the confidence level increases among the team members, the goal turns
into a common one which thus can be easily achieved.
3. Relieves stress-Talking about our problems and stresses actually helps to relieve the stress and
anxiety. We feel as if some of the burden has been lifted from us when a friend listens and shows
that he/she cares.
4. Increases confidence- When we communicate well, people respond positively to us. And that
helps to increase our confidence.
5. For successful business- It is not possible to have human relations without communication.
However, good and effective communication is required not only for good human relations but
also for a good and successful business.
6. For motivation and employees morale- Communication is also a basic tool for motivation, which
can improve the morale of the employees in an organization. Inappropriate or faulty
communication among employees or between the manager and subordinates is the major cause of
conflict and low morale at work. The manager should clarify to his employees about what is to be
done, how well they are doing and what can be done for better performance to improve their
motivation.
7. For increased productivity- With effective communication, we can maintain a good human
relation in the organization, and by encouraging ideas or suggestions from employees or workers
and implementing them whenever possible, we can also increase production at a low cost.
8. For decision making- Effective communication always leads to a positive result. On the basis of
a matter discussed in a meeting, employees reach a conclusion and make a decision.
9. To get a job/opportunity- Communication skills are very important for job seekers, and also
sometimes in top companies. It is crucial to have good communication skills if we are planning to
have a flourishing career. If our interpersonal skills are polished, we can leave an impact of a
good candidature.
10

FEATURES OF EFFECTIVE/PRODUCTIVE COMMUNICATION

There are certain features which are essential for effective or productive communication:
Page

1) Clarity and integrity of the message to be conveyed.

2) Main purpose and objective of the message the communicator wants to achieve.
3) The language chosen should be known to both the parties.
4) An appropriate medium should be chosen to convey the message properly.
5) There should be appropriate feedback to the message as it helps to ensure that the message is
communicated properly to and understood by the receiver.

GUIDELINES TO INCULCATE EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION SKILLS

a) Before sending a message, one should analyse and simplify the content of the message.
b) One should ensure an appropriate atmosphere before delivering the message.
c) While communicating, one should be very careful about the content as well as paralinguistic
features such as tone, pitch and voice.
d) One should emphasize verbal communication with the help of appropriate gestures and postures.

THE COMMUNICATIONPROCESS
Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and non-verbal messages. It is a continuous
process. The prerequisite of communication is a message. This message must be conveyed through
some medium to the recipient. It is essential that this message must be understood by the recipient in
the same terms as intended by the sender. The recipient must respond within a time-frame. Thus,
communication is a two-way process, and is incomplete without a feedback from the recipient to the
sender on how well the message is understood by the recipient.

The communication process is made up of four key components- Encoding, Medium of transmission,
Decoding and Feedback. There are also two other factors in the process which are present in the form
of the Sender and the Receiver. The communication process begins with the sender and ends with the
receiver.
A) Sender- The sender is an individual, group or organization who initiates the communication. The
sender’s experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skill, perceptions and culture influence the message.
The first step the sender is faced with involves the encoding process.
B) Encoding- In order to convey meaning, the sender must begin encoding, which means translating
information into message in the form of symbols that represent ideas or concepts. This process
translates the ideas or concepts into the coded message that will be communicated. The symbols
can take on numerous forms such as languages, words or gestures. These symbols are used to
encode ideas into messages that others can understand. When encoding a message, the sender has
to begin by deciding what he/she wants the receiver to transmit. This decision by the sender is
based on what he/she believes about the receiver’s knowledge and assumptions, along with what
additional information he/she wants the receiver to have. It is important for the sender to use
symbols that are familiar to the intended receiver. A good way for the sender to improve encoding
their message is to mentally visualize the communication from the receiver’s point of view.
11

C) Channel/Medium- The channel is the means used to convey the message. Most channels are
either oral or written, but currently visual channels are becoming more common as technology
Page

expands. Common channels include the telephone and a variety of written forms such as memos,
 letters and reports. The effectiveness of the various channels fluctuates depending on the
characteristics of the communication. e.g. when immediate feedback is necessary, oral
communication channels are more effective because uncertainties can be cleared up on the spot.
In a situation where the message must be delivered to more than a small group of people, written
channels are often more effective.
D) Decoding- After the appropriate channel or channels are selected, the message enters the
decoding stage of the communication process. Decoding is conducted by the receiver. Once the
message is received and examined, the stimulus is sent to the brain for interpreting, in order to
assign some type of meaning to it. It is this processing stage that constitutes decoding. The
receiver begins to interpretthe symbols sent the sender, translating the message to their own set of
experiences in order to make the symbols meaningful. Successful communication takes place
when the receiver correctly interprets the sender’s message.
E) Receiver- Recipient/Decoder is a person for whom the message is intended/ aimed/ targeted. The
degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent upon various factors such as
knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of the encoder on
decoder.
F) Feedback- Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the sender to
analyse the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of
message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in the form of
smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take the written form also in the form of memos, reports etc.

SHANNON AND WEAVER’s COMMUNICATION MODEL

Claude Shannon, a research scientist at Bell Telephone Company, tried to achieve maximum
telephone line capacity with minimum distortion. When Warren Weaver applied Shannon’s concept
of information loss to interpersonal communication, one of the most popular models of
communication was created.
According to Shannon and Weaver’s model, a message begins at an information source, which is
relayed through a transmitter, and then sent via a signal towards the receiver. But before it reaches the
receiver, the message must go through noise (sources of interference). Finally, the receiver must
convey the message to its destination.

Suppose you have an idea in your head (Information Source) that you want to tell someone about.
You must first move the idea (Message) from your brain to your mouth (Transmitter). Since you
cannot actually share your grey matter, you must select words for your transmitter to use. Once you
speak, your voice (Signal) is carried through the air toward the listener’s ear (Receiver). Along the
way, your signal is joined by myriad of other sounds and distractions (Noises). The receiver then takes
everything it receives and tries to minimize the noise. Finally, the receiver conveys its message to the
other person’s mind (Destination).
Shannon’s (1948) model provided, for the first time, a general model of the communication process
12

that could be treated as the common ground of such diverse disciplines as Journalism, Rhetoric,
Linguistics, and Speech and Hearing Sciences. Part of its success is due to its structuralize reduction
Page

of communication to a set of basic constituents that not only explain how communication happens,
but why communication sometimes fail. Shannon and Weaver’s model clearly demonstrates why even
the simplest communication can be misunderstood. Transmitting a signal across additional media only
adds to the complexity of the communication and increases the chance for distortion.Shannon’s
model, as shown in Figure above, breaks the process of communication into eight discrete
components:
1) An information Source. Presumably a person who creates a message.
2) The Message, which is both sent by the information source and received by the destination.
3) A Transmitter, for Shannon’s immediate purpose a telephone instrument that captures an audio
signal, converts it into an electronic signal, and amplifies it for transmission through the
telephonic network. The simplest transmission system, that is associated with face-to-face
communication, has at least two layers of transmission. The first, the Mouth (Sound) and Body
(Gesture), create and modulate a signal. The second layer, which might also be described as a
channel, is built of the Air (Sound) and Light (Gesture) that enable the transmission of those
signals from one person to another.
A Television broadcast would obviously include many more layers, with the addition of Cameras
and Microphones, Editing and Filtering systems, a National signal distribution network (often
Satellite), and a Local radio wave broadcast antenna.
4) The Signal, which flows through a channel. There may be multiple parallel signals, as is the case
in face-to-face interaction where sound and gesture involve different signal systems that depend
on different channels and modes of transmission. There may be multiple serial signals, with sound
and/or gesture turned into electronic signals, radio waves or words and pictures in a book.
5) A Carrier/Channel, which is represented by the small unlabelled box in the middle of the model.
The most commonly used channels include air, light, electricity, radio waves, paper and postal
systems. Note that there may be multiple channels associated with the multiple layers of
transmission, as described above.
6) Noise, in the form of secondary signals that obscure or confuse the signal carried. Given
Shannon’s focus on telephone transmission, carriers and reception, it should not be surprising that
noise is restricted to one that obscures or obliterates some portion of the signal within the channel.
This is fairly restrictive notion of noise, by current standards and a somewhat misleading one.
Today, we have at least some media which are so noise-free that compressed signals are
constructed with an absolutely minimal amount of information and little likelihood of signal loss.
In the process, Shannon’s solution to noise and redundancy has been largely replaced by a
minimally redundant solution: error detection and correction. Today we use noise more as a
metaphor for problems associated with effective listening.
7) A Receiver. In Shannon’s conception, the receiving telephone instrument. In face-to-face
communication, a set of Ears (Sound) and Eyes (Gesture). In television, several layers of receiver,
including an antenna and a television set.
8) A Destination. Presumably a person who consumes and processes the message.
Shannon and Weaver’s Communication Model has some basic factors, arranged in a linear format.
The components in this model are:
a) The information source selects a desired message out of a set of possible messages.
b) The transmitter changes the message into a signal that is sent over the communication channel to
the receiver.
c) The receiver is a sort of inverse transmitter, changing the transmitted signal back into a message
and interpreting this message.
13

d) This message is then sent to the destination. The destination may be another receiver (i.e. the
message is passed on to someone else), or the message may rest with the initial receiver, and the
Page

transmission is achieved.
e) In the process of transmitting a message, certain information that was not intended by the
information source is unavoidably added to the signal (or message). This “noise” can be internal
(i.e. coming from the receiver’s own knowledge, attitudes, or beliefs) or external (i.e. coming
from other sources). Such internal or external “noise” can either strengthen the intended effect of
a message (if the information confirms the message), or weaken the intended effect (if the
information in the “noise” contradicts the original message).

CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
Information is the lifeblood of an organization. Communication is necessary to convey information
effectively. In an organization, communication flows in five main directions:
1) Downward flow of communication- Communication that flows from a higher level in an
organization to a lower level is a downward communication. In other words, communication
from superiors to subordinates in a chain of command is a downward communication. e.g.
organizational publications, circulars, letters to employees, group meetings etc. It is used by
the managers for the following purposes:
 Transmission of work-related information to the employees at lower levels who require this
information for performing their jobs and for meeting the expectations of their managers.
 Providing feedback on employee’s performance
 Giving job instructions
 Providing complete understanding of the employees’ job as well as to communicate to them how
their job is related to other jobs in the organization.
 Communicating organization’s mission & vision to the employees
 Highlighting the areas of attention
2) Upward flow of communication- Communication that flows to a higher level in an
organization is called upward communication. Examples are Performance reports made by
low level management for reviewing by higher level management, employee attitude surveys,
letters from employees, employee-manager discussions etc.
 It provides feedback on how well the organization is functioning.
 The subordinates use it to convey their problems and performances to their superiors.
 The subordinates also use it to tell how well they have understood the downward communication.
 It can be used by the employees to share views and ideas,and to participate in decision-making
process
 It leads to a more committed and loyal workforce in an organization because the employees are
given chance to raise & speak dissatisfaction issues to the higher levels.
 The managers get to know about the employees feelings towards their jobs, peers, supervisor and
organization in general through it.
3) Lateral/Horizontal Communication-Communication that takes place at same levels of
hierarchy in an organization is called lateral communication, i.e. communication between
peers, between managers at same levels or between any horizontally equivalent organizational
members. The advantages of horizontal communication are:
 It is time saving
 It facilitates coordination of the task
 It facilitates cooperation among team members
 It provides emotional & social assistance to the organizational members
 It helps in solving various organizational problems
14

 It is a means of information sharing

 It can also be used for resolving conflicts of a department with other department or conflicts
Page

within a department.
4) Diagonal communication- Communication that takes place between a manager & employees
of other work groups is called diagonal communication. It doesn’t appear on the
organizational chart. e.g. to design a training module, a training manager interacts with
operations personnel to enquire about the way they perform their task.
5) External Communication- Communication that takes placebetween a manager and external
groups- suppliers, vendors, banks, financial institutes etc.e.g. to raisecapital the Managing
Director (MD) would interact with the bank manager.

FORMS/MODES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication can be both formal and informal. The formality or informality of communication
depends on one’s relationship with the sender or receiver. When we meet a person for the first time,
we are very formal in terms addressing/ wishing them, voice tone etc. Gradually, as we become
friendly, we start getting familiar, use slangs, address each other informally, and do not really bother
about the tone. So, it can be deduced that one is more alert during formal communication but
relatively carefree during informal or casual communication.
Both formal and informal communication modes are equally important and the mode used is decided
by the relationship, purpose and occasion. Whenever there is uncertainty in deciding between formal
or informal communication, formal communication should be preferred, as it does not involve the risk
of offending the opponent e.g. formal approach with polite conversation with colleagues in the
relatively informal atmosphere of a Cafeteria.
A) Formal Communication: Communication that takes place through formal channels of the
organizational structure along lines of authority established by the management is called
formal communication.
 Such communications are generally in writing & may take any of the forms, policies and
manuals- procedures & rule books, memoranda, official meetings, reports etc.
 When working directly for the goal of the organization, formal communication is used. For
example, discussing business strategies with employees, asking boss for leave etc.
Advantages:
 It helps in fixation of responsibility
 It helps in maintaining of the authority relationship
Disadvantages:
 Generally time-consuming & cumbersome
 Leads to a good deal of distortion at times
Formal Communication in Workplace
Formal communication is organized and managed information that is shared with relevant individuals
in order to secure coordinated action throughout the organization. Formal communication channels
are based on an individual’s role in the organization and distributed in an organized way according to
the established chain in organizational charts.
Typically, formal communication flows “downward” from executives to directors to managers
tostaffs regarding company direction and instruction, and “upward” from staffs to managers to
directors to executives in the form of data and reports. The communication flowing through these
channels is specific to the jobs and departments.
Such formal communication is well established & planned. E.g. reports and data from staff are
organized and generally submitted in prescribed templates and according to a set schedule.
Communication focused on a company’s strategy and direction, which originates from company
15

executives, is funnelled through the organization chart and changed in such a way as to be relevant to
each department and manager.
Page
What starts out as “high-level” communication on corporate strategy needs to be thought out through
planning sessions so that the communication provides direction and is actionable for the individuals
who implement the tasks of the strategy. The better the communication, the better the employees and
staff will understand what is expected and required of them.

