Chemistry Project on Determination of Contents of Cold Drinks

Project Prepared by �
BHAGYA LAKSHMI.L
VARSHANA.R
XII � B
Session: 2017-2018
SCHOOL:VENKAT INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC SCHOOL
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this project is submitted by BHAGYALAKSHMI.L baring
register no�: and VARSHANA.R to the chemistry department,VENKAT
INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC SHCOOL was carried out by her under the guidance and
supervision of VENKATALAKSHMI during academic session 2017-2018

Date:

(Chemistry teacher) External Examiner

Principal signature

*Acknowledgement*
It would be my utmost pleasure to express my sincere thanks to my chemistry teacher
Mrs.Venkatalakshmi mam in providing a helping hand in this project.
Her valuable guidance, support and supervision all through this project are
responsible for attaining its present form. I would also like to thank my parents
as they encouraged me to put forward my project.

TEACHER SIGNATURE

*Contents*
1. Introduction
2. Theory
3. Aim
4. Apparatus
5. Chemicals Required
6. Detection of pH
7. Test for Carbon Dioxide
VIII. Test for Glucose
1. Test for Phosphate
2. Test for Alcohol
3. Test for Sucrose
4. Result
XIII. Precautions
XIV. Conclusion
5. Bibliography

*Introduction
The era of cold drinks began in 1952 but the
industrialization in India marked its beginning with
launching of Limca and Goldspot by parley group of companies. Since, the beginning
of cold drinks was highly profitable and luring, many multinational companies
launched their brands in India like Pepsi and Coke.
Now days, it is observed in general that majority of
people viewed Sprite, Fanta and Limca to give
feeling of lightness, while Pepsi and Thumps Up to
activate pulse and brain.
*Theory*
Cold drinks of different brands are composed of alcohol,
carbohydrates, carbon dioxide, phosphate ions etc. These soft
drinks give feeling of warmth, lightness and have a tangy taste
which is liked by everyone. Carbon dioxide is responsible for the
formation of froth on shaking the bottle.
The carbon dioxide gas is dissolved in water to form carbonic acid which is also
responsible for the tangy taste. Carbohydrates are the naturally occurring organic
compounds and are major source of energy to our body. General formula of
carbohydrates is CX (H2O)Y.
On the basis of their molecule size carbohydrates are classified as:-
Monosaccharide, Disaccharides and Polysaccharides. Glucose is a monosaccharide with
formula C6H12O6 .It occurs in Free State in
the ripen grapes in bones and also in many sweet fruits. It is also present in
human blood to the extent of about 0.1%. Sucrose is one of the most useful
disaccharides in our daily life. It is widely distributed in nature in juices,
seeds and also in flowers of many plants. The main source of sucrose is sugar cane
juice which contain 15-20 % sucrose and sugar beet which has about 10-17 % sucrose.
The molecular formula of sucrose is C12H22O11. It is produced by a mixture of
glucose and fructose. It is non-reducing in nature whereas glucose is reducing.
Cold drinks are a bit acidic in nature and their acidity can be measured by finding
their pH value. The pH values also depend upon the acidic contents such as citric
acid and phosphoric acid.

*Aim*
Comparitive Study and Qualitative Analysis
of different brands of Cold Drinks
available in market.
*Apparatus*
? Test Tubes
? Test Tube Holder
? Test Tube Stand
? Stop Watch
? Beaker
? Bunsen Burner
? pH Paper
? Tripod Stand
? China Dish
? Wire Gauge
? Water Bath
*Chemicals Required*
? Iodine Solution
? Potassium Iodide
? Sodium Hydroxide
? Lime Water
? Fehling�s A & B Solution
? Concentrated Nitric Acid
? Benedict Solution

*Detection Of pH*

Experiment
Small samples of cold drinks of different brands were taken in a test tube and put
on the pH paper. The change in colour of pH paper was noticed and was compared with
standard pH scale.

Observation
Sr. No. Name Of The Drink Colour Change pH Value
1 Coca Cola Pinkish 2 � 3
2 Sprite Dark Orange 3

3 Limca Light Orange 4

5 Fanta Orange 3 � 4

Inference
Soft Drinks are generally acidic because of the presence of citric acid and
phosphoric acid. pH values of cold drinks of different brand are different due to
the variation in amount of acidic content.

