Earth and Planetary Science Letters 249 (2006) 400 – 414

www.elsevier.com/locate/epsl

Origin and Cretaceous tectonic history of the coastal Ecuadorian

forearc between 1°N and 3°S: Paleomagnetic,
radiometric and fossil evidence
L.D.A. Luzieux a,⁎, F. Heller b , R. Spikings c , C.F. Vallejo a , W. Winkler a
a
Geological Institute, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
b
Institut für Geophysik, ETH Zürich, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
c
Department of Mineralogy, University of Geneva, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland

Received 8 April 2006; received in revised form 19 June 2006; accepted 6 July 2006
Available online 24 August 2006
Editor: S. King

Abstract

The presence of at least one Block (Pallatanga Block) derived from the Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Plateau has been proposed
in the Western Cordillera of Ecuador. New 40Ar/39Ar dating of the basement of the coastal blocks (90–87 Ma) and fossil ages in the
overlying Calentura Fm. (89–84 Ma) argue for late Turonian–Coniacian extrusion of the basement of the Piñon block. Paleomagnetic
inclinations indicate that the mafic basement of the Piñon and San Lorenzo blocks extruded at equatorial, low southern latitudes. No
subsequent significant latitudinal drift can be observed during the Cretaceous. Rapid changes in paleomagnetic declination between
73 and 70 Ma in both the Piñon and the San Lorenzo blocks indicate that the large igneous province, which originally hosted the
coastal blocks experienced a major tectonic event during Late Campanian times. Similar Late Turonian–Coniacian basement ages and
Late Campanian tectonic events are reported in the Pallatanga Block of the Western Cordillera. We propose that the Piñon, San
Lorenzo and Pallatanga blocks all derive from a common large igneous province, the Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Plateau, and
were incorporated into the South American margin by collision during the Late Campanian (73–70 Ma).
© 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Northern Andes; Ecuadorian forearc; Caribbean Plate; paleomagnetism; chronostratigraphy; Late Cretaceous

1. Introduction
The Caribbean Plate is located at the center of a
complicated tectonic patchwork, in which it is juxta-
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +41 44 6323639; fax: +41 44 6321080.
E-mail addresses: Luzieux@erdw.ethz.ch (L.D.A. Luzieux),
Heller@mag.ig.erdw.ethz.ch (F. Heller),
Richard.Spikings@terre.unige.ch (R. Spikings),
Vallejo@erdw.ethz.ch (C.F. Vallejo), Winkler@erdw.ethz.ch
(W. Winkler).
0012-821X/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.07.008
posed against the North and South American, Cocos and
Nazca plates via subduction and transform plate
boundary zones (Fig. 1). Geophysical and geochemical
analyses of the Caribbean Plate reveal the presence of a
large igneous province, characterized by a thick mafic
crystalline basement with oceanic plateau affinities [1,2].
There is a consensus that this large igneous province
extruded above a mantle plume at ∼ 90 Ma at equatorial
latitudes in the Pacific [3–7]. It collided with the North
and South American continents during the Late
Cretaceous and was not consumed by subduction
 L.D.A. Luzieux et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 249 (2006) 400–414 401

Fig. 1. Tectonic framework of the Caribbean region. Abbreviations: CC, Central Cordillera; CL, Ecuadorian Coastal Lowlands; EC, Eastern Cordillera;
Gal, Galápagos Islands; Go, Gorgona Island; GrA, Greater Antilles; WC, Western Cordillera.