B) Informal Communication: Communication arising out of all those channels of

communication that fall outside the formal channels is known as informal communication.
 Built around the social relationships of members of the organization.
 It does not follow lines of authority like the case of formal communication.
 It arises due to the personal needs of the members of its organization.
 At times, in informal communication, it is difficult to fix responsibility about accuracy of
information.
 Such communication is usually oral and may be covered even by a simple glance, gesture, smile,
silence etc.
Informal Communication in the Workplace
Informal communication in the workplace satisfies variety of needs particularly social & emotional,
and is not based on the positions individuals occupy within the organizations. As a result, the
communication is not managed or planned in any organized fashion. It is more relaxed, casual &
tends to be spread by word-of-mouth quickly throughout a department or organization because it’s not
restricted to approvals & an established path of distribution.

Probably, the most common term for it in the workplace is“Grapevine”and this communication that is
sent through the organizational grapevine often considered as gossip or rumour. While the grapevine
communication can spreadinformation quickly & can easily cross established organizational
boundaries, the information it carriescan be changed through deletion or exaggeration of crucial
details thus causing the information to be inaccurate- even it’s based on truth.
The use of the organizational grapevine as an informal communication channel often results when
employees feel threatened, vulnerable or when organization is experiencing change or when
communication from management is restricted not forthcoming.
Advantages of grapevine communication
 It can be spread information quickly throughout an organization.
 It can serve a social purpose
 It can reduce stress & anxiety
 It can be used to identify problems or lack of satisfaction in the workplace.

Managing the grapevine can be partly achieved by providing information through good, effective
communication such as:
a) Supplying sufficient information through the formal communication channel about the concerns
that are of importance to employees and staff.
b) Present as much factual information as possible as soon as it is obtained.
c) Keeping information coming on a regular basis especially during times of change when the
employees are stressed and wondering what’s going on. Daily communication with them will
reduce the pressure of uncertainty.
d) Opening the lines of communication channels to receive feedback and concerns. Response to
these as quickly as possible. If concerns are submitted from staff and no response is given by
16

management, rumours through grapevine communication will begin to fill in the communication
Page

gap which was created by management.

Formal/informal communication channels exist in every organization. Formal communication
requires thought and planning prior to distribution; informal communication, however, usually
succeeds on its own mostly because of the very effective grapevine.

C) Oral and Written Communication: Any communication can be divided into equally
important categories: Oral and Written.
Oral forms of communication: Face-to-face conversations, Telephone conversations, Meetings,
Seminars, Conferences, Dictation, Presentations, Group Discussions,Interviews (Employment, Press)
and Video Conferences.
Written forms of communications: Memos, Letters, Emails, Faxes, Notices, Circulars, Newsletters,
Reports, Proposals, Research papers, Bulletins, Brochures, Manuals, In-house Journals etc.
Advantages of Written Communication over Oral Communication
i) Written communication is very convenient to send lengthy messages with a lot of information
that cannot be shared orally.
ii) In Written communication, the response can be well-prepared because the medium gives
ample time to the receiver to analyse the message and its implications. Written messages can
also be supplemented with visual aids such as charts and tables.
Disadvantages of Written Communication
i) Written Communication takes longer to draft and convey a written reply, so it will not work
in places where time is of vital importance, e.g. when discussing an urgent business deal.
ii) In a negotiation-like interaction, which requires a lot of exchanges between parties, written
communication can take a long time.
iii) It cannot be supplemented with non-verbal gestures and postures, which are sometimes
essential for a message to be interpreted. Without personal touch, it can seem very curt and
straight, sometimes making a request sound like an order.

It is not necessary that all these forms of communication should exist in an organization. If the
organization is very large, e.g. a University with various affiliated institutions or a Business enterprise
with branches across the nation and abroad, it may have all these forms of communication, whereas a
smaller educational institution or business may not require all of them.
D) Internal and External Communication:Communication within an organization is known as
internal communication, which is usually formal. The interactions take place through pre-set
formats and are usually not ad hoc or unplanned. It helps in achieving an organization’s goal
by informing the members of the general and specific objectives of the organization, either at
the macro or at the micro level. Usually seniors take decisions and convey them to their
subordinates. It is only through internal communication that this information is disseminated
to various departments and employees within the organization. Letters, reports, instructions,
seminars, etc. are methods of transmitting information.
To expand the boundaries of business, a good relationship with other external organizations is
a must. This requires a sound communication strategy. All official, technical, or professional
communication with people outside the organization is known as external communication.
This mode is equally important, as it helps in achieving an organization’s goals by
coordinating with external agencies. External communication refers to interaction with
shareholders, regulators, vendors, service companies, customers and the general public, e.g.
the process of auditing.
17

E) Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication: Verbal communication includes both oral and
written communication. While Verbal communication is organized by language, Non-verbal
Page

communication is not. Non-Verbal communication refers to all communication that occurs

 without the use of words, spoken or written.It is concerned with body movements (Kinesics),
Space (Proxemics), and Vocal (Paralanguistic) features.
 It includes all unwritten and unspoken messages, both intentional or unintentional. Non-verbal
cues, however, speak louder than words, as even though speech can be made up, bodily
expressions can rarely be masked well enough to hide one’s true feelings and emotions.
 Non-verbal communication is independent of a formal language, communication whereby ideas &
concepts can be expressed without the use of coherent labels.It is the wordless message received
through the medium of gestures, signs, bodily movements, facial expressions, tone of voice,
colour, time, space, style of writing and choice of words.
 Personal appearances, facial expressions, postures, gestures, eye contact, voice proximity and
touch are all non-verbal signals that influence the way in which a message is interpreted and
understood. Though they have a profound impact on the receivers, it is difficult to analyse them
accurately. This is because the interpretation of non-verbal cues is a very subjective concept,
varying based on people’s varied backgrounds (referring cross-cultural communication)
 Some of non-verbal message usually accompanies the verbal message. The Verbal and Non-
verbal together form the total meaning of the message communicated.

Types/Forms of Non-Verbal communication

1. Kinesics:It is the study of the body’s physical movements. It is the way the body communicates
without words, i.e. through the various movements of its parts.It is the Non-verbal behaviour
related to movement, either of any part of the body or the body as a whole e.g. Smiling,
Frowning/Scowling, Winking, Grooming, Posture, Nods & Hand gestures etc.
The most noticeable form of Non-verbal communication is Body Language. When a speaker presents
himself/herself, we see him/her before we start hearing him/her. Immediately, we begin developing
impressions of his/her abilities and attitudes based on the non-verbal signals he/she sends. This is
why, body language is so critical in oral communication. Body language includes every aspect of our
appearance, from what we wear, how we stand, look, and move, to our facial expressions and physical
habits, such as nodding the head, jingling change in the pocket, or fiddling with a necktie.
In face-to-face communication, the message is conveyed on two levels simultaneously- Verbal &
Non-verbal, e.g. Saying Congratulations (Verbal) with Handshake and Smile (Kinesics) to appreciate
friends for something, has more impact on them than the word in isolation. Your Handshake and
Smile enhance the impact of your verbal communication.
Kinesics communication is probably, one of the most talked about, and most obvious non-verbal
communication form. Unfortunately, it is one of the most confusing areas of non-verbal
communication behaviour as the various meanings communicated through body movements seem
endless across cultures. Often, body movements that are clearly understandable in one culture make
no sense in another. Yet often enough, frequently used kinesics movements in one culture may be
highly offensive in another culture.
Rather, non-verbal part of any communication is subtle and instinctive and often involuntary. It is
important to study body language because it is estimated that the verbal component of oral
communication carries less than 35% of the social meaning of the situation, while more than 65% is
attributed to body language. People react strongly to what they see.

a) Personal appearance:It plays an important role; people see before they hear. Just like we adapt our
language to the audience, we should also dress appropriately. Appearance includes clothes, hair,
18

accessories, cosmetics, and so on. Today, the purpose of clothing has altered from fulfilling a basic
Page
need to expressing oneself. Clothes also accentuate the body’s movements, and the choice of clothes
reveals a lot about the wearer’s personality and attitude.
Personal appearance must be so planned that it communicates effectively to others. Even before a
speaker utters his/her first syllable, the audience begins to form an opinion about him/her and
visualizes the way she is going to talk. One’s appearance may put the audience into a resistant or
hostile attitude or induce in them a receptive mood. To be clean and well groomed, conforming to the
need of the occasion is utmost importance. Appearances communicate how we feel about ourselves
and how we want to be viewed.

b)Posture: It generally refers to the way we hold ourselves when we stand, sit, or walk. One’s posture
changes according to the situation. If nervous, one would normally be seen pacing, bobbing the
shoulders, fidgeting with notes, jingling coins, moving constantly, or staying glued to the ground.
When we are with friends we are probably spontaneous. We are not conscious about our posture and
our physical movement is natural. But when we encounter an unfamiliar situation, we become more
conscious of our posture. For instance, during an oral presentation, stiff positions such as standing
akimbo, send the message of defiance and aggression. It is always better to lower the hands to one’s
sides in a natural, relaxed, and resting posture. Standing, sitting or walking in a relaxed way is a
positive posture, which will encourage questions and discussion. Also being comfortably upright,
squarely facing an audience, and evenly distribute one’s weight are aspects of posture that
communicate professionalism, confidence, attention to detail, and organization. The way one sits,
stands or walks reveals a lot.
e.g. Slumped posture- low spirits; Erect posture- high spirits, energy, and confidence; Lean forward-
open, honest and interested; Lean backward- defensive or disinterested; Crossed arms-defensive and
not ready to listen; Uncrossed arms- willingness to listen.

c) Gesture: It is the movement made by hands, head, or face. Skilful and appropriate gestures can add
to the impact of verbal communication. A well-timed gesture not only drives a point home but also
enhances the value of what is being said. Similarly, an awkward gesture (like playing with a key chain
or button) can mar the effectiveness of the message. Gestures clarify our ideas or reinforce them and
should be well suited to the audience and occasion. Gestures are more numerous than any other form
of non-verbal communication, and the meanings attached to them are diverse. It has been observed
that there are as many as 700,000 varied hand gestures alone (Birdwhistell 1952), and the meanings
derived from them may vary from individual to individual.
Gestures should not divert the attention of the listener from one’s message. They should be quite
natural and spontaneous. Beware of and avoid irritating gestures such as playing with a ring, twisting
a key chain, clasping hands tightly or cracking knuckles. Gestures can roughly be divided into the
following types:
i) Enumerative- Numbers, ii) Descriptive- size of the objects, iii) Symbolic- abstract concepts, iv)
Locative- location of an object & v) Emphatic- emphasis
Non-verbal gestures often mean different things in different contexts or in different culture. No
gesture is absolutely universal although many are commonly recognised, at least throughout the same
cultural context. e.g. the letter ‘V’ sign (Forefinger & Middle finger erect) symbolises victory for the
British while it may symbolise the ‘Number Two’ in the US and may be seen as insulting in Australia.
In Brazil and Denmark, the American ‘OK’ hand sign is a gesture of ‘Vulgarity’, and in France, the
same sign signifies ‘Zero’ and in Japan, that sign means ‘Money’.
19

d) Facial Expression: Along with the postures and gestures, facial expressions also play an important
Page

part in non-verbal communication. The face is the most impressive part of our body. A smile stands
for friendliness, a frown for discontent, raised eyebrows for disbelief, tightened jaw muscles for
antagonism, etc. Facial expressions are subtle. They can be used in a variety of ways to aid, inhibit, or
complement communication. The face rarely sends a single message at a time. Instead, it sends a
series of messages- facial expressions may show anxiety, recognition, hesitation and pleasure in quick
succession.
Facial expressions are difficult to interpret. Though there are only six basic expressions, there can be
many shades and blends of these. Also, people tend to hide their true feelings, and project expressions
that are appropriate according to the circumstances. The six basic facial expressions are: i) Happiness,
ii) Surprise, iii) Disgust, iv)Fear, v) Anger, vi) Sadness

e) Eye Contact:Eyes are considered to be the windows of the soul. We look at the eyes of a speaker to
find out the truthfulness of his/her words, intelligence, attitudes, and feelings. Eye contact is a direct
and powerful form of non-verbal communication. We use our eyes to cull information. Eyes are also a
rich source of feedback.
Looking directly at listeners builds rapport. Prolonging the eye contact for 3-5 seconds (without,
however, giving the impression of staring) tells the audience that the presenter is sincere in what
he/she says and that he/she wants us to pay attention. Eye contact is especially important when we
start a conversation.
Our upper eyelids and eyebrows help us convey an intricate array of non-verbal messages. Arabs,
Latin Americans and South Europeans look directly into the eyes. Asians and Africans maintain less
eye contact. In professional world, one should make personal and pleasant eye contact with listeners.
Eye contact shows one’s intensity and elicits a feeling of trust. A direct look conveys candour and
openness. The direct and powerful form is a signal of confidence or sincerity; therefore, experienced
speakers maintain longer eye contact.