*Test For Carbon Dioxide*

Experiment
As soon as the bottles were opened, one by one the samples were passed through lime
water. The lime water turned milky.

Observation
Sr. No. Name Of The Drink Time Taken (sec) Conclusion
1 Coca Cola 28 CO2 IS PRESENT
2 Sprite 27 CO2 IS
PRESENT
3 Limca 38 CO2 IS PRESENT
4 Fanta 36 CO2 IS PRESENT

Inference
All the soft drinks contain dissolved carbon dioxide in water. The carbon
dioxide (CO2) dissolves in water to form carbonic acid, which is responsible for
its tangy taste.
Chemical Reaction
Ca(OH)2 (s) + CO2 (g) ? CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
*Test For Glucose*

Experiment
Glucose is a reducing sugar acid. Its presence is detected by the following test:-
1.Benedict�s Reagent Test
Small samples of cold drinks of different brands were taken in a test tube and a
few drops of Benedict�s reagent were added. The test tube was heated for few
seconds. Formation of reddish color confirmed the presence of glucose in cold
drinks.

Observation
Sr. No. Name Of The Drink Observation Conclusion
1 Coca Cola Reddish Colour Precipitate Glucose is Present
2 Sprite Reddish Colour Precipitate Glucose is Present
3 Limca Reddish Colour Precipitate Glucose is Present
4 Fanta Reddish Colour Precipitate Glucose is Present

Inference
All the samples gave positive test for glucose with Benedict�s reagent. Hence all
the drinks contain glucose.
2. Fehling�s Solution Test
Small samples of cold drinks of different brands were taken in a test tube and a
few drops of Fehling�s A solution and Fehling�s B solution was added in equal
amount. The test tube was heated in water bath for 10 minutes. Appearance of brown
precipitate confirmed the presence of glucose in cold drinks.

Observation
Sr. No. Name Of The Drink Observation Conclusion
1 Coca Cola Reddish Brown Precipitate Glucose is Present
2 Sprite Reddish Brown Precipitate Glucose is Present
3 Limca Reddish Brown Precipitate Glucose is Present
4 Fanta Reddish Brown Precipitate Glucose is Present

Inference
All samples gave positive test for glucose with Fehling�s (A & B) solutions. Hence
all the cold drinks contain glucose.

*Test For Phosphate*

Experiment
Small samples of each brand of cold drinks were taken in separate test tubes and
Ammonium Molybdate followed by concentrated Nitric Acid (HNO3) was added to it. The
solution was heated. Appearance of canary-yellow precipitate confirmed the presence
of phosphate ions in cold drinks.

Observation
Sr. No. Name Of The Drink Observation Conclusion
1 Coca Cola Canary Yellow Precipitate Phosphate is Present
2 Sprite Canary Yellow Precipitate Phosphate is Present
3 Limca Canary Yellow Precipitate Phosphate is Present
4 Fanta Canary Yellow Precipitate Phosphate is Present

Inference
All the soft drinks samples gave positive test for phosphate ions. Hence all the
cold drinks contain phosphate.

*Test For Alcohol*

Experiment
Small samples of each brand of cold drinks were taken in separate test tubes and
Iodine followed by Potassium Iodide and Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution was added
to each test tube. Then the test tubes were heated in hot water bath for 30
minutes. Appearance of yellow coloured precipitate confirmed the presence of
alcohol in cold drinks.
Observation
Sr. No. Name Of The Drink Observation Conclusion
1 Coca Cola Yellow Precipitate Alcohol is Present
2 Sprite Yellow Precipitate Alcohol is Present
3 Limca Yellow Precipitate Alcohol is Present
4 Fanta Yellow Precipitate Alcohol is Present

Inference
All the cold drinks samples gave positive test for alcohol. Hence all the cold
drinks contain alcohol.
Chemical Reaction
CH3CH2OH + 4I2 + 6NaOH ? CHI3 + HCOONa + 5NaI + 5H2O

*Test for Sucrose*

Experiment
5 ml samples of each brand of cold drinks were taken in separate china dishes and
were heated very strongly until changes occur. Black coloured residue left
confirmed the presence of sucrose in cold drinks.

