Analogical Reasoning

Description
A is like B. M is in A. N is in B. So M is like N.
In analogical reasoning, an analogy for a given thing or situation is found, where
the analogy is like the given thing in some way. Other attributes of the analogical
situation are then taken to also represent other attributes of the given thing.
To use an analogy:
 Start with a target domain where you want to create new understanding.
 Find a general matching domain where some things are similar to the target
domain.
 Find specific items from the matching domain.
 Find related items in the target domain.
 Transfer attributes from the matching domain to the target domain.
Example

This company is like a racehorse. It's run fast and won the race, and now
it needs feed and rest for a while.

Today is like a day in paradise. We don't need an umbrella.

Dating is like flying. At some point, your feet are going to leave the
ground.

Discussion
Our brains work by patterns and association -- if a perception fits roughly into an
existing pattern, then the existing pattern may be taken as definitive. For
example, we see a half-hidden person and 'recognize' them as someone we know.

SYMBOLIC LOGIC
Statements

• This section we will study symbolic logic which was developed in the late
17th century.
• All logical reasoning is based on statements.
 • A statement is a sentence that is either true or false.
• Traditionally, symbolic logic uses lower case letters to denote statements.
Usually the letters p, q, r, s, t.
• Statements get labels.
• p: It is raining.

Compound Statements

• A compound statement is a statement that contains one or more simpler

statements.
• Compound statements can be formed by
– inserting the word NOT,
– joining two or more statements with connective words such as AND,
OR, IF…THEN, ONLY IF, IF AND ONLY IF.

Examples

• Steve did not do his homework.

– This is formed from the simpler statement, Steve did his homework.
• Mr. D wrote the MAT114 notes and listened to a Pink Floyd CD.
– This statement is formed from the simper statements:
– Mr. D wrote the MAT114 notes.
– Mr. D listened to a Pink Floyd CD.

Compound statements are known as negations, conjunctions, disjunctions,

conditionals or combinations of each.

NEGATION ~p

• The negation of a statement is the denial of that statement. The symbolic

representation is a tilde ~.
• Negation of a simple statement is formed by inserting not.
• Example: The senator is a Republican. The negation is: The senator is not
a Republican.

CONJUNCTION p ^ q

• A conjunction is a compound statement that consists of 2 or more

statements connected by the word and.
• And is represented by the symbol ^.
• p ^ q represents “p and q”.
Example:
p: Jerry Seinfeld is a comedian.
q: Jerry Seinfeld is a millionaire.
Express the following in symbolic form:
i. Jerry Seinfeld is a comedian and he is a millionaire.
ii. Jerry Seinfeld is a comedian and he is not a millionaire.

Using the symbolic representations

p: The lyrics are controversial.
q: The performance is banned.

Express the following in symbolic form:

a. “The lyrics are controversial and the performance is banned.”
b. “The lyrics are not controversial and the performance is not banned.”

Answers:
a. p ^ q
b. ~p ^ ~q

DISJUNCTION p v q

• When you connect statements with the word or you form a disjunction.
• Or is represented by the symbol v.
• p v q is read as “p or q”.
• Using the p and q from the last slide, write out in words p v q, and p v ~q.
• p v q is “the lyrics are controversial or the performance is banned.”
• p v ~q is “the lyrics are controversial or the performance is not banned.”

CONDITIONAL p q
• A conditional is of the form “if p then q”. This is also known as an
implication. p is the hypothesis (or premise), and q is the conclusion.

• The representation of “if p then q” is p q.

• Again use the p and q from the previous 2 slides.
• “If the lyrics are not controversial, the performance is not banned.”
• ~p ~q