2) Proxemics:It is the study of physical space in interpersonal relations. Space is related to

behavioural norms. The way people use space says a lot about them. In a professional setting,
space is used to signal power and status e.g. the CEO of a company has a larger space than
managers. Gestures should be in accordance with the space available. When there is plenty of
space to manoeuvre, one should move more boldly and expand one’s gestures. When seated at a
table, one should use milder gestures. One can even subtly reach out over the table to extend
one’s space. This expresses control and authority.
Interestingly, like kinesics, proxemics also has cultural variations. e.g. Latin American or French
person is likely to stand closer to another person when conversing while Americans, addressed
from a close distance, may feel offended or become aggressive because Americans avoid close
contact with one another in public places. Indians decide the distance based on the relationship.
They prefer to maintain distance with elders and superior person while they may maintain less
distance with a friend. Edward T. Hall (1966)divides space into four distinct zones:
i) Intimate space: This zone starts with personal touch and extends just to 18 inches (one and half
feet). Members of the family, lovers, spouses, relatives, and parents fall under this zone. This zone
does not need active conversation. One can whisper or make unintelligible sounds but still be able to
communicate. Other individuals come close for a very brief period and only under special
circumstances- when they want to congratulate, sympathize, or console. A handshake, a pat on the
back, or a hugare examples of it.
ii) Personal space: This zone stretches from 18 inches (one and a half feet) to 4 feet. Close friends,
20

colleagues, peers, etc. fall in this zone. Instead of whispering sounds or utter silence, there can be
normal conversation in this zone. Though this zone is personal, it is quite relaxed and casual place. It
Page
permits spontaneous and unplanned communication. sitting or standing so close brings one close to
the listener and gives the impression of friendliness and warmth.
iii)Social:Social events takes place in the radius of 4 feet to 12 feet. In this zone, relationships are
more formal and official. People are more cautious in their movements. This situation involves less
situation and more planning. The number of people decides whether it should be a sitting- sitting or
sitting- standing position. It is through experience that one decides which position to take. If the
number of people is less and eye contact can be maintained, a sitting-sitting position can be used. To
be authoritative with a large audience, a sitting- standing position is used.
iv) Public:This zone starts from 12 feet and may extend to 25 feetor to the range of eyesight and
hearing. Events that take place in this zone are formal. Here the audience views what is
happening as an impartial observer. The degree of detachment is very high. The audience is
free to do whatever it feels like. Here, the speaker has to raise his or her voice to
communicate to other or use a microphone. Public figures like the Prime Minister of a
country has to maintain the distance for security reasons.

3) Chronemics: It is the study of how human beings communicate through their use of time. In order
to use time as an effective communication tool, we should understand its impact on the various
aspects of our lives and act accordingly. We must attempt to use time as effectively as possible.
In the professional world, time is a valuable resource. When we are late for an appointment,
people react negatively. If we arrive early, we are considered either over-eager or aggressive. So,
we should always be on time. By valuing someone else’s time, we communicate our
professionalism or seriousness both subtly and explicitly.
Time language also varies from culture to culture e.g. in Latin countries, meetings usually begin
well after their appointed time (i.e. customary) and no one is offended by the delay while in
Scandinavia or Germany, strict punctuality is the rule, and tardiness is frowned upon. In India,
time language varies according to the occasion. Punctuality is expected for a professional
meeting, but it is not insisted upon for a party. People in India are generally liberal with time.

4) Occulesics: The way eyes are used during a communication exchange is described in Occulesics.
This includes eye contact, avoidance of eye contact, all other eye movements looking onto other
body parts of the other person etc. Occulesic movements are also frequently associated with
kinesic movements e.g. raising of an eyebrow and an occulesic components, such as looking into
the eye of the other person, to get a message across.
People from some cultures may lower their gaze to convey respect, whereas this may be
understood as evading or even insulting in other cultures. Yet direct eye contact may be seen as
insulting in some cultures, whereas it conveys attention in others e.g. American women feel
insulted and embarrassed at being looked at, for in their view, prolonged by Italian and French
men. Conversely, Italian and French females may perceive American males as cold because of
their relatively short eye contact with females.
5) Haptics: It refers to touching behaviour. Although most frequent during greetings and departures,
touching can occur in a variety of circumstances as also during a conversation. Some cultures
place great emphasis on physical contact between people during a conversation, and the people
involved in a conversation may at regular intervals touch the other person. Haptic behaviour can
be categorized in the following degrees of intimacy: Functional / Professional, Social / Polite,
Friendship / Warmth & Love / intimacy Categories. The boundaries between the different levels
21

of intimacy are however, somewhat fuzzy even in one culture. Where different haptic standards
are used, touching behaviour can frequently cause irritation and misinterpretation of what is
Page

intended with the touch and it may also cause severe discomfort e.g. in societies where other
 people are touched more frequently and openly such as many Latin countries’ cultures, a social
handshake can be expected to be experienced as a higher level handshake by someone from
another, less touching culture.However, haptic behaviour is not limited to shaking hands e.g. in
many Arab countries, men frequently touch each other in public, or walk arm in arm down the
street, which could easily imply an intimate sexual relationship between those men in other
cultures.
6) Paralanguage: It is part of the non-verbal communication that conveys emotions & attitudes. It
may be expressed consciously or unconsciously. It includes vocalizations such as hissing,
shushing & whistling as well as speech modifications such as quality of voice or hesitations &
speed in talking e.g. Laughing, crying, whispering, snoring, sucking, sneezing, sighing etc. the
tone of voice plays a fundamental role in telephone operator-customer interaction, and generally
in telephone interactions. The difference how something is said and what is said is paralanguage.
Silence can also be considered as a type of paralanguage- even when we say nothing, we say
something.
When there is no response, we tend to treat it as a hostile response. However, when silence is
followed by a response, we appreciate the fact that people have thought first before
communicating. Some cultures, such as the Japanese, advocate silence as a strategy in business
negotiations while others are hard to keep silent.

BODY GESTURES/LANGUAGE
1. Positive Gestures- Moving hands freely when we speak; Positive listening gestures- leaning a
little towards the speaker, tilting the head, eye contact, gently nodding the head as the sign of
agreement; Good speaking gestures- keeping hands open, avoiding clutching/folding hands across
the chest.
2. Impressing Moving Gestures- Walk with your head upright, hands swing freely along your
sides, eyes should look straight in front, well-measured and steady steps; carry
books/files/documents on your sides but not clutching them against the chest.
3. Negative gestures- Signs of nervousness, hands in the pocket, covering mouth with hand while
speaking, scratching, biting nails, glancing sideways, drumming fingers, clearing throat, tapping
foot, crossing arms & legs, a slumped posture, sitting on the edge of chair, looking at the ceiling,
straitening the tie, setting hair with hands, speaking too fast or too haltingly.
4. Gestures showing aggressiveness- shaking hands too hard, giving a limp hand shake, standing
too close, whispering at a social gathering, working while someone talks to you, yawning,
puffing, looking at watch frequently during conversation.
5. Gestures showing self-importance- eyes closed while talking, head bent backwards while
talking, waving glasses/key ring while talking.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
(Depending on the medium used for communication or the way in which information is exchanged)
1. Intrapersonal communication: It is defined as the communication process within an individual.
It occurs when an individual sends & receives messages internally. The way we communicate
with ourselves reflects various aspects of self- physical, emotional, intellectual, social, habits,
roles, attitudes, beliefs & values. It is not a just a level of communication; it is in fact the very
basis of all communication.
 Intrapersonal communication encompasses
22

a) Sense making- interpreting maps, texts, signs & symbols

b) Interpreting non-verbal communication- eye contact, gestures etc.
Page

c) Communication between body parts

 d) Day dreaming
e) Nocturnal dreaming
2. Interpersonal communication
 Occurs between people who have known each other for some time
 Applied to spoken communication on a personal, face-to-face level
 Includes staff meetings, formal project discussions, employee performance reviews, informal
chats, client meetings, employment interviews
3. Group communication
 Implies a many-to-many communication style in a group
 Goes beyond both one-to-one communication & one-to-many communication
 Includes members interacting together, members become interdependent, members share
norms, values, members have collective identity
 Intimate groups include family, friends, or romantic partner
 Allows exchange of ideas, opinions & information i.e. cooperative atmosphere
4. Mass communication
 Transferring or transmitting a message to a large of people
 Requires media like newspapers, radio, television & books
5. Verbal communication
 Communicating thoughts through words
 Serves as a vehicle for expressing desires, ideas & concepts
 Vital to learning & teaching as well as forming bonds & building relationships with other
people.
 Main function is relaying a message to one or more recipients
WHY ARE COMMUNICATION SKILLS IMPORTANT?
1. To secure an interview
2. To get the job
3. Todo your job well
4. To advance in your career
THE 7 C’S OF COMMUNICATION
The message is said to be effective when the receiver understands the same meaning that the sender
was intended to convey. For any communication in business, in order to be effective, it must have
seven qualities. These seven attributes are called the Seven C’s of communication.
1. Clarity: Today when people have less time to spare, succinct and clear communication is very
crucial. A message needs to be clear if it is to be effective. Clarity demands the use of simple
language and easy sentence structure in composing the message. When there is clarity in
presenting ideas, it’s easy for the receiver/decoder to grasp the meaning conveyed by the
sender/encoder. Thus, clarity is of prime importance throughout the communication cycle for
effective transfer of information.
2. Conciseness: A concise message saves the time of both the sender and the receiver. Conciseness,
in a business message, can be achieved by avoiding wording expressions and repetition. It should
not have phrases and sentences that serve no purpose. Using brief and to-the-point sentences,
including relevant material, makes the message concise. Achieving conciseness does not mean to
loose completeness of message.
3. Concreteness:Being definite, vivid and specific rather than vague, obscure and general leads to
23

concreteness of the message. Facts and figures being presented in the message should be specific.
Concreteness reinforces confidence. Thus, concreteness is a skill used to help make vague
Page

communication clearer. It is about inviting the client to be more specific when unclear statements
 are made. The value of the document is not with the quantity but with the quality, it’s better for
the writers to focus on the conciseness. For effective and better communication, conciseness is
very important.
4. Correctness: Correctness in business writing includes spelling, grammar, punctuation and
format. For spelling, punctuation and grammar, we should keep a dictionary and a writer’s guide
at our desk. At the time of encoding, if the encoder has comprehensive knowledge about the
decoder of the message, it makes the communication easy. The encoder should know the status,
knowledge and educational background of the decoder. Correctness means:
a) Use the right level of language
b) Correct use of grammar, spelling and punctuation
c) Accuracy in stating facts and figures.
5. Coherence:Messages need to “hang together.” Ideas need to flow from one to the next through
smooth transitions. We can achieve this by outlining my messages, writing simple sentences and
focusing each on each one idea. We can also improve the coherence of your message through
parallel structure, connecting words and phrases, and guide posts.
6. Completeness: Completeness means that the message must bear all the necessary information to
bring the response we desire. The sender should answer all the questions and with facts and
figures. Completeness brings the desired response. We should check to be sure that our message
is complete. One way to ensure our communication is effective is to be complete and thorough
with our thoughts and actions.
7. Courteousness: Courtesy means not only thinking about the receiver but also valuing his
feelings. Much can be achieved by using polite words and gestures, being appreciative,
thoughtful, tactful, and showing respect to the receiver. Courtesy builds goodwill and strengthens
relations. In both written and oral communication, it is possible to be courteous while being direct
and business-oriented. Efficiency in communication involves genuine and sincere courtesy. A
business letter should have tact, sincerity and politeness.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
1. Physical Barriers: Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the environment, e.g. the
natural barrier which exists, if thestaff is located in different buildings or on different sites. The
major environmental/physical barriers are Time, Place, Space, Noise, Climate, staff shortage,
outdated equipment, poor lighting etc. Some of them are easy to alter, whereas some may prove to
be tough obstacles in the process of effective communication.
2. Perceptual Barriers- values, beliefs, attitudes, origins, life experiences, assumptions,
interpretations, stereotyping etc.
3. Emotional Barriers- Fear, Mistrust, Suspicion
4. Cultural Barriers- thought, communication, ways of interacting, roles & relationships,
5. Expected behaviour, beliefs, values, practices and customs
6. Language Barriers- Local language, national language, native language
7. Gender Barriers- 22000-25000 words a day by female while 7000-10000 words a day by male
8. Interpersonal Barriers
9. Attitudinal barriers
10. Psychological barriers
11. Pre-conceived Notions/Pre-Judgement
12. Relationships
13. Passive Listening
24

14. Mechanical Barriers

Page

UNIT-III
LISTENING SKILLS
 A good speaker may necessarily be a good listener.“We are given TWO ears but only ONE
mouth, because Listening is twice as hard as Talking”.
 Listening is a highly complex, interactive process “by which spoken language is converted to
meaning in the mind”.Listening is more than just hearing, although these two terms are often used
synonymously.
 Listening is a specialized form of hearing and is the primary function of the ear.The most crucial
part of the listening process is Thinking or Converting to meaning what one hears.Listening
involves the conscious desire to determine the meaning of what is heard.While listening, one is
engaged in processing the data, reconstructing the data and also giving meaning to the data.
 Hearing is passive process while Listening is active process.Hearing is the first stage of Listening
by picking up sound waves which are transported to the brain.