Observation
Sr. No. Name Of The Drink Observation Conclusion
1 Coca Cola Black Residue Sucrose is Present
2 Sprite Black Residue Sucrose is Present
3 Limca Black Residue Sucrose is Present
4 Fanta Black Residue Sucrose is Present

Inference
All the brands of cold drinks contain sucrose. But amount of sucrose varies in each
brand of drink. Fanta contains highest amount of sucrose.

*Result*
After conducting several tests, it was concluded that the different brands of cold
drinks namely:
1. Coca Cola
2. Sprite
3. Limca
4. Fanta
All contains glucose, alcohol, sucrose, phosphate and carbon dioxide. All cold
drinks are acidic in nature. On comparing the pH value of different brands Coca
Cola is the most acidic and Limca is least acidic of all the four brands taken.
Among the four samples of cold drinks taken, Sprite has the maximum amount of
dissolved carbon dioxide and Fanta has the minimum amount of dissolved carbon
dioxide.
*Precautions*
Some of the precautions which need to be taken care of are �
1. Concentrated solutions should be handled with immense care.
2. Hands should be washed thoroughly after performing each experiment.
3. If possible, one should wear hand gloves to prevent from any possible damage.
4. If chemicals come into contact with your skin or eyes, flush immediately with
copious amounts of water.
5. Never leave burners unattended. Turn them off whenever you leave your
workstation.
6. Never point a test tube or any vessel that you are heating at yourself or your
neighbour.

*Conclusion*
DIS-ADVANTAGES OF COLD DRINKS
1. Soft drinks are little more harmful than sugar solution. As
they contain sugar in large amount which cause problems in
diabetes patients.
2. Soft drinks can cause weight gain as they interfere with the
body�s natural ability to suppress hunger feeling.
3. Soft drinks have ability to dissolve the calcium so they are
also harmful for our bones.
4. Soft drinks contain �phosphoric acid� which has a pH of 2.8.
So they can dissolve a nail in about 4 days.
5. For transportation of soft drinks syrup the commercial truck
must use the hazardous matter place cards reserved for
highly consive material.
6. Soft drinks have also ability to remove blood so they are very
harmful to our body.

USES OF COLD DRINKS

1. Cold drinks can be used as toilet cleaners.
2. They can remove rust spots from chrome car humpers.
3. They clean corrosion from car battery terminals.
4. Soft drinks are used as an excellent �detergent� to remove
grease from clothes.
5. They can loose a rusted bolt.
IMAGES
*Bibliography*

Following books and websites were a source for my project .

Comprehensive Chemistry Lab Manual
� Dr. N. K. Verma
www. Google.com
www.Wikipedia.com
www. Icbse.com
www. Unoregon.edu

Biology Project on Coffee Addiction

Project Prepared by �
BHAGYA LAKSHMI.L
XII � B
Session: 2017-2018
SCHOOL:VENKAT INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC SCHOOL

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this project is submitted by BHAGYALAKSHMI.L to the
BIOLOGY department,VENKAT INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC SHCOOL was carried out by her under
the guidance and supervision of MR.GIRISH during academic session 2017-2018

Date:

(Biology teacher) External Examiner

Principal
signature

*Acknowledgement*
It would be my utmost pleasure to express my sincere thanks to my biology teacher
Mr.Girish sir in providing a helping hand in this project.
Her valuable guidance, support and supervision all through this project are
responsible for attaining its present form. I would also like to thank my parents
as they encouraged me to put forward my project.

TEACHER�S SIGNATURE

*Contents*

1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. Consumption and its effects
4. Sources
5. Overuse
6. Intoxication
7. Expert�s suggestion
8. Conclusion
9. Bibilography

Abstract
The goal of the project is to study coffee addiction its causes and effects of
coffee withdrawal in 3 persons.
Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted seeds, commonly called coffee beans,
of the coffee plant. They are seeds of coffee cherries that grow on trees in over
70 countries, cultivated primarily in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa.
Green unroasted coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the
world. Due to its caffeine content, coffee often has a stimulating effect on
humans.
Today, coffee is the third most popular drink in the world, behind water and tea.
Some controversy is associated with coffee cultivation and its impact on the
environment. Many studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption
and certain medical conditions; whether the overall effects of coffee are
ultimately positive or negative has been widely disputed. The method of brewing
coffee has been found to be important to its health effects.