because of its buoyancy [8]. Subsequently, the conti-
nental margins of North America and northern South
America were deformed. The leading margin of the large
igneous province then drifted to the NE and became part
of the Caribbean Plate during fragmentation of the
Farallon Plate in the Oligocene [9]. Today, the Caribbean
Plate is drifting eastward with respect to the North and
South American margins [9]. An alternative autochtho-
nous origin for the Caribbean Plate has also been
proposed [10,11].
Mafic igneous rocks with oceanic plateau affinities
are documented in the Western Cordilleras of Ecuador
and Colombia, the low-lying coastal forearc regions,
Gorgona island, and in the offshore region of Ecuador
and Colombia [12,13], which are considered to have
been sliced off the Caribbean plateau [14,15]. These
rocks are presently in contact with the South American
continent via a suture zone, which is referred to as the
Romeral Fault Zone in Colombia, and the Peltetec Fault
Zone in Ecuador. To emphasize the proposed common
origin of the plume related Late Cretaceous mafic rocks
within the Caribbean and northern Andean regions, they
are collectively referred to as the Colombian–Caribbean
Oceanic Plateau (CCOP) [16].
Several authors, however, have proposed during the
past decade that more than one plateau sequence can be
recognized within Ecuador, and contrasting published
hypotheses invoke (i) the presence of Late Cretaceous
oceanic plateau rocks that are derived from both equa-
torial and southern Pacific latitudes [15], and (ii) the
presence of Early and Late Cretaceous oceanic plateau
sequences derived from south and equatorial Pacific
latitudes, respectively [17,18].
We present the results of stratigraphic, paleontologic,
radiometric age dating and paleomagnetic analyses of
mafic and sedimentary rocks located along the low-lying
coastal Ecuadorian forearc (Costa area) between 1°N and
3°S. These data provide paleogeographic and temporal
constraints on the evolution of the allochthonous blocks,
which comprise the forearc, and allow us to distinguish
between tectonic models for the origin of the blocks. In
addition, the data are utilised to constrain the timing of
402 L.D.A. Luzieux et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 249 (2006) 400–414

accretion of these blocks to the South American margin.
Finally, the results are discussed within the context of the
Caribbean Plate to assess the influence of the CCOP on
the evolution of the northern Andes.
2. Regional setting
The Ecuadorian forearc is composed of several tecto-
nostratigraphic units of oceanic origin, which are sepa-
rated by major SSW–NNE oriented faults (Fig. 2). For
convenience, the term “block” (as opposed to standard
terrane nomenclature) will be used to identify specific
tectonostratigraphic packages, because they are current-
ly juxtaposed by faults, and their pre-accretionary
relationships are unclear.
The Ecuadorian forearc is constructed from the Piñon,
San Lorenzo, Pedernales-Esmeraldas and Santa-Elena
blocks, all of which are underlain by a mafic plume-
related basement (Piñon Fm., see Fig. 3), which is over-
lain by island arc lavas (San Lorenzo and Las Orquídeas
fms.) [13,17], and a thick volcanoclastic cover sequence
(Cayo Fm.). These rocks were previously referred to as
the Basic Igneous Complex [19], and they were
considered to be derived from an Early Cretaceous
oceanic plateau [17,18], which accreted to the South
American margin between the Late Paleocene [20] and
Late Eocene [13]. Preliminary paleomagnetic analyses
suggested that the oceanic hotspot derived basement
extruded at a shallow southern latitude [21], although a
more southerly origin of 26°–30°S has also been
proposed [15].
The Western Cordillera of Ecuador comprises the Rio
Desgracia, Naranjal, Macuchi, and Pallatanga blocks
(Fig. 2), although they will not be discussed in depth
here. The blocks are separated by major SSW–NNE
oriented faults, and, with the exception of the Macuchi
Block, their basement units yield an oceanic, plume-
related geochemical affinity. However, the relationships
between those blocks and the coastal blocks are unclear
due to a paucity of both quantitative data and the ex-
posure of basement units. Basement gabbros of the
Pallatanga Block yield a U/Pb (zircon) SHRIMP crystal-
lization age of 87.1 ± 0.83 Ma, which is indistinguishable
from a majority of radiometric ages reported for the
CCOP in the present-day Caribbean region [1,22,23].
Previous estimates of the timing of collision between the
Caribbean Plateau, and the Ecuadorian continental mar-
gin cluster at either the Santonian–Early Campanian

Fig. 2. Map of tectono-stratigraphic units in the Ecuadorian forearc. Abbreviations: CCF, Chongón–Colonche Fault; CF, Canandé Fault; CTSZ,
Chimbo–Toachi Shear Zone; CPFZ, Calacalí–Pujilí Fault Zone; DB, Desgracia Block; MB, Macuchi Block; MSZ, Mulaute Shear Zone; NB, Naranjal
Block; PaB, Pallatanga Block; PB, Piñon Block; PEB, Pedernales-Esmeraldas Block; PCF, Puerto Cayo Fault; PF, Pallatanga Fault; RSZ, Romeral
Suture Zone; SEB, Santa-Elena Block; SLB, San Lorenzo Block. The Pallatanga Fault is the Ecuadorian along-strike extent of the Romeral Fault Zone.
Background digital elevation map from Souris [52].
 L.D.A. Luzieux et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 249 (2006) 400–414 403