TYPES OF LISTENING
1. Active listening
2. Passive listening
3. Evaluative listening
4. Empathetic listening
5. Therapeutic listening
6. Superficial listening
7. Appreciative listening

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE LISTENING

The following could be some factors that create barriers to listening.
a) Content and different perspectives: We see things differently to the person talking and we
disagree with them.
 Listeners knowing too much- They feel that their knowledge is so extensive that there is little left
to learn.
 Listeners knowing too little- They tune out when faced with difficult intellectual or emotional
content. They only listen to information that conforms to their beliefs.
Remedies:
 Do not sit back passively and allow sound to enter ears.
 Develop a positive attitude towards the message.
 Anticipate the importance of the message content.
 Seek areas of interest in the message.
 Remind yourself that something of value can be learned.
b) Speaker:
 Delivery- The speaker’s accent, organization, clarity, speed, volume, tone inflections, emotions
and appearance affect the interpretation of the message.
 Attitudes and Reactions towards the speaker- We may dislike the person who is talking to us; we
may find them boring or opinionated. So, listeners are influenced more by their attitude towards
the speaker than the information presented. If the listener likes the speaker, he/she is more likely
to empathize and, therefore, comprehend the message.
Remedy: Concentrate on the ‘what’ of the message, not the ‘who’ or ‘how’.
25

c) Medium:Listening requires least effort when the speaker is not visible. More effort is needed
Page

when the speaker is visible, but not physically present (e.g. a speaker on TV). Maximum effort is
 needed in face-to-face interactions. This happens because the amount and variety of both verbal
and non-verbal stimuli increase. These stimuli can either help or hinder communication.
Remedy: Realize the potential for better understanding, and increase listening effort.

d) Distractions & Mind wandering: We may be distracted because of a noise; or we may be

thinking ahead of all the things that need to be done; we may be worried about someone or
something. Extraneous stimuli such as sounds, lights, odours, mannerisms, voice inflections, and
moving objects can easily distract listeners. Psychological studies indicate that a listener’s
attention span is sometimes not more than two or three seconds. These stimuli can be categorized
as environmental or physical, but most often psychological.
Remedies:
 Identify and eradicate distractions.
 If distractions cannot be eliminated, increase concentration.
 Free yourself from preconceptions, prejudices and negative emotions.

e) Strong emotions and Mindset: We have very strong feelings on the subject which prevents us
from listening; we may also have prejudices. Attitudes are structured by a listener’s unique
physical, mental and emotional characteristics. An individual’s mindset can either magnify or
diminish stimuli, distorting the message.
Remedies:
 Strive to not let personal biases interfere with comprehension.
 Respect other’s freedom of values and beliefs.
 Accept that attempting to understand another’s viewpoint is not necessarily agreeing with it.
 Realize that there may be more than one acceptable point of view.

f) Linguistic barriers: if the listener is listening to something in a language or dialect that he is not
able to follow, a communication breakdown will definitely occur.
 Ambiguity- Listeners rarely hear every word spoken and may attach different meanings to words
than intended by the speaker.
 Misinterpretation- This can occur when the words used are imprecise, emotional, technical, or
overly intellectual. It occurs most often when listeners interpret words based on personal
definitions, established by background, education, and experience.
Remedies:
 Realize that different words may have different meanings for different people.
 Evaluate the context in which the word is used.
 Remember that the meaning is in the mind, not in the word.

g) Feedback: Often the listener ends up giving premature comments or evaluations without a full
understanding of the speaker’s viewpoint. Such comments, which may be coloured with emotions
of resentment, defensiveness, or suspicion, can hinder the speaker by confusing them or diverting
them into tangents.
Remedy: Supportive feedback can demonstrate interest through appropriate eye contact, smiling and
animation, nodding, leaning forward, verbal reinforcements such as ‘I see’ or ‘Yes’, and phrasing
interpretations of the comments for verification. This must be timed so as to assist rather than hinder
26

the speaker.
Page

h) Listening speed:
 Rate- The average speaking rate is 125-150 words per minute. The average listening capacity is
400-500 words a minute, leaving a lot of excess thinking time.
 Think time- Poor listeners use the excess time to daydream, often missing part of the message.
Remedies:
 Use the excess time to outline messages.
 Identify the purpose and how it is supported.
 Evaluate the soundness of logic; verify and integrate it with existing knowledge.
 Maintain eye contact to observe and interpret non-verbal signals.
 Formulate questions to enhance and verify understanding and provide feedback.

i) Cultural barriers: The interpretation of meaning can create misunderstandings during

intercultural communication due to differences in norms and values. Listening is tough, and more
so if someone is from another culture or subculture. The problem crops up because of the
different choice of words, accents, pronunciation, and many other intangible reasons. One must be
extra careful while listening to a person from another region or culture. In fact, listening can be
improved by talking to more people of different nations and trying to understand them.e.g. At a
hotel lobby in Tokyo:
American: I would like a room for two nights.
Japanese speaker of English: For tonight?
American: No, not ‘tonight’. Two nights.
j) Physical tiredness or Discomfort: We may tired or hungry; we may be hot or cold; we may be
under stress and feel anxious or unwell.

TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE LISTENING SKILLS

Active listening is really an extension of the Golden Rule. To know how to listen to someone else, we
should think about how we would want to be listened to. While the ideas are largely intuitive, it might
take some practice to develop/redevelop the skills. Here’s what good listeners know and we should-
1. Concentrate on what others are saying: When listening to someone, we should not think about a
job or task that is nearing a deadline or an important family matter. In the middle of a
conversation, we should realize that someone has heard a word the other person has said. It is
important to actively concentrate on what others are saying so that effective communication can
occur.
2. Keep open mind and minimize internal distractions: We should keep open mind when a person
is speaking to absorb completely the points which are not known to us. Besides, if our own
thoughts keep horning in, we should simply let them go, and continuously refocus our attention
on the speaker, much as we would during meditation.
3. Send the non-verbal message: When someone is talking to you, we should sit up straight or lean
forward slightly to show our attentiveness through body language. We should not only maintain
eye contact with that person but also should show the speaker that we are listening by nodding our
head. Most communication experts agree that non-verbal messages can be three times as powerful
as verbal messages. Effective communication becomes difficult anytime we send a non-verbal
message that others are not really listening.
4. Avoid early evaluations: When listening, we do not have to make immediate judgements about
what the speaker is saying. We should not assume or guess what the speaker is going to say next.
27

Sometimes later it happens that we failed to interpret correctly what the speaker was telling us.
Because a listener can listen at a faster rate than most speakers talk, there is a tendency to evaluate
Page

too quickly. That tendency is perhaps the greatest barrier to effective listening. It is especially
 important to avoid early evaluations when listening to a person with whom we disagree. When
listeners begin to disagree with a sender’s message, they tend to misinterpret the remaining
information, and distort its intended meaning so that it is consistent with their own beliefs.
5. Avoid getting defensive: We should not ever take what another person says personally when he is
saying is not meant to be personal. Careful listening does not mean that we will always agree with
the other party’s point of view, but it does not mean that we will not try to listen to what the other
person is saying without becoming overly defensive. Too much time spent explaining,
elaborating, and defending our decision or position is a sure sign that we are not listening. This is
because our role has changed from one of listening to a role of convincing others they are wrong.
Effective listeners can listen calmly to another person even when that person is offering unjust
criticism.
6. Practise Paraphrasing: Paraphrasing is an art of putting into our own words what we thought we
heard and saying it back to the sender. Paraphrasing is a great technique for improving our
listening and problem-solving skills. First, we have to listen very carefully if we are going to
accurately paraphrase what we heard. Second, the paraphrasing response will clarify for the
sender that his or message was correctly received, and encourages the sender to expand on what
he/she is trying to communicate.
7. Listen and observe for feelings: When listening, we should not only concentrate just on the
words that are being said but also we should concentrate on the way they are being said. The way
a speaker is standing, the tone of his voice and inflection he is using, and what he is doing with
his or her hands are all part of the message that is being sent. A person who raises his voice is
probably angry or frustrated. A person looking down while speaking is probably either
embarrassed or shy. Interruptions may suggest fear or lack of confidence. Persons who make eye
contact and lean forward are likely to exhibit confidence. Inappropriate silence may be a sign of
aggression and be intended as punishment.
8. Ask questions: Effective listeners make certain that they have correctly heard the message that is
being sent. Ask questions to clarify points or to obtain additional information. They require the
speaker to convey more information. From your questions in a way that makes it clear you have
yet not drawn any conclusions. This will assure the message sender that you are only interested in
obtaining more and better information. And the more information that you as a listener has, the
better you can respond to the sender’s communication.

HOW TO ENHANCE LISTENING

A) Becoming an Active Listener
1) Pay attention:We should give the speaker our undivided attention and knowledge the message.
Recognize that what is not said also speaks loudly.
 Look at the speaker directly
 Put aside distracting thoughts. Don’t mentally prepare a rebuttal.
 Avoid being distracted by environmental factors.
 Listen to the speaker’s body language
 Refrain from side conversations when listening in a group setting
2) Show that we are listening:We should use our own body language and gestures to convey our
attention.
 Nod occasionally
 Smile and use other facial expressions
28

 Note your posture and make sure it is open and inviting

Page

 Encourage the speaker to continue with small verbal comments, like yes and uh huh
3) Provide feedback:Our personal filters, assumptions, judgements and beliefs can distort what we
hear. As a listener, our role is to understand what is being said. This may require us to reflect what
is being said and ask questions.
 Reflect what has been said by paraphrasing
 Ask questions to clarify points
 Summarize the speaker’s comments periodically
4) Defer judgement:Interrupting is a waste of time. It frustrates the speaker and limits full
understanding of the message.
 Allow the speaker to finish
 Don’t interrupt with counter-arguments
5) Respond appropriately:Active listening is a model for respect and understanding. We are gaining
information and perspective. We add nothing by attacking the speaker or otherwise putting him or
her down.
 Be candid, open and honest in your response
 Assert your opinions respectfully
 Treat the other person as he would want to be treated

B) Tips for improving your listening skills

a) Try hard not to think about our response until other person is done with speaking.
b) Don’t talk prematurely or interrupt. Allow the other person to complete his/her thoughts before
we jump in. interrupting a train of thought can often get the conversation off on a tangent and
make it difficult to get back to what the other person wanted to say.
c) Concentrate carefully on what the other person is saying. We should look at the person when he is
speaking. Don’t thumb through papers or appear distracted. Carefully listen to every word.
d) Listen without bias. Before forming an opinion, let the other person explain his position. If we
allow past experiences or our opinions about the other person to bias our ability to listen
effectively, what he is actually saying and what we interpret him to be saying could be entirely
different things.
e) Not assuming we know what the other person meant if the wording is unclear. We should ask
what he specifically means when he makes a comment that is unclear to us.
f) Listening actively by nodding our head to acknowledge, making good eye contact, saying such
things such as, “I understand” or “That’s interesting”. This tells the other person we are listening
attentively. We should be careful not to overdo it in terms of nodding or making acknowledging
remarks, however.
g) Clarification by repeating in our own words when necessary what we understood the other person
to say.

EMPATHETIC/EPHATIC LISTENING
 Empathy is the ability to project oneself into the personality of another person in order to
better understand the person’s emotions or feelings.
 It builds trust & respect.
 It enables the disputants to release their emotions.
 It reduces tensions.
 It encourages the surfacing of information
29

 It creates a safe environment that is conducive to collaborate problem solving.

Guidelines for Empathic Listening
Page

1) Be attentive and interested. Be alert and not distracted.

 2) Don’t ask a lot of questions
3) Act like a mirror
4) Don’t discount the speaker’s feelings
5) Don’t interrupt
6) Don’t change the subject or move in a new direction
7) Don’t rehearse in your own head
8) Don’t interrogate
9) Don’t teach
10) Don’t give advice

NOTE-TAKING
Note-taking is a process of summarizing information from spoken material. This skill requires
adequate practice. Students write the main points of a lecture. First one has to listen to what is being
said with full attention. Next one has to recognize quickly the main points that the speaker makes and
note them down immediately. As we know, the speed of speech is faster than the speed of writing. So,
some extra effort is required to keep pace with the speaker. Unlike written material, where one has the
advantage of going back and referring to it, speeches unless recorded, are not available afterwards,
and hence require one’s complete attention for note-taking.

TIPS OF NOTE TAKING

a) Collect notes for each course in one place, in a separate notebook or section of a notebook.
b) Use an erasable pen or pencil.
c) Use a loose-leaf notebook rather than a notebook with a permanent binding.
d) Enter your notes legibly because it saves time. Make them clear.
e) Draw a box around assignments and suggested books so you can identify them quickly.
f) Make ideas which the lecture emphasizes with a highlighter, arrow or some special symbol.
g) When the teacher looks at his notes, pay attention to what he says. Check any notes you may have
missed with a classmate.
UNIT-IV
SPEAKING SKILLS
 In human development, speech precedes writing.We first learn to speak, and then much later,
develop the ability to read and write.The ability to speak single words and then later on speak
groups of words in meaningful sequence comes to us in course of our growth as a child.We
develop this ability from listening to verbal sounds.
 In human interaction, oral communication is used more than written communication.Oral
communication, also known as Verbal Communication, is the interchange of verbal messages
between a sender and a receiver.Speaking is more immediate than written communication
 More natural and informal. 70% time spent in communicating and 75% time spent in listening and
speaking (Throughout life).Out of total time spent in communicating, 45% listening, 30%
speaking, 16% reading and 9% writing.
 Necessary for creating and sustaining a good relationship through ability to listen and speak
effectively.