A General Introduction On Caffeine

Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid that is a psychoactive
stimulant drug. Caffeine was isolated in 1820 by a German chemist, Friedlieb
Ferdinand Runge. Caffeine is found in varying quantities in the beans, leaves, and
fruit of some plants, where it acts as a natural pesticide that paralyzes and kills
certain insects feeding on the plants.[6] It is most commonly consumed by humans in
infusions extracted from the bean of the coffee plant and the leaves of the tea
bush, as well as from various foods and drinks containing products derived from the
kola nut. In humans, caffeine acts as a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant,
temporarily warding off drowsiness and restoring alertness. Caffeine is the world's
most widely consumed psychoactive substance, but, unlike many other psychoactive
substances, is legal and unregulated in nearly all jurisdictions

Caffeine Consumption And Its Effects

Caffeine is a potent and quick-acting drug which produces an effect similar to the
stress response in our bodies. Caffeine affects each person differently, depending
on individual circumstances such as weight, build, etc. It has an almost instant
effect on your mind-body which will continue to influence your state for 6-8 hours
afterwards.
Every time we drink tea, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, or cola we are giving our body a
'hit' of caffeine. Along with nicotine and alcohol, caffeine is one of the three
most widely used mood -affecting drugs in the world.
If you have more than two or three caffeine drinks per day your 'habit' may be
affecting you emotionally and physically much more powerfully than you might
expect.
Some commonly observed effects of caffeine are:
1. Stimulates your heart, respiratory system, and central nervous system.
2. Makes your blood more `sludgy' by raising the level of fatty acids in the blood.
3. Causes messages to be passed along your nervous system more quickly
4. Stimulates blood circulation
5. Raises blood pressure
6. Causes your stomach to produce more acid
7. Irritates the stomach lining
8. Makes digestion less effective by relaxing the muscles of your intestinal system
9. Its diuretic effect caused increased urination - although you would have to
drink about 8 coups of coffee in one sitting for this to occur
10. Stimulates the cortex of your brain heightening the intensity of mental
activity. This can result in a temporary feeling of alertness and, in the short
term, banishes drowsiness and feelings of fatigue. In those who already have high
levels of anxiety the heightened intensity of mental activity can produce
unpleasant effects. But check out below which contradicts this.
11. Affects the length and quality of sleep. Heavy caffeine users suffer from
sleep-deprivation because their nervous system is too stimulated to allow them
deep, restful or prolonged sleep.
12. The American Medical Journal has reported a correlation between caffeine and
decreased bone density or osteoporosis in women.
In addition to the above effects prolonged or very heavy caffeine use can produce
the following:
13. `Caffeine nerves' a jittery feeling with shaking hands, palpitations, and
wobbliness in the legs.
14. Caffeine addiction which involves nervousness, irritability, agitation,
headaches or ringing in the ears.
15. Causes your adrenal glands to release their hormones into your bloodstream
16. Causes blood sugar, or blood glucose, to be released from storage through the
effects of the adrenal hormones. This gives you a temporary lift but�
17. �requires your pancreas to over-work. This is because your pancreas now has to
produce extra insulin to reduce this extra blood sugar. Once the extra insulin has
'mopped up' the extra blood sugar your temporary lift from the caffeine ends. Your
vitality level is back to normal. However in heavy caffeine users the pancreas, in
time, becomes over-sensitive and over-zealous. Now it begins producing too much
insulin � it 'mops up' not just the excess blood sugar but the blood sugar you need
to feel alert and energetic. The initial effect of this is a let-down effect and a
craving for more caffeine to give you a further boost. A later effect can be
excessive and chronic tiredness, even on waking in the morning. Some people find
that many of the psychological complaints common to reactive hypoglycaemia (the
emotional yo-yo effect, shakiness, palpitations, weakness, tiredness, etc.)
disappear within a few days of stopping caffeine.