Fig. 3. Composite stratigraphic columns of the Piñon and San Lorenzo blocks. Metric scales correspond to thicknesses of the formations (not for single
beds) based on estimates in the localities of Guayaquil for the Piñon Block, and Puerto Lopez for the San Lorenzo Block. The ages are based on
compilations [20,34] and include the results presented in this study.

(e.g. 85–80 Ma [13,24–26]), or the Late Campanian–
Maastrichtian (e.g. 75–65 Ma [14,27]).
3. Stratigraphy and radiometric analyses of the
forearc blocks
3.1. Piñon Block
The basement (Piñon Fm.) of the Piñon Block is
composed of pillow lavas, massive lava flows, gabbros,
microgabbros and wehrlites. Geochemical analyses
clearly document a plume-related origin for these rocks
[13,17,19,28,29]. Previous attempts to constrain the age
of the mafic basement have been restricted to fossil
analyses of the overlying Calentura Fm. [20,30–33]. We
obtained a plateau hornblende 40Ar/39Ar (Fig. 4a and b)
age of 88.8 ± 1.6 Ma from a gabbro located near the town
of Nobol (UTM coordinates: 610094; 9787726,
WGS84), which yields an indistinguishable inverse
isochron age and an initial atmospheric 40Ar content
(Fig. 4b). The chondrite-normalized plot of the rare earth
elements shows a flat pattern, which is comparable to
previously published data (Fig. 4c), and confirms the
stratigraphic attribution of this sample to the Piñon Fm.
The Las Orquídeas Fm. (Fig. 3), developed in an
island arc setting [17,34] (Fig. 4c), and is mainly
represented by mafic intrusions, although pillow lavas
have also been reported by Benitez [34] and Reynaud
et al. [17] in the type locality. Unfortunately, the type
locality no longer exists as it has been destroyed by the
construction industry. The stratigraphic relationships
between the Las Orquídeas Fm. and bounding units are
unconstrained.
The Calentura Fm. overlies lavas of the Piñon and
possibly Las Orquídeas fms. and consists of black shales,
calcareous lutites and radiolarites, which are intercalated
404 L.D.A. Luzieux et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 249 (2006) 400–414
Fig. 4. Sample 03LL266 (Piñon Fm., Piñon Block): (a) Hornblende
40
Ar/39Ar age spectra, (b) 40Ar/39Ar inverse isochron, (c) chondrite
normalized [53], whole rock, rare earth element content (white points).
The ruled areas represent results obtained in previous studies in
Ecuador [13,17], and the shaded area represents results obtained in the
Caribbean Plate [54,55].
by volcanoclastic sandstones. Bivalve assemblages led
previous authors to assign the Calentura Fm. to the
Cenomanian–Turonian [31,33]. However, a more recent
study of planktonic foraminifera and radiolarians
suggests that the sequence may have been deposited
during the Coniacian [35]. Our own dating of a sample
from the base of the formation (Rio Guaraguau) confirms
this younger age. The Calentura Fm. hosts planktonic
foraminifera Marginotruncana pseudolinneiana and
Rosita fornicata (det. M. Caron), which were associated
together during 89–84 Ma, thus excluding a Cenoma-
nian or Turonian depositional age.
The Cayo Fm. consists of a 2000–3000 m thick series
of debris flows and turbidites, which display a general
upward thinning trend. Benitez [34] inferred an island
arc-related origin for the volcanoclastic sequence and
proposed that it accumulated during the activity of four
successive arcs. However, although coarse debris flows
at the base of the formation may be synchronous with
volcanic activity, there is no clear evidence for arc acti-
vity until the end of the Cayo Fm. Part of the sequence
could also be derived from the erosion of a non-active
arc. We dated the middle and the upper part of the
formation at two sites: 1. Radotruncana subspinosa,
Rugotruncana subcircumnodifer, Globotruncana aegy-
ptiaca, Globotruncana linneiana (det. M. Caron, site
04LL83; Table 1), and 2. Abathomphalus intermedius,
Globotruncanita stuarti, Radotruncana subspinosa,
Globotruncana linneiana, Globotruncanita sp. (det. M.
Caron, sample 04LL81; Table 1). These associations
correlate with the middle-late Campanian, which con-
firms previous published biostratigraphic studies
[31,36].
The Maastrichtian to early Late Paleocene Guayaquil
Fm. [20,37] overlies the Cayo Fm., and consists of
siliceous limestones interlayered with cherts and rare,
thinly-bedded, turbiditic sandstones. The possible pres-
ence of a hiatus between the Guayaquil Fm. and the
overlying Early Eocene San Eduardo Fm., coupled with
the appearance of detrital continental clasts in the
overlying Middle Eocene Ancón Fm. led to the widely
accepted assumption that the Piñon Block accreted
against the South American margin at some time bet-
ween the Late Paleocene and the Middle Eocene
[13,15,20,34].
3.2. San Lorenzo Block
The mafic basement of the San Lorenzo Block, which
is also referred to as the Piñon Fm. (Fig. 3), yields an
indistinguishable composition from the basement of the
Piñon Block [13,17,28]. Previous plagioclase and whole
rock K/Ar analyses yielded ages between 104 and
113 Ma [19,38], although the quantity of excess 40Ar has
not been determined and these ages could represent
maximum crystallization ages [39].
The San Lorenzo Fm. represents an association of arc
rocks comprising basaltic flows, columnar basalts,
hyaloclastites and pillow lavas with intercalated sedi-
ments, which yield subduction-related geochemical
 L.D.A. Luzieux et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 249 (2006) 400–414 405