SMALL TALK
 Small talk is a casual form of conversation that “breaks the ice” or fills an awkward silence
30

between people.
Page
 There are certain times when small talk is appropriate, there are also certain topics that people
often discuss during these moments.
 People with many different relationships use small talk.
 The most common type of people to use small talk are those who do not know each other at all.
 Also common for people who are only acquaintances, often called a “friend of friend” to use
small talk
 Examples are short conversation among office employees; customer service representatives,
waitresses, hairdressers and receptionistswith customers; Small talk in doctor’s waiting room,
small talk in queues at grocery store, small talk in elevators/lifts, lunchrooms and even restrooms
etc.
 There are certain “safe” topics that people usually make small talk about. Examples- weather,
current events, law concerning equal rights, sports news, entertainment news etc.
 Discussion personal information such as salaries or a recent divorce is not done between people
who do not know each other well.
 We do not talk about private issues either because we do not know if we can trust the other person
with our secrets or personal information.
 Also it is not safe to discuss subjects that society deems controversial such as religion or politics.
 Small talk can be a big challenge, but a little preparation and confidence is all we need.
 As a skilled small talker, we will come across as a more open and friendly person, compared to
someone who doesn’t say much during social situations.

HOW TO MAKE SMALL TALK

1. Assess you atmosphere
2. Remind yourself that if you start off by praising somebody, always be honest
3. Ask open-ended questions
4. Respect other person’s space
5. Stand comfortably on both feet
6. Small talk does not have to end at the topic it started at. Pick up clues from questions and answers
and spin off of them.
7. Laugh at yourself but do not be a clown.
8. End the conversation with something nice.

TIPS FOR SMALL TALK

1. Practice by talking to your milk delivery man, postman etc.
2. Read everything
3. Force yourself to get into small talk situations
4. Come up yourself with topics
5. Keep a journal
6. Expand your horizons
7. Be a better listener
8. Work on confidence and be yourself
9. Keep a few exit lines in mind
10. Keep your fellow chatterers in mind
11. Relax, the whole world is not watching you
31

12. Watch your breathing; make sure you are not breathing too rapidly or holding your breath
13. Always be respectful
Page

14. Know the game of the season

15. If you don’t read/watch the news, at least scan the headlines each day.
16. Pick-up lines are an effective way to open the door to further communication.

BUILDING RAPPORT/BUILDING RELATIONSHIPS THROUGH COMMUNICATION

10 points for creating a good first impression and establishing a rapport:
1) Dress well and to the other person’s expectations
2) Smile when you first see him
3) Establish and maintain eye contact
4) Be the first to say hello and extend your hand
5) If the meeting is in your officeor home, greet the person at your door
6) Deliver a sincere greeting
7) Use the person’s name
8) Don’t speak too softly or loudly
9) Do any necessary homework about the person you are meeting
10) Do more listening than talking

UNIT-V
GROUP DISCUSSION (GD)
 Group Discussions are conversations held among a particular number of people (approximately 3-
8)meeting face-to-face for oral interaction, developing, sharing and discussing ideas which may
be formal or informal. These are initiated to exchange information, views and opinions, persuade,
appraise, make decisions or solve problems.
 GDs are not only widely used in many organizations for decision making and problem-solving but
also used as a personality test for evaluating several candidates to select personnel for positions of
responsibility, especially in the service sector and also to select students for admission to
professional institutes.
 While initiating a discussion with people we meet for the first time, we would first introduce
ourselves mentioning our full names and then ask others to introduce themselves so that the entire
group knows each other before the discussion begins.
 GD session is conducted to analyse the ability of the candidates to think on a subject and present
their views on the respective subject. This examination also helps the examiners judge the ability
of the applicants to perform in groups.
 Students are always advised to practise group discussion sessions from time ahead so that they
can come out with their best foot forward on the day of the examination.
 GD topics are carefully selected from various fields to judge the qualities of the candidates.
 Topics that are selected for GD are chosen from various fields like Sports, Politics, Social issues,
Environmental issues, Current events.
 Students are always advised to read a lot of newspapers and business magazines to stay aware of
the current events and happenings.
 It is essential for you to go through newspapers and other articles available online on a regular
basis
LIST OF SKILLS ASSESSED DURING A GD
1. Leadership skills:Ability to take leadership roles and ability to lead, inspire and carry the team
along to help them achieve group’s objectives.
32

Example: to be able to initiate the group discussion, or to be able to guide the group especially
when the discussion begins losing relevance or try to encourage all members to participate in the
Page

discussion.
2. Communication skills:The participating candidate will be accessed in terms of clarity of thought,
expression and aptness of language. One key aspect is listening. It indicates a willingness to
accommodate others views.
Example: To be able to use simple language and explain concepts clearly so that it is easily
understood by all. You actually get negative marks for using esoteric jargons in an attempt to
show off your knowledge.
3. Interpersonal skills:It reflected in the ability of the individual to interact with other members of
the group in a brief situation. Emotional maturity and balance promotes good interpersonal
relationships. The person has to be more centric and less-centred.
Example: To remain cool even when someone provokes you with personal comment, ability to
remain objective, ability to empathize, non-threatening and more of a team player.
4. Persuasive skills:Ability to analyse and persuade others to see the problem from multiple
perspectives without hurting the group members.
Example: while appreciating someone else’s point of view, you should be able to effectively
communicate your view without overtly hurting the other person.
5. Problem-solving skills:Ability to come out with divergent and offbeat solutions and use one’s
own creativity.Example: While thinking of solutions, don’t be afraid to think of novel solutions.
This is a high- risk high-return strategy.
6. Conceptualization skills:The ability to grasp the situation, take it from the day-to- day mundane
problem level and supply it to a macro level.
Example: At the end of the discussion, you could probably summarize the findings in a few
sentences that present the overall perspective.

PERSONALITY TRAITS THE GD IS TRYING TO GAUGE

1. Ability to work in team
2. Communication skills
3. Reasoning ability
4. Leadership skills
5. Initiative
6. Assertiveness
7. Flexibility
8. Creativity
9. Ability to think on one’s feet
TASK ROLES/ FUNCTIONS REQUIRED IN SELECTING & CARRYING OUT A GROUP
TASK
a) Initiating
b) Giving & asking for information
c) Giving & asking for reactions
d) Restating & giving examples
e) Confronting & reality testing
f) Clarifying, synthesizing & summarizing

NEGOTIATIONS
Negotiation is the process in which two or more individuals or groups, having both common and
conflicting goals, state and discuss proposals for specific terms of a possible agreement i.e. process of
33

bargaining in which two parties try to reach an agreement, on mutually accepted terms. It normally
occurs between companies, groups or individuals because one has something the other wants and is
Page

willing to bargain to get it. We all need good negotiation skills not only in the business environment
but also in our personal lives. Whether it is with an employer, family member, or business, we all
negotiate for things or issues big or small each day at our place of work, home or any other relevant
locale. Whenever we attempt to influence another person through an exchange of ideas, or something
of material value, we are negotiating.

THREE KEY SKILLS BEHIND NEGOTIATION

Clear communication is the key to effective negotiation. The three key skills behind negotiation skills
are:
1) Listening: The best listeners almost always turn out to be the best negotiators. Listening
enables a negotiator to encourage the other person to share thoughts and feelings.
2) Speaking: Speaking skills also play an important role in good negotiation. If we cannot
express our problems, terms and conditions well to the other party, we cannot get benefit out
of a negotiation.
3) Comprehending: Understanding is also required for a smooth negotiation. If the two
negotiating parties do not comprehend/understand each other’s problems and concerns, then
the process of negotiation will either be broken off or will end with solutions that do not
work. Hence, a common understanding must be reached before the two parties can look for
solutions.
PRESENTATION SKILLS
A) Presentation Skills and its importance
 Presentations are ways of communicating ideas and information to a group. A presentation carries
the speaker’s personality better and allows immediate interaction between all the participants. The
whole preparation, presentation and content of a speech must be geared not to the speaker but to
the audience for reception of the information. The presentation faces failure if the audience does
not understand or is not persuaded of its merits.
 The central purpose of any presentation, written, oral or visual is communication and it has to
make the presenter’s message understood and remembered. In presentation, one explains,
educates, convinces or otherwise conveys information to the audience.
 A presentation consists of 4 basic elements- You, Your Audience, Your Message and Your tools.
 To communicate effectively, we must state our facts in a simple, concise and interesting manner.
Simple, clear, concise visual images, briskly paced and sprinkled with attention- grabbing
graphics will lend support to our spoken words.
 Successful and inspiring speakers are remembered not only because they are eloquent, humorous,
or have a good style, but primarily and principally because their messages and ideas have caused
a change in their audience’s actions, attitudes, lives, or made the made the purpose clear to them.
 Throughout our career, we are bound to encounter innumerable situations that require
professional presentations to be made. To mention a few, a college student may have to attend
seminars or may have to present project reports to fellow students and faculty members; a project
manager may have to present before a committee the results of a project recently undertaken by
the company; a top administrator of an institution may have to present the goals, activities, and
achievements of the institution to an important visitor/guest. These situations call for effective and
memorable presentations. The more successful our career, the more often will we be called upon
to make presentations for a variety of situations and audiences. Constant practice is the key to
acquiring this skill. Thus, it is important to have good presentation skills.
B) A good presentation hasContent, Structure, Packaging and Human element
34

 Voice- Volume, Tone, Pitch, Pace and Colour

Page

 The Body- Eye contact, Facial expressions, Gestures, Posture & body orientation and Proximity
IMPORTANT ASPECTS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR PLANNING PRESENTATION
The following aspects are to be considered/attended to when preparing for a professional presentation:
1) PLANNING:Preparing and delivering the first business presentation or public speech in our life
can be daunting. We may find it difficult to decide what we want to say and how to say it, or
perhaps the thought of speaking before an audience scares us.it is true that some people are
naturally talented at public speaking. However, with some helpful guidance, anyone can prepare
and deliver a successful speech that will be remembered for all the right reasons.Effective
preparation enables us to answer all the questions and doubts about our speech before they arise.
The contents of our speech, and how we deliver it, are based on five important factors:
a) Occasion
It refers to the factors such as facilities available for our presentation, time and context of our
presentation. Facilities include the venue, or locale along with the projection equipment, lighting,
seating, ventilation, etc. we may present in magnificently large auditoriums or oppressively small
conference rooms. Attention should be given to the physical setting like podium or table, public
address system and the physical conditions prevalent in the venue such as seating, room temperature,
and lighting. If we identify any problem in advance, we can either ask for alternative arrangements or
modify our materials, visual aids, and style to suit the environment.
Time refers to both the time of the day of presentation and the duration of the talk.
Straightforward and factual presentations may work well during the morning hours, but in case of
an after-dinner speech, we may need to adapt our remarks to the occasion. Most professional
presentations are brief and we should present the important points in the first few minutes.
Context refers to the events surrounding our presentation. When we are presenting in a team, we
need to consider the team members. They might have left a positive or negative impression in the
minds of the audience and hence, we would need to adapt ourselves to the existing situation just
before presenting our part.
The occasion dictates not only the content of our speech, but also the duration, the tone, and the
expectations of the audience. We should also be aware of our role and any observations that we
might make during our speech.
b) Audience
All audiences have one thing in common. They are at the receiving end of our communication. They
may be our friends, clients, colleagues, sometimes unfamiliar faces, or a combination of all these. The
nature of our audience has a direct impact on the strategy we devise for our presentation. Hence, it is
necessary to have some prior knowledge of the audience.
People from a particular culture may feel uncomfortable asking questions or may not reveal their
feelings through facial expressions. If we know in advance how our audience is likely to react, we can
structure our presentation and adapt our style to help them feel comfortable.
If we are going to speak before an unknown group, we can ask our host or the organizer for help in
analysing the audience and supplement their estimates with some intelligent guesstimates of our own.
Those who are not very conversant with English or with our accent, will appreciate relatively slow
speech and visual aids designed to aid their understanding. We should also adjust our style to
accommodate cultural differences.
While speaking on a controversial topic, we ought to keep aside some time to tackle any opposition
from audience. We need to be patient in listening to them and then only should react. We should give
the impression to our audience that we want to share our views with them. The structure of a
35

presentation can further be skilfully emphasized by pauses, through interactions with the audience,
Page

and through changes in delivery techniques.