Sources Of Caffeine
As little as 20 mgs of caffeine can produce noticeable body and mood changes. As a
very rough guide to how much caffeine you may be taking on a daily basis...
An average cup of tea contains around 50 mgs of caffeine.
An average cup of instant coffee contains around 70-100 mgs. Instant decaffeinated
coffee contains about 3 mgs.
A 6 oz cup of espresso coffee (much larger than the normal cafe cup, incidentally)
contains about 80-90 mgs. A single-hit cappuccino will contain the same amount.
Filter coffee (called 'drip' in the US) can contain 25-50% more caffeine than
instant.
A 340 ml or 12 oz can of regular or diet cola contains between 35 and 45 mgs. of
caffeine depending on the brand
Some so-called 'energy drinks' contain very high doses of caffeine - equivalent to
to 4 or more cups of strong coffee in one dose!
One ounce or 28 grams of chocolate contains about 10-15 mgs.

Overuse
In large amounts, and especially over extended periods of time, caffeine can lead
to a condition known as caffeinism. Caffeinism usually combines caffeine dependency
with a wide range of unpleasant physical and mental conditions including
nervousness, irritability, anxiety, tremulousness, muscle twitching
(hyperreflexia), insomnia, headaches, respiratory alkalosis, and heart
palpitations.[103][104] Furthermore, because caffeine increases the production of
stomach acid, high usage over time can lead to peptic ulcers, erosive esophagitis,
and gastroesophageal reflux disease. Caffeine may also increase the toxicity of
certain other drugs, such as paracetamol.
There are four caffeine-induced psychiatric disorders recognized by the Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition: caffeine intoxication,
caffeine-induced anxiety disorder, caffeine-induced sleep disorder, and caffeine-
related disorder not otherwise specified

caffeine intoxication:
An acute overdose of caffeine usually in excess of about 300 milligrams, dependent
on body weight and level of caffeine tolerance, can result in a state of central
nervous system over-stimulation called caffeine intoxication (DSM-IV 305.90), or
colloquially the "caffeine jitters". The symptoms of caffeine intoxication are not
unlike overdoses of other stimulants. It may include restlessness,fidgetiness,
nervousness, excitement, euphoria, insomnia, flushing of the face, increased
urination, gastrointestinal disturbance,muscle twitching, a rambling flow of
thought and speech, irritability, irregular or rapid heart beat, and psychomotor
agitation. In cases of much larger overdoses, mania, depression, lapses in
judgment, disorientation, disinhibition, delusions, hallucinations, andpsychosis
may occur, and rhabdomyolysis (breakdown of skeletal muscle tissue) can be
provoked.
Extreme overdose can result in death.[110] The median lethal dose (LD50) given
orally, is 192 milligrams per kilogram in rats. The LD50 of caffeine in humans is
dependent on weight and individual sensitivity and estimated to be about 150 to 200
milligrams per kilogram of body mass, roughly 80 to 100 cups of coffee for an
average adult taken within a limited time frame that is dependent onhalf-life.
Though achieving lethal dose with caffeine would be exceptionally difficult with
regular coffee, there have been reported deaths from overdosing on caffeine pills,
with serious symptoms of overdose requiring hospitalization occurring from as
little as 2 grams of caffeine.
An exception to this would be taking a drug such as fluvoxamine or levofloxacin,
which block the liver enzyme responsible for the metabolism of caffeine, thus
increasing the central effects and blood concentrations of caffeine dramatically at
5-fold. It is not contraindicated, but highly advisable to minimize the intake of
caffeinated beverages, as drinking one cup of coffee will have the same effect as
drinking five under normal conditions. Death typically occurs due to ventricular
fibrillation brought about by effects of caffeine on the cardiovascular system

Caffeine withdrawal a case study

The following symptoms were observed in common on the 4 members of my society, I
conducted the study on. I choose them as they drink coffee twice a day i.e. in
morning and in the evening
The symptoms observed were
The symptoms were observed roughly 12-18 hours after withdrawal. They get worst
after 24-48 hours and could last for a week.
� Irritable
� Restless
� Muscles stiffness
� Difficulty in concentrating
� Headache moderate to severe
� Chills &/or hot spells
� Causes more blood to gather in head causing migraine like headache due to our
body becoming over sensitive to adenosine.
� Excessive sleepiness

What the experts suggest?