Table 1
Mean NRM directions of paleomagnetic sites given by in situ declination (Dg) and inclination (Ig), tilt corrected declination (Ds), inclination (Is) and
related Fisher parameters α95 and k [45], including the number of specimens (n) analysed for each site
Block Fm. Site Attitude Dg Ig Ds Is n k α95 Polarity Longitude Latitude
Piñon Piñon 02LL2 210/15⁎ 41 − 12.8 41 2.2 10 65.6 6 Normal 616503 9774003
Piñon Piñon 03LL23 210/20⁎ 38.2 − 33 37.3 − 18.2 14 183 2.8 Normal 620723 9771346
Piñon Piñon 03LL56 190/20⁎ 69.9 − 17 66.3 − 6.3 3 165 9.6 Normal 610094 9787726
Piñon Piñon 03LL57 190/20⁎ 74.3 − 15 71 − 5.7 13 316 2.3 Normal 610094 9787726
Piñon Piñon 03LL60 190/20 58 −0.2 58.2 5.1 8 30.9 10.1 Normal 593900 9783200
Piñon Piñon 04LL79 200/20⁎ 33.8 − 24.1 32.6 − 4.6 5 69.8 9.2 Normal 569070 9794611
Piñon Piñon 04LL80 200/20⁎ 32.2 − 14.7 31.8 4.9 10 50.5 6.9 Normal 568641 9794576
Piñon Las Orquídeas 03LL59 190/20⁎ 51 − 23.5 47.4 − 7.9 8 63.3 7 Reversed 609698 9784622
Piñon Calentura 03LL49 216/20 29.5 − 21.9 30 −2 6 155 5.4 Normal 595636 9775610
Piñon Cayo 03LL21 210/15 10.4 −6.3 10.3 7.8 12 52.4 6 Normal 616974 9764235
Piñon Cayo 03LL22 210/15 15.2 −8.8 15.3 5.7 7 23 12.8 Normal 617096 9762022
Piñon Cayo 03LL24 200/20 13.1 − 23.2 13.2 − 2.3 11 16.8 11 Normal 630097 9759647
Piñon Cayo 03LL25 200/20 9.1 − 18.2 9 0.3 7 20.5 13.7 Normal 630097 9759647
Piñon Cayo 03LL50 196/15 21.7 − 27.4 21.2 − 12.5 6 98 6.8 Reversed 621174 9761746
Piñon Cayo 04LL81 178/25 14.4 − 39.3 11.1 − 15.1 7 147 7 Reversed 580902 8775478
Piñon Cayo 04LL82 170/04 21.4 − 14.3 20.8 − 10 7 89.2 6.4 Reversed 582222 9776789
Piñon Cayo 04LL83 134/05 46.6 −8.8 45.9 −9 13 36.8 6.9 Normal 582338 9777845
San Lorenzo Piñon 03LL42 240/17⁎ 43.6 − 10.4 43.7 5.9 6 154 5.4 Normal 549477 9883134
San Lorenzo Piñon 03LL43 180/30⁎ 63 − 20 57.2 − 4.7 9 182 3.8 Normal 537175 9852492
San Lorenzo Piñon 03LL44 180/30⁎ 64 − 19.2 58.4 − 4.5 7 469 2.8 Normal 537830 9852419
San Lorenzo Piñon 03LL45 180/30⁎ 61.6 − 23.4 54.5 − 7.2 6 76.3 7.7 Normal 538101 9852461
San Lorenzo Piñon 03LL46 180/30⁎ 64.2 − 24.7 56 − 9.5 7 152 4.9 Normal 538101 9852461
San Lorenzo Piñon 04LL86 275/32 43.6 − 19.5 47.6 1.6 11 59.8 6 Normal 526697 9846178