Testing the waters beforehand, so to speak, will help to tune the approach. We should speak with
confidence and conviction. We should not only make our points crystal clear and easy to understand
but also maintain an attitude of alertness and confidence. We should encourage questions from the
audience as well. Audience participation gives the opportunity to clear up any misunderstanding.
c) Purpose
There can be three different purposes of a presentation: to inform, to analyse or to persuade. The
purpose of a presentation not only decides the content and style but also affects the amount of
audience interaction. For instance when our purpose is to provide information or to analyse a
situation, we generally interact with the audience in a limited manner. Examples of a typical
presentation forms with an informative purpose can be a presentation at the new employee-orientation
programme or an explanation of our project status.
On the other hand, when our purpose is to persuade people to take a particular action, collaborate with
them in solving a problem, or making a decision, the interaction would be more. We generally begin
by providing facts and figure that increase our audience understanding of the subject; we may also
offer arguments in defence of certain conclusions and recommendations. In addition we invite them to
participate by expressing their needs, suggesting solutions and formulating conclusions and
recommendations. However this would need a lot of ‘on-the-spot’ thinking skills and in-depth
knowledge of the subject. Sales, presentations, speech by political leaders during election etc., come
under the category of persuasive presentation.
d) Thesis Statement
The thesis statement is very important in a presentation because it spells out the subject and
establishes its impact among the audience. It is also the central idea of the presentation. Using a
question or a sentence fragment should be avoided. Simple language should be used to frame a
complete, declarative sentence. We should begin to formulate our thesis statement as soon as we
select our topic and decide on our purpose. Then we should allow ourselves enough time to explore
and develop our ideas. The steps to arrive at our thesis statement should include topic, topic area,
general purpose, specific purpose and thesis statement respectively.
e) Material
Once we complete formulating our thesis, we need to develop the information that elaborates it.
Collecting material require some research. For example, we are explaining a process or procedure, the
main text of our presentation will include a series of steps involved. Similarly when we are giving a
product presentation, besides the complete information about the product we may have to collect
information pertaining to the completing products and their features. For most of the professional
presentation, we may to consult the library, internet, magazines, newspapers, organizational records,
statistics and publications. Sometimes, we may even have to collect information through surveys or
interview. We may also have to contact external organisations to procure information for some of our
presentations. Once we finish collecting materials and ideas for our presentation, we should assemble
them at one place. We may list all the ideas on a piece of paper and then organise them.
2) OUTLINING AND STRUCTURING
An outline is a framework in which bits and piece of the presentation material are fitted. It serves as a
guide to show us the right path for our presentation. Hence, spending time in developing an outline
never goes waste. In fact, we can use an outline as our ‘script’, but should be prepared to deviate in
response4 to audience feedback. The outline can be in the form of words, phrases and sentences. We
may have to revise the subheadings under each or some of these main topics.
Structuring or organising the material clearly is vital for an effective presentation. A well organised
36

presentation can make our messages more comprehensible, create the desire effect on our audience,
and boost our image as a speaker. On the other hand, rambling or taking too long to get to the point,
Page

including irrelevant material in the speech, omitting necessary information, or messing up the ideas
can lead to a chaotic structure. Even the experienced speakers get into trouble if their material is not
organized appropriately and end up confusing their audience.Shortly, a presentation should have the
following format:
 Main body should contain all the main points and supporting material; the entire matter should be
organised into a logical sequence.
 Conclusion should contain signal, highlight or summary, closing statement/ re-emphasis, a vote of
thanks and invitation to questions.
a) Introduction
The introduction to a presentation does the job of the preface to a book. It catches the attention
(attention grabber) of the audience, tells them the topic and purpose (topic and thesis), develops in
them a trust for the presenter and the presentation (credibility),kindles their interest in what the
presenter is going to speak in the minutes to come (preview), and takes them slowly into the main
body of the speech (transition. It should include the following contents:
 Greeting-We can start with good morning/good afternoon, etc., or can begin by extending a
compliment to our audience or referring to the location or occasion.
 Attention Grabber-This catches the attention of our audience and prepares them to listen to the
rest of our presentation. Depending on the topic, we can use a question, a quotation, a starting
statement, an anecdote, or even a video or audio clip to grab the attention of the audience.
 Topic and Thesis statement-As the topic is very important, we need to include it in our visual aid
and project the same.
 Credibility- While the audience may believe us because of our power/status/experience, we may
need to speak out explicit statement in order to establish credibility in their minds if we are young
and inexperienced. We can achieve this goal by stating our interest in the topic, by quoting some
relevant statement from a recent newspaper or magazine, or by informing them how much
research we have done on the topic.
 Preview- We can tell our audience what is coming ahead in our presentation. We can also give a
brief idea about the issues we are going to cover in the given time. This can be done by showing
the slide containing the main topics and subtopics in the presentation outline.
 Rules for question and answer session- Good presenters always anticipate questions and prepare
their answers as well during the preparation stage. It is better to inform the audience in the
beginning itself whether they can ask questions during or after the presentation.
 Transition- Before going to the slide containing the first main point, we can speak out a phrase or
ask a question to provide a link between the introduction and the main body of the presentation. It
is better to adopt a uniform style to state the main points of a presentation i.e. all the points are in
the form of phrases, questions etc.
A good introduction creates interest and leads the audience effectively into the main body of the
speech.
b) Main body
The main body, the discussion, or the text part follows the introduction and supports the aim or
specific purpose of a presentation. Depending on the topic, and the introduction part, we can choose
from any of the following patterns to organize the main body of a presentation.
 Chronological- This pattern can be used for organising points that can be arranged sequentially or
chronologically. This method is useful for topics such as the profile of institute, the changing face
of the earth and history of sports.
 Categorical-This is one of the easiest and most commonly adopted patterns for many topics. The
37

entire presentation can be divided into various topics and subtopics arranged on the basis of
Page
 subordination and coordination. This can be used for topics such asthe role of advertising,
environmental protection, importance of professional presentation etc.
 Cause and effect-This method can be adopted whenever a ‘cause and effect’ relationship exists.
Here, we have to illustrate and explain the causes of the situation and then focus on the effects. It
is relevant for topics such as Impact of cinema on children, Internet- boon or bane, Global
warming etc.
 Problem-solution- Here, we divide the presentation into two parts. In the first part we describe
and analyse the problem. After the analysis we move on to the main objective of the presentation
to suggest or propose a solution to the problem. It is a very helpful and effective way for
persuasive presentation. For topics such as Population explosion, Addiction to gaming etc., this
method can be used.
 Supporting material-We need to back up our well organized points in a way that makes the
audience notice, understand and accept our message. In order words we need to use plenty of
supporting materials or develop our core point adequately. The various categories of supporting
material include the following:
 Definitions-When we deliver a presentation on a topic that we feel that the audience is not too
familiar with, we can use a definition to develop our idea. It explains the difficult terms with the
help of simple terms. It is used in informative/technical presentations. It uses easy and known
terms.
 Examples-Examples are the most commonly used material in presentations. They give life to our
ideas and make them immediately comprehensible to the audience. Almost all effective speakers
use examples in their presentations. It is a brief reference that illustrates a point. It is used in all
type of presentations. It uses situations with which your audience may be familiar.
 Statistics-It is the quantification of the main point. It is widely used in the presentations where
sales, figures, survey results, etc., are to be explained. It is the round of the numbers, support with
visuals, and explain adequately. Engineers, scientists and business professionals use statics that
represent numerical data relating to groups of individuals or experiments to substantiate their
ideas and strengthen the understanding of their audience.
 Analogy-An analogy can make a point by showing how one idea resembles another. Analogies
compare items from an unfamiliar area with items from a familiar area. It is used in business
presentations involving products, processes, and procedures.
 Testimony-It is the opinion of experts, peers, or celebrities. It is used in sales presentations. It
memorize/paraphrase/read verbatim, cite source, use sources credible to your audience, and
follow up with re-statement of explanation.
c) Conclusion: The conclusion of a presentation provides yet another opportunity for us to impress
the audience. Hence the conclusion should be prepared and presented with the same interest as we
take for the introduction. We can conclude our presentation by reviewing the main points. A
signal such as to sum up, to conclude, to review, in the end etc. to indicate the end of the
presentation must be used. As we conclude we should remind the audience briefly about the
purpose of our presentation, which could be either to persuade them or to inform them. The
temptation to wrap up in haste or add something new in this part of the speech should be avoided.
We can conclude with a quotation or can recall the earlier story, joke, anecdote with which we
commenced our presentation to bring it to a full circle.

3) NUANCES OF DELIVERY
38

All of us have listened to more than our share of bad presentations. We have sat through presentations
Page

that were delivered so haltingly that we could not care what was being said. We would also have
come across presentations that were delivered smoothly but had practically put us to sleep, as
presenter droned on endlessly. However, if delivered effectively and efficiently, presentations can
capture the audience’s attention without the risk of being shuffled aside.
a) Modes of delivery
Our manner of presentation, our vocal inflections, our perfectly time pauses, our facial expression and
our gestures- all these are part of an expert delivery. Good delivery does not call attention to itself. It
conveys our ideas clearly, interestingly and without distracting the audience. There are four mode of
delivery that can be used for making presentations:
 Extemporaneous mode-When speaking extempore we must prepare the notes beforehand and
rehearse our presentation. Our presentation will sound quite spontaneous to the audience, as after
thorough preparation, we are speaking while thinking. Careful planning and rigorous practice
enable one to collect the material and organise it meticulously.
 Manuscript mode-In manuscript presentation, material is written out and we are supposed to read
it out aloud verbatim. For effective use of this mode, we should go through the material several
times beforehand until we become absolutely familiar with the text.
 Impromptu mode-The impromptu mode, as the word suggests, is what we use when we have to
deliver an informal speech without preparation.
 Memorization mode-Speech is written out before hand , then committed to memory, and finally
delivered from memory. This method is difficult for most of us it is difficult to memorize an
entire speech.
b) Guidelines for effective Delivery
Success of any presentation also depend on the various elements- verbal, non-verbal (body language),
vocal, and visual- used during a presentation.
 Verbal elements-Verbal elements include word pictures, warm words, similes and metaphors,
impact words, smooth flow etc.
 Non-verbal elements-Non-verbal elements like our appearance, facial expressions, eye contact,
postures, gestures, and the space we share with our audience, all communicate our interest,
enthusiasm, dynamism, intention, and confidence to our audience.
 Vocal elements-Our voice can serve as an important tool to support our verbal message. Our
vocal elements, namely the tone, pitch, rate, and volume, reflect our attitude about ourselves, our
message, and our audience.
 Visual elements- Graphics can also boost our image in ways that extend beyond the presentation.
They add a professional flavour to our presentation. Our audience remembers a visual message
longer than the verbal message as visual stimuli are more effective than verbal stimuli.

4) CONTROLLING NERVOUSNESS AND STAGE FRIGHT

The symptoms of stage fright are racing heart, sweating, dry mouth, shaky hands and legs, knocking
knees, blinking eyes, paining back, queasy stomach, and loss of memory. Even many seasoned
speakers feel nervous when they need to presenta complex topic, to present before their superiors. As
nervousness leads to stage fright, which in turn may affect the presentation, we need to control them.

5) VISUAL AIDS IN PRESENTATIONS

Spoken words are temporary; as soon as they come out of our mouth they evaporate into the air.
Because of this limitation, speeches often need strong visual support- handoutschalk boards, flip
39

chart, overheads, slides, computers, charts, tables, film etc. if a picture is simple, clear, and
appropriate to its purpose and audience, it will deliver its message more accu8rately and quickly than
Page

a verbal explanation. We should choose only those visual aids for any point that sounds vague and
requires discussion in detail./ however, visual aids must be well designed and professionally
generated. We should not use visual aids as a verbal crutch for the speaker.

6) APPLICATION OF MS POWERPOINT
Microsoft PowerPoint (PP) slides have become the standard for visuals in almost all professional
presentations. Although we can use note cards or overhead projector (OHP) transparencies for our
presentations, MS PoerPoint is the most widely used presentation software across the globe, as the
slides are easy to prepare, animate and add effects to. The result is eye catching and impressive
presentations fit for any occasion. However, in addition to creating PP slides, it is essential that we
spend adequate time in rehearsing the presentation.
a) Slide Preparation-Preparing the PowerPoint slides comes just before rehearsal. We should be
ready with our material for the introduction, main body, and conclusion as well as the outline of
our presentation.
b) Slide Show Animations-Animation in PowerPoint is a set of effects applied to the text or objects
to animate them during the ‘slide show’ of our presentation. These include making the text or
objects fly in, fade out, bounce, zoom out etc. Most young presenters love to use animations and
transitions in their slide show. But these should be kept to a minimum so that they are not the
centre of attraction of the presentation, sidelining the speaker or the content.

KEY STEPS FOR AN EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION

a) Know your subject matter
b) Know your audience
c) Know yourself
d) Develop a theme
e) Prepare your script- the opening, body, summary and closing
f) Select the proper visual aids
g) Rehearse- rehearse- rehearse

EXTEMPORE
 The extempore speech is a kind of speech when a candidate is given a topic and asked to speak
about it for a minute or two. He is not allowed to prepare for this topic but has to speak on the
spot. Thus, he cannot prepare the content and decide what to say beforehand.
 The candidate waits for his turn outside the room as happens for interviews.
 He is then called in to the room and may be asked to sit down.
 He is then given a topic for his extempore speech.
 The topic could be anything like academic background, hobbies/interests, current/ general affairs
topic etc.
 The candidate is given a few seconds to think about what he wants to say and then is expected to
start his speech.
 He is expected to speak for around a couple of minutes on the topic.
 The candidate may complete the speech himself, or the panel, may let him klnow when to stop.

WHAT IS TESTED DURING AN EXTEMPORE?

1. Your ability to think on the spot and your spontaneity
40

2. Your ability to express your thoughts

3. Fluency in the language
Page

4. Body language/confidence
WHAT SHOULD YOU DO IN EXTEMPORE?
1. Do not get nervous
2. Do not start off speaking as soon as the topic is given to you
3. Most importantly, structure your speech-Introduction, body and conclusion
4. You must buttress your points/arguments with logic and examples.
5. Try and either begin or end with a quote

HOW SHOULD YOU PREPARE FOR AN EXTEMPORE?

Make sure that you can speak for at least a minute on the followings (make sure you have content
ready):
1. Important current affairs topics
2. Important topics or issues pertaining to your academic background
3. Your hobbies and interests
4. A person you admire
5. Your favourite sportsperson or actor/actress
6. Practice for an extempore adequately, by speaking aloud either in front of a mirror or even
without one.
7. Watch your body language while you practise.

JOB INTERVIEWS
 An interview is a formal interaction between two or more persons for a specific purpose, in which
the interviewer asks the interviewee specific questions in order to extract information or assess
his/her suitability for recruitment, admission, a position or promotion.It is a psychological and
sociological instrument.
 Job and selection interviews are necessary for the employer in order to get first-hand information
and knowledge about the employee as well as for the employee to know more about the employer
and also get more information about the organization before joining them.