To avoid uncomfortable withdrawal effects it is wise to ease off caffeine over a
period of 7-14 days to reduce the discomfort. Reduce and then stop the richest
sources (especially coffee) first. It is unwise, particularly if you are a heavy
user, to suddenly stop caffeine altogether
When you stop caffeine you allow your body to catch up on its lost rest. This takes
some time. Using caffeine to force yourself into activity is like flogging an
exhausted horse.
For the first few weeks after stopping caffeine you may find that you are sleeping
deeper and for longer. For this reason it is a good idea to allow yourself an extra
hour per night for a few weeks, increasing this if you continue to experience
lethargy in the mornings.
If you feel drowsy during the day use breathing exercises preferably out of doors,
to alert yourself.
And remind yourself that the drowsiness is a sign that you are allowing your body
to get back into a more normal state and that your natural energy levels will soon
return once things have got back to normal after the onslaught of the caffeine
regime
CONCLUSION:
Though the effect of coffee or caffeine on our body is debated many agree for it
being positive while many agree for it being negative. The most accurate statement
at such a debate will be using it in a controlled way can be useful rather harmful.
As is well said Conscience keeps more people awake than coffee

IMAGES

Bibliography
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caffeine
http://pegasusnlpblog.com/caffeine-induced-panics
http://coffeetea.about.com/od/caffeine/a/symptoms.htm

Physics Project Report on Rain Alarm

�

Project Prepared by �
BHAGYA LAKSHMI.L
VARSHANA.R
XII � B
Session: 2017-2018
SCHOOL:VENKAT INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC SCHOOL

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this project is submitted by BHAGYALAKSHMI.L baring
registration no: and VARSHANA.R to the PHYSICS
department,VENKAT INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC SHCOOL was carried out by her under the
guidance and supervision of KAVITHA during academic session 2017-2018
Date:

(Physics teacher) External

Examiner

PRINCIPAL SIGNATURE

*Acknowledgement*
It would be my utmost pleasure to express my sincere thanks to my Physics Teacher
MRS.Kavitha mam in providing a helping hand in this project.
Her valuable guidance, support and supervision all through this project are
responsible for attaining its present form. I would also like to thank my parents
as they encouraged me to put forward my project.

TEACHER�S SIGNATURE

*Contents*

1. Introduction
2. Apparatus required
3. Construction
4. Working
5. Circuit diagram
6. Conclusion
7. Bibliography

Rain Alarm : Introduction

Rain Alarm is a device which is used to give the information is the rain is
occurring as it gives sound when rain falls between the two aluminium rods. As the
rain drop comes between the two rods the circuit gets completed and a sound is
produced from the speaker indicating the falling of rain. It can be used in
factories, open godowns where the goods need to be protected from rain. It can also
be used as a water level indicator by fixing the two rods at desired level when
water will reach that level it will automatically produce sound.
�

Apparatus Required:
Soldering iron, Hand drill machine, Solder wire, Plain PCB, PCB Etching, Battery,
Sencer probe

Construction of Rain Alarm :

It consists of various components named below :
(i) n-p-n transistor (BC 147)
(ii) p-n-p transistor (2N 6107)
(iii) Resistors (1.5 k?, 330 k?)�0.25 W
(iv) Capacitor ceramic (0.01 ?F)
(v) Two rain sensors (aluminium tube of diameter 5 mm anbd length 6 to 7 cm)
(vi) Speaker (5 to 8 ?)
(vii) Battery (6 V)
(viii) Switch.
First, drill a small hole in the center of a penny just big enough for a copper
plated nail to pass through. Solder the head of the nail to the penny with a
complete fillet to seal out the rain. Now find a fairly thin sheet of plastic
slightly bigger than the penny. Possible sources include the lid from a drink
bottle or a lid from a peanut jar. I used a flat section of plastic from a bubble
packaged product. (My particular choice was quite thin and the sensor takes a long
time to dry out. ) Coat the plastic with spray adhesive and push the nail through,
gluing the plastic to the underside of the penny. Once the glue has dried, use
scissors to carefully trim the plastic flush with the penny. The goal is to form an
insulating washer the exact size of the penny. Now drill a larger hole in the
center of a nickel, perhaps 1/4". Wrap the nail with tape to mask it and spray the
exposed face of the plastic washer with glue. Stick the nail through the nickel to
make a penny, washer, nickel sandwich. Position the penny right in the center of
the nickel and let the glue dry.
Once the glue has dried, remove the masking tape from the nail and fill the gap
between the nail and the nickel with epoxy. Cut the nail short with a pair of old
cutters or the cutter on a pair of pliers (not your best electronic wire cutters)
since the core of the nail is steel. To avoid stress on the epoxy, don't hold the
nickel as you cut the nail; hold your hand below and catch it as it falls. Solder
one conductors of a length of phone wire to the nail and the other to the nickel as
shown in the photo. Do not solder the wire to the nickel close to the edge as I did
in the photo; that wire had to be moved in toward the center to prevent
interference with the housing. Cut an arbitrary length of 1/2" PVC electrical
conduit to form the housing; three or four inches is fine. Make sure one end is
perfectly flat and straight. Coat that end of the pipe with epoxy and feed the wire
through to glue the nickel in position. Once that has cured, turn the assembly over
and pour a tablespoon or two of epoxy into the tube to get a good seal. I decided
to shove a few shipping peanuts into the hole to form a plug and poured in more
epoxy to get a flush seal so that insects can't build a nest inside and surprise me
later. Lead the wire inside the house to the electronics, leaving a hanging loop
near the entry point to prevent water from following the wire inside, add a
connector and that's it. This probe should be quite weatherproof but it may need an
occasional cleaning if debris collects between the edges of the coins.