San Lorenzo San Lorenzo 02LL6 297/33 80 − 25 85.3 1.5 7 76.7 7.5 Normal 546730 9876750
San Lorenzo San Lorenzo 04LL74 270/20 74.1 − 20.7 75.2 − 1.4 11 54.9 6.2 Reversed 549515 9886601
San Lorenzo San Lorenzo 04LL75 240/17⁎ 76.1 − 20.1 75.2 − 3.7 12 47 6.4 Reversed 534764 9884066
San Lorenzo Cayo 04LL72 257/36 13.3 − 29.2 24.4 − 9.7 11 191 3.3 Reversed 522902 9835430
San Lorenzo Cayo 04LL73 262/32 20.3 − 28.7 30.2 − 10.8 8 52.9 7.1 Normal 522433 9834418
San Lorenzo Cayo 04LL87 277/32 11.2 − 21.9 21.9 − 15.6 6 32.8 11.9 Reversed 528953 9848853
San Lorenzo Cayo 04LL89 316/11 9.8 − 10.3 12 − 16.7 8 44.8 8.4 Normal 532007 9830187
San Lorenzo Cayo 04LL90 257/36 5.1 − 28.2 17.8 − 12.8 8 138 4.7 Reversed 522902 9835430
The structural information utilized for tilt correction (attitude) at each site is indicated using the dip direction/dip convention. Sites where in-situ tilt
correction could be determined from neighboring outcrops only are marked with an asterisk. Geographical longitudes and latitudes are listed in UTM
coordinates using the World Geodetic System 1984.

affinities [17,19]. K/Ar dating of plagioclase and whole
rock concentrates yields ages between 87 and 54 Ma
[19,38], and the most reliable microfossil associations
range from Campanian to Maastrichtian [32,40]. We
could locally re-confirm the Late Cretaceous age at
Picoaza (UTM: 549515; 9886601, WGS84), with the
presence of Globotruncana ventricosa (det. M. Caron).
The Cayo Fm. interfingers with the San Lorenzo Fm.
and is similar to the Cayo Fm. of the Piñon Block, being
made up of debris flows and upwards thinning turbiditic
sequences. However, the Cayo Fm. has only half the
thickness (1500 m) of its equivalent in the Piñon Block.
Romero [41] identified a Middle-Late Campanian,
radiolarian association in the type locality (cliffs of
Puerto Cayo).
The Middle Eocene Cerro and San Mateo fms. consist
of turbidites, conglomerates, siltstones and shale se-
quences, and unconformably overlie the Cayo and San
Lorenzo fms. Unlike the stratigraphy of the Piñon Block,
the hiatus in the San Lorenzo Block is clearly visible, and
previous authors have associated it with the accretion of
the San Lorenzo Block during the Paleocene–Eocene
[