TYPES OF INTERVIEW
1) Face-to-face Interview
2) Group Interview
3) Behavioural Interview
4) Telephone Interview
5) Panel Interview
6) Stress Interview
7) Exit Interview
8) Promotion Interview
9) Grievance Interview
10) Orientation
11) Screening Interview
12) Informational Interview
13) Reprimand Interview

TIPS FOR FACING INTERVIEW IN GOOD MANNER

41

a) Dress appropriately in simple and comfortable clothes that reflects your personality. Avoid
Page

wearing new shoes (squeaking noises) and do practise wearing your tie.
b) Be punctual- don’t be late or even too early.
c) Read up about the company- what business they are into, growth trends, diversification etc.
d) Read your own resume- be sure that you don’t have to look into your resume to recall details
during the interview.
e) Carry extra copies of Resume and testimonials- you never know when you may need them.
f) Make sure you know the full name & designation of the person interviewing you.
g) Keep your references ready.
h) Cover up your weak spots, such as a lot of job changes or having stayed too long in a dead-
end job.
i) Always be positive about your previous job. Someone who moans about other organizations
creates an impression of surliness and a negative attitude.
j) Remember to make a note of your previous or current salary with all its components.
k) Make a good first impression
l) Wish the interviewer(s) cheerfully and with a smile.
m) A firm handshake is an indicator of how you are feeling. If you are a lady, then some male
employees might not make the first move, but go ahead and initiate the handshake.
n) Wait till you are asked to sit down
o) Look the person in the eye
p) Do not appear too nervous or over confident. Your bodylanguage usually conveys more than
what you are saying. Don’t slouch or lean forward too much. Try to curb nervous mannerisms
e.g. fidgeting or biting your finger. Appear comfortable, confident and interested in securing
the job.

During the INTERVIEW

a) Start the interview with pleasant smile
b) Stress on what you can contribute to the organization
c) Remember the employer is in control of the interview
d) Don’t be too long-winded
e) Complete your sentences, don’t answer YES or NO
f) Give instances of how quick learner you are
g) Do not boast
h) Speak clearly about yourself
i) Ask for clarification, don’t answer vaguely
j) Don’t get personal
k) Don’t be overconfident or too nervous
l) Don’t badmouth your previous employer
m) Don’t complain about politics, a bad boss or a poor salary
n) Don’t pick up papers from employer’s desk and read it
o) Don’t ask about salary before the offer is made
p) Strike a balance between what you actually are and what you want to be
q) Don’t be in a hurry to complete the interview
r) Ask questions at the end of the interview
s) Send a “THANK YOU” letter outlining your interest in the job and why you are qualified for
it
t) Be positive and confident….and the Job is yours.
42

PUBLIC SPEAKING
Page
 Public speaking is the process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate manner
intended to inform, influence or entertain the listeners.
 Types of Public speaking
1) Informative speech- the purpose of an Informative speech is to teach the audience a small but
useful tidbit of information. Some tips for informative speech are:
a) Don’t cram too much information into your speech or you’ll lose your audience. Keep it
simple.
b) Be careful not to include information your audience does not understand. Avoid using terms
that all or some of the audience will not recognize. If you do use unfamiliar terms, be sure to
define them very clearly.
c) Choose a topic your audience will find interesting and relevant.
d) Make sure your speech is not persuasive. You are trying to teach your audience something, not
change their minds.
2) Persuasive speech- the purpose of persuasive speech is to change people’s minds or behaviour
about something. This is a very difficult thing to do. You need to actually get the audience to
change their minds. Some tips to deliver a Persuasive speech are:
a) Deliver your speech with passion. No one’s going to be convinced unless it’s clear that you
really care.
b) Look for common ground with the people in your audience who disagree with you.
c) Don’t choose an impossible task.
d) Ask your audience to take a specific action- and one that they might actually take.
3) Ceremonial speech- A ceremonial speech is one that is given to mark an important occasion in
someone’s life, such as a graduation speech, a wedding toast, or a eulogy at a funeral. These
speeches can be both emotionally moving and fun. Some ceremonial tips are:
a) Tell lots of stories about whomever you are giving the speech about. Stories are what make
the person or people you talk about come alive for your audience in the speech.
b) Tell the stories about the people in the audience. This will make them feel included and
special.
c) Avoid clichés. If you are giving a graduation speech, don’t say “Spead your wings and fly”. If
you are giving a wedding toast, don’t say “Today you marry your bestr friend”. Be original.
d) Be appropriate. Don’t make jokes about Groom’s ex-wife in the wedding toast. Don’t talk
about one person’s shoplifting habit in her eulogy. Use common sense.

TIPS FOR GOOD PUBLIC SPEAKING

1) Understand the topic clearly
2) Become familiar with the venue
3) Know the audience
4) Ask for accommodations
5) Don’t stand up there like a stick, clenching the podium at both sides
6) Keep the speech short and simple
7) Make eye contact with the audience. Connect with them.
8) Know your material, Don’t script it
9) Visualize yourself giving your speech
10) Realize that people want you to succeed and imagine yourself succeeding
11) Concentrate on the message-not the medium
43

12) Turn nervousness into positive energy

Page

13) Gain experience

14) Prepare for hecklers
15) Practise…Practise…Practise ahead of time.
16) Relax

OVERCOME SPEECH ANXIETY IN YOUR PUBLIC SPEAKING

1) Make sure you are well-prepared
a) Make sure you understand the topic completely
b) Make sure you do plenty of research on your topic and can talk about it comfortably.
c) Make sure your note cards are in order and well-organized.
d) If you are using Power Point or other technical equipment, make sure it’s working.
e) Practise often and preferably in front of an audience of sympathetic friends.
f) When you practise, time yourself and make sure your speech is within the prescribed time limit.
2) When you speak, pretend you are confident
a) Speak loudly
b) Speak slowly
c) Stand up straight but not too rigid. If you have podium, don’t lean on it.
d) Make sure strong eye-contact with the audience.
e) Project enthusiasm
f) Never giggle
g) Avoid disclaimers
h) Dress nicely
3) Relax
a) Take deep breaths
b) Do some simple stretching exercise before class.
c) Avoid caffeine or any food or drink that makes you jittery.
d) The night before, close your eyes and visualize yourself giving the speech and everything going
well
e) Make friends with your audiences and you will feel better about speaking in front of them.
f) Keep in mind that everybody is nervous. You are not alone.
g) Keep in mind that you rarely come across as nervous as you really feel.
h) Just do it…Speak…Speak more.

ROLE PLAY (RP)

 Role play is defined as an experience around a specific situation which contains two or more
different viewpoints or perspectives. The situation is usually written as a prepared brief, and the
different perspectives on the same situation are handed out to the different people who will come
together to discuss the situation. Each person will have a particular objective, or objectives they
want to fulfil which may well be in conflict with their fellow role-player opr role-players. It is
how a role-player handles the situation that forms the basis of skills practice, assessment and
development. The situations will be realistic and relevant to the role-players, and the most
successful ones will be focussed on developing a particular skill or skill set.
 In role-playing, participants adopt and act out the role of characters, or parts that may have
personalities, motivations, and backgrounds different from their own.
 RP is when a group of people act out roles for a particular scenario.
 It is like being an improvisational drama or free-form theatre, in which the participants are the
44

actors who are playing parts, and the audience.

Page
 A role-playing is a kind of game in which the participants assume the roles of characters and
collaboratively create stories.
 Participants determine the actions based on their characterization, and the actions succeed or fail
according to a formal system of rules and guidelines. Within the rules, they may improvise freely;
their choices shape the direction and outcome of the games.
 The groups meet separately for 5-10 minutes to discuss the strategy and who will be the actor.
Then the actors go to the centre of the room to perform the RP.
 At any time, during the RP, the actors can look to their teams for advice. Likewise teams can offer
unsolicited advice.
 Each team can call one “time out” to have a private discussion of strategy.
 In a lively RP, a team member may very well offer advice to the actor of other team. Eventually a
solution of some sort will be found.
 Once it is clear that no more solutions are to be found, the groups are brought together to discuss
the RP, their strategies, their solution, relevance to real world situations and alternative solutions.
 Optionally, each team can draft a short “lessons learned” paper about the RP.the papers can be
combined and copies distributed to all RP particpants and any other staff who might learn from
the RP.

RP OBJECTIVES & RP IN LEARNING & DEVELOPMENT

 Be very clear about what we want to get out of the role-playing experience. Muddy thinking at the
outset will result in muddy outcomes. Clear thinking and RP preparation result in clear outcomes.
 People also need to trust that the RP will have the same level of challenge for them and their
peers.
 RP has been around as a learning tool for a long time. Many of us use RP as a tool of life.
 Whenever we project into the future in a kind of “what if” scenario, we are indulging in a RP of
some sort, we are projecting ourselves into an imaginary situation where, though we cannot
control the outcome, we can anticipate some or all of the conditions, and rehearse our
performance in order to influence the outcome.
 In a learning environment, RP can be a very flexible and effective tool. RP is often used as a way
of making sense of the theory, of gathering together concepts into a practical experience.
 One of the main complicating factors surrounding RP is the attitude or emotional state of the
people taking part. Quite frankly, many people are nervous, even terrified, at the prospect of
participating in a RP; not surprising when we hear about some people’s unfortunate RP
experiences.
TEAMRP IS EXCELLENT FOR
1) Analysing problems from various perspectives
2) Implementing brainstorming methodology in simulations of real cases
3) Trying various solutions in a case scenario
4)
5) Developing team-work, cooperation and creative problem solving in groups
6) Exercising creative techniques in a risk-free environment

EXAMPLES: Interview a star, Strangers on a train, Travel RP, Salesperson and customer, Customer
and Receptionist, Customer and waiter/waitress, organization’s different circumstances etc.
45

UNIT-VI
Page

READING
 Reading is the translation of symbols, or letters into words and sentences that have meaning for
the individual looking at them.The reader must follow a sequence of symbols arranged in a
particular way- in English from left to right, in Hebrew from right to left and in Chinese from top
to bottom.
 Reading involves recognizing what is written and comprehending the matter, i.e. understanding
the main and subsidiary points as well as links between different parts of the written material. A
written message can be decoded only if we know the language in which the message is encoded.
 Reading skills enable readers to turn writing into meaning and achieve goals of independence,
comprehension and fluency. Reading is one of the most important academic tasks faced by
students; it is equally important in the commercial working world. The purpose of reading is to
make sense out of what you read.
 We can read to understand a topic or enrich our knowledge about a topic; to derive pleasure; to
understand what is happening around us. At times, we may have to read something entirely new
while at times we may have connect the ideas on the text to what we already know.
 Reading skills are specific abilities which enable a reader:
a) To read the written form as a meaningful language.
b) To read anything written with independence, comprehension and fluency.
c) To mentally interact with the message.

TYPES OF READING
a) Skimming: Skimming is used to quickly gather the most important information, or gist. Run your
eyes over the texts, noting important information. Use skimming to quickly get up to speed on a
current business situation. It’s not essential to understand each word when skimming.
Examples: Newspapers (quickly to get the general news of the day), Magazines (quickly to discover
which articles you would like to read in more detail), Business & Travel brochures (quickly to get
informed) etc.
b) Scanning: It is used to find a particular piece of information. Run your eyes over the text looking
for the specific piece of information you need. Use scanning on schedules, meeting plans etc. in
order to find the specific details you require. If you see words or phrases that you don’t
understand, don’t worry when scanning.
Examples:What’s on “TV section” of your newspaper, A train/Airplane schedule, A conference guide
etc.
c) Extensive Reading: It is used to obtain a general understanding of a subject and includes reading
longer texts for pleasure, as well as business books. Use extensive reading skills to improve your
general knowledge of business procedures. Do not worry if you understand each word.
Examples: The latest marketing strategy book, A novel you read before going to bed, Magazine
articles that interest you etc.
d) Intensive Reading: It is used on shorter texts in order to extract specific information. It includes
very close accurate reading for detail. In this case, it is important that you understand each word,
number or fact.
Examples: A bookkeeping report, An Insurance claim, A contract etc.