Working of Rain Alarm :

The aluminium tubes (rain sensors) are fixed on plastic plate with a small distance
between them. The plastic plate is immersed in water taken in a beaker. Presence of
water between the aluminium tubes effects circuit adjustment.
When switch P is closed current flows through the speaker and an audible note is
produced. The alarm is on.
When water is removed from the beaker or the tubes are taken out of water, alarm
becomes dead.
When a rain alarm is set up according to circuit diagram and is connected to input
A-C source then its working starts.
Since when there is no water droplet complete and speaker doesn�t produce sound.
But as soon as rain starts water drop comes between the two rods the circuit gets
completed and speaker starts giving sound.
�
�
Value of Resistances and their percentage accuracy are indicated on carbon
resistance by a colour code printed on them.
�
Colour Number Multiplier Colour Tolerance
Black 0 � � 100
Gold � 8% � �
Brown 1 � � 101
Silver � 10% � �
Red 2 � � 102
No Colour � 20% � �
Orange 3 � � 103
Yellow 4 � � 104
Green 5 � � 105
Blue 6 � � 106
Violet 7 � � 107
Grey 8 � � 108
White 9 � � 109

Circuit diagram with Parts list.�

Conclusion
Advantages of Rain Alarm
1. Conserve Water

There is a lot of water that you can save by using a rain sensor. By automatically
turning off your lawn irrigation system every time it rains, the conserved water
can be used in other essential purposes such as fighting fire.

2. Prevent Disease Damage and Nutrient Loss

Over-watering prevent the roots of your plants from reaching deep into �the ground
making your plants vulnerable to disease. Over-watering is also one of the major
cause of nutrient loss in plants as excessive watering washes away the nutrients of
the soil leaving your plants weak and unhealthy. 3. Save Money on Fertilizer

A rain sensor prevents you from overwatering your plants and lawn. When a plant is
overwatered, the nutrients from the turf wash away into the drainage system. You
have to compensate by adding more fertilizers to your lawn and plants. This means
spending more money on fertilizers. With a rain sensor that effectively prevents
your lawn irrigation system from overwatering your lawn and plants, your garden
turf will remain to be an ideal environment for your plants in accordance with the
fertilizer that you are using.

4. Increase the Life-span of your Irrigation System

Using a rain sensor prevents unnecessary wear and tear of your lawn irrigation
system since it minimizes the amount of time that your lawn irrigation is in
operation. This is especially useful during the rainy season where rain
unpredictably come and go.

5. Prevent Groundwater and Waterways Pollution

A lawn irrigation system equipped with a rain sensor minimizes wasteful runoff such
as pesticides, motor oil, fertilizer, pet waste and sediments from reaching your
waterways. It also minimizes garden pollutants such as herbicides and fertilizers
from getting into your groundwater system.

IMAGES

*Bibliography*

Following books and websites were a source for my project .

Comprehensive PHIYSCS Lab Manual
� Dr. N. K. Verma
www. Google.com
www.Wikipedia.com
www. Icbse.com
www. Unoregon.edu