READING STRATEGIES/TECHNIQUES
Various reading strategies or techniques can help students read more quickly and effectively. So, we
need to be aware of the strategies/techniques we should develop and practise to hone our reading
46

skills:
Page
a) Skimming and scanning: Using a quick survey of the text to get the main idea, identify text
structure, confirm or question predictions. This quick reading without pausing to study the details
is called skim reading or skimming. We should understand
 For which audience the text was written (general public, professionals, laymen etc.);
 What type of text it is (report, informal letter, formal letter, article, advertisement etc.);
 What the purpose of the author is (to describe, to inform, to explain, to instruct, to
persuade); and
 The general contents of the text.
After having skimmed the text, we can study it in more detail, reading more slowly and carefully and
looking for specific information that we are interested in. this is called scanning.

b) Predicting: An important aspect of reading is prediction. The better we predict what we are going
to read, the faster and more effective we will read. The prediction process begins with the title.
Using knowledge of the subject matter to make predictions about the content and vocabulary, and
check comprehension; using knowledge of the text type and purpose to make predictions about
discourse structures; using knowledge about the author to make predictions about writing style,
vocabulary and content.

c) Non-verbal signals: the meaning of a text is not only conveyed by means of words. All texts also
contain non-verbal signs which may include certain style features, such as different fonts, bold
print, underlining, or italics. The meaning of these style features can vary from one text to
another. In one text italics may be used to emphasize a word, in another text italics can be used
for subtitles. Layout features are also non-verbal signals.For example,
Heading- A title printed at the top of a page to indicate the subject matter that is going to be discussed
in a particular chapter, column, or section.
Title: Tells us what the text is about.
Subheading: Presents us with a brief summary, introduction, or explanation
Photographs: Pictures related to an article or a text
Captions: Comments on pictures related to a text
Divison into paragraphs: Each paragraph is a unit and deals with one particular idea
Figures, graphs, bar charts, etc.: To visualize facts and figures presented in the text

d) Text Structure and Reviewing:Most texts start with a title and sometimes a subtitle. After that
comes the introduction and the body followed by a conclusion or summary. Reviewing titles,
section headings and photo captions to get a sense of the structure and content of a reading
selection. The introduction mostly informs us about what we can expect. The bodyconsists of
paragraphs. Each paragraph deals with one aspect of the subject matter. Paragraphs are linked in a
logical way. The conclusion sums up and puts the subject matter in the right perspective.

e) Structure of Paragraphs: A typical paragraph consists of three parts. They are:

i. The topic sentence/thesis sentence/key sentence, which is the heart of the paragraph, which
can figure either at the beginning or at the end of the paragraph. The topic sentence contains
the new aspect of the subject of the text.
ii. The second part contains sentences which develop support for the topic sentence. These
sentences may contain arguments, explanations, details, examples, and other supporting
47

evidence.
iii. The third part is often a summary of the paragraph or a linking sentence to the next paragraph.
Page
In many well-written texts, the reader will get a good idea of the contents by reading just the first
sentences i.e. the topic sentences of each paragraph.
f) Punctuation: Punctuation is partly based on grammar. For example, commas are often used to
separate clauses. If we understand the meaning and usage of punctuation marks, it will be easier
to understand the grammatical structures. Punctuation marks also indicate how the author wants
you to interpret a piece of text. For example, if the author puts something in brackets, that part of
the sentence should be interpreted as an addition to the sentence.

g) Guessing from context: Using prior knowledge of the subject and the ideas in the text as clues to
the meanings of unknown words, instead of stopping to look them up.
h) Paraphrasing:Paraphrasing is an art of putting into our own words what we thought we heard
and saying it back to the sender. Paraphrasing is a great technique for improving our reading and
problem-solving skills. Stopping at the end of a section to check comprehension by restating the
information and ideas in the study part enhances absorption power of the information during
reading.
i) Summarizing:It is very difficult to remember the complete contents of long texts. For that
reason, it is often advisable to make notes of essential information in the text. The result is a short
outline of the text containing all its important aspects. The length of the summary largely depends
on the density of the text. The average length of a good summary is about one-third of the original
text but summaries of detailed texts may be longer. The steps of summarizing a text are a)
Familiarize ourselves with the material, b) Select important information, c) Paraphrase the
information, d) Insert links between sentences and paragraphs and e) Adjust the length of the
summary.

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE READING

A) Distinguish between total understanding and Overall impression
a) Set a time limit
b) Ask yourself what you already know about the topic
B) Read with a purpose
a) Skim through first
b) Read summaries first
c) Make notes as you go

WRITING SKILLS
 Writing is a skill that doesn’t come easily to everyone; some people have a natural writing flow
that almost bursts off a page while others stumble and trip over the words they write.
 Your Grammar skills play a big part in your writing.
 To be a good writer, you need to be a good reader.
 To become a good writer, you need to practise, practise and practise some more!
 Applications, Essays, Cover letters, CVs, Emails etc. often have to represent an individual. In
such cases, the person’s writing is to form the reader’s opinion about the individual’s personality
and abilities.
 The better your writing skills are, the better the impression you’ll make on the people around you
including your boss, colleagues and your clients.
 Excellent writing is sure to earn respect while poor writing will be difficult to understand and will
48

leave a bad impression about the individual.

Page

 Writing structures and crystallizes one’s thoughts, improving learning.

 Writing improves the effectiveness of the person’s word usage in both written and oral speech.
 A survey conducted among 64 American companies revealed that half of them pay attention to
writing when considering a person for employment or promotion.

TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE WRITING SKILLS

a) Avoid wordiness
b) Write for your audience
c) Stay away from jargon
d) A cliché a day keeps the reader away
e) Use active verbs
f) No unnecessary repeated meaning words
g) Reduce phrases
h) Avoid empty openers- there are, there is, there were etc.
i) Don’t over work modifiers- very, really, totally etc.
j) Avoid using noun forms of the verbs (Avoid excessive nominalization and give verbs a chance)
k) Replace vague nouns (area, aspect, case, factor, manner, situation, something, thing, type and
way) with more specific words or eliminate them altogether.
l) Cut empty phrases (Avoid using what I am trying to say, it seems that, as a matter of fact, as far as
I am concerned, at the end of the day, at the present time, due to the fact that, for all intents and
purposes, in my opinion, in the event of, the point that I am trying to make, what I want to make
clear etc.)
m) Don’t try to show off (Leornado da Vinci observed “Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication”)

ESSAY WRITING
The word ‘essay’ can be defined as a piece of composition that is the result of a conscious effort to
produce a unified, balanced, coherent piece of writing. To write an essay is to put into words one’s
own ideas and reflection on a given subject or theme. It requires a mental discipline and training in the
art of arranging and expressing one’s thoughts in a regular and well-ordered manner.

MAIN TYPES OF ESSAY

Depending on the purpose they fulfil, essays are divided as:
1) Descriptive essay: A descriptive essay presents a visual impression of a person, place, event, or an
object. The most important thing in writing a descriptive essay is to ensure that the description is
so vivid that the reader is able to visualize in his/her mind a clear picture of what has been
described. It provides details about how something looks, feels, tastes, smells, makes one feel, or
sounds. It can also describe what something is and how something happened.
2) Persuasive essay: A persuasive essay aims to convince the reader that the line of argument in the
essay is the most appropriate one. Generally, controversial topics, such as ‘Private schools are
better than Public schools’ or ‘There is no need for Censorship’, etc. can be discussed through
persuasive essays. As there is no general agreement on such topics, the topic should be presented
with convincing arguments. One can quote experts/authorities in the field or cite evidence from
recent journals and magazines.
3) Narrative essay: When we wish to write about our first journey by air, we may narrate a series of
events. Unlike a story or a novel, a narrative essay treats the event(s) as a topic and so the
narration includes the writer’s comment. Such an essay may be written on an incident such as the
49

celebration of a festival or an annual function; a disaster such as an earthquake or tsunami; an

Page

accident such as a plane crash, a ship-wreck, a journey by rail, bus, plane or car; a biographical
 topic such as the autobiography of a scooter or ‘My first year at the University’, ‘My childhood’,
etc.
4) Imaginary essay: As the name suggests, this type of essay relies mainly on the power of one’s
imagination and expression. For instance, if our task is to write an essay on ‘If I were Barack
Obama’, ‘If I were The CM of Manipur’, etc. and similar topics, we have to place ourselves
imaginatively in a situation or position of which we have no knowledge or experience, and then
express ourselves. Of course, we need to avoid being dreamy. As far as possible, we should try to
be realistic.
5) Reflective essay: Essays on abstract concepts such as honesty, truth, patriotism and cooperation
come under this type, which contains the writer’s reflection on a topic. The writer supports his/her
point of view with arguments, reliable facts and figures, and sometimes with the opinions of
experts/authorities on the subject. e.g. Honesty is the best policy, habits die hard etc.

PRECIS WRITING
The art of summarizing a passage or a short story is called Precis writing. A précis can be defined as
an abridged form of the text or a piece of writing. Precis writing involves summarizing a document to
extract the maximum amount of information and conveying this information to a reader in the
minimum number of words.
The following qualities are essential to a précis:
a) Completeness- The précis must have the essential contents of the original passage without
omitting any important fact or idea.
b) Compactness- All the ideas reproduced from the original document should gorm a compact
whole. The words and sentences should convey a sense of unity with each other.
c) Conciseness- Conciseness is the essence of a good précis. It is achieved by the process of shifting
essential from unessential information, by avoiding repetition, and by omitting ornamental
phrases. However, conciseness should not be achieved as the cost of clarity. All the original
essential ideas should be presented clearly but in brief.

STEPS OF EFFECTIVE PRECIS WRITING

The step-by-step instructions for summarizing any given piece of writing or effective précis writing
are:
1) Identify the reader and purpose of the précis- This step determines how much detail should be
included and how formal the précis needs to be. For instance, the précis from a text book chapter
for study purposes need not be as carefully refined as the executive summary of a formal report
for an important client.
2) Read the original document- Skim- Read the document to get an overview, then read it again
slowly to identify the main themes and to distinguish the key ideas and concepts from the
unimportant ones.
3) Underline the key ideas and concepts- Each paragraph should have one key topic, which the rest
of the paragraph clarifies, supports, and develops. Write down a title that sums up the theme of
the passage.
4) Write a note-form summary of each paragraph- The passage should be summed up in the form
of points. This should always be done in one’s own words as far as possible. All the irrelevant
material should be omitted.
5) Write the précis- The original text should be paraphrased to express the summarized points more
50

concisely and to develop them into coherent sentences, expressing all important points in a
generalized form. Any repetitions or irrelevant details should be eliminated. Only the third person
Page

and indirect speech should be used. No personal comments should be added.

6) Review and edit- Compare the précis with the original document and make sure that it emphasizes
the same points. Ensure that the précis is readable, concise, and content.

LETTER WRITING
 Business letters are an important communication tool that can effectively give a positive
reflection on a business and individual.
 Effective communication through letter can shape your company’s reputation, improve
productivity, develop clientele and allow the company to run more efficiently.

Components of a Business Letter

1) Your address (not needed if the letter is printed on the company letterhead already on it) is
important so that the recipient should know where to send a reply.
2) Date: Put the date on which the letter was written in the format ‘Month Day Year’ i.e. August 30,
2014
3) Inside Address: the address of the person you are writing to along with the name of the recipient,
their title and company name. If you are not sure who the letter should be addressed to, leave it
blank, but try to put a title i.e. Director of Human Resources
4) Salutation: Dear Ms/Mrs/Mr Last Name or To Whom It May Concern (if recipient’s name is not
known). Put a coma after the salutation.
5) Subject Line: Leave a line’s space before the subject. Subject makes it easier for the recipient to
find out what the letter is about.
6) Body Text: The content of the Letter should be systematically presented.
7) Closing: Letter usually ends with ‘Yours sincerely, Yours faithfully, Thanking you’ and so on.
8) Signature: Your signature will go in this section, usually signed in black or blue ink.
9) Printed Name: Below the sender’s signature, sender’s name needs to be mentioned, if desired one
can also put one’s title or position underneath it.
10) Enclosure: If the letter contains documents other than the letter itself, the letter will include the
word ‘Enclosure’. If there is more than one document that needs to be sent, then the number of the
documents would have to be mentioned in brackets along with the word “Enclosure”.
11) Initials: if a typist has typed your letter then at the end, you should mention your initials in capital
letters followed by the typist’s initials in lower case.

LETTER FORMAT

Your Address

Date (Month Day, Year)

Mr./Mrs./Ms./Dr. Full name of recipient
Position/Title of Recipient
Company Name
Address

Dear Ms./Mrs./Mr. Last Name

Subject: Title of Subject

51
Page

First Paragraph
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
Second Paragraph
Third Paragraph

Closing (Yours faithfully,)

Signature
Your Name
Your Title

Enclosures
(1)…………….
(2)…………….

Typist’s Initials

LETTER WRITING TIPS

1) Always proofread your letter after writing it. Pay attention to the sentence structure, grammar,
spelling mistakes etc.
2) Keep the recipient in mind and write in a way that he can easily understand the letter.
3) Don’t use unknown abbreviations or sbbreviated dates. Write November 19, 2014 and not
11/19/2014.
4) Maintain a respectful tone when you write, even if you are writing a letter of complaint.
5) Be concise and keep to the point, but don’t leave out any important information.
6) Try to keep your letter short enough so that it fits on one page.
7) Don’t use the back of the page. If your letter is more than a page long, use another page instead.
8) If you have access to company/personal stationery with a letterhead on it, use that instead of the
regular paper.

NOTICE WRITING
 A notice or a circular is a formal document that informs the employees/people about a new
activity, event or a happening. It is usually an announcement of an event.
 It includes necessary information about the event keeping in mind the requirements of the
management as well as the employees.
 It helps the management to reach out to the members of their organization.
 It is a fast and effective way of reaching out to members of an organization as, unlike a letter, it is
addressed to a large number of people.
 It also helps in getting employees’ suggestions that would indeed prove to be beneficial and
facilitate the growth of the organization. Notices draw attention to some event that would take
place.
 The required information should be mentioned in a concise and accurate manner.
 According to Companies Act, 1956, notices should specify the day, date, time and the venue of
52

the meeting, and should be sent to the participants a week before the meeting is to be held.
Page

 The Notice for a meeting must specify:

a) Date, time and the place of meeting
b) Name of the company
c) Type of meeting
d) Authority by which notice is issued
e) Name and signature of the person issuing the notice
f) Matters to be discussed at the meeting
g) In the case of special business, an explanatory statement
h) Purpose and agenda
i) Date of issue of the notice
j) Any enclosure required to be sent with the notice.

FORMAT OF A NOTICE

NOTICE
NAME OF THE INSTITUTION
Date……
Place………
Information that needs to be conveyed
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

Sign
(Name)
Designation

53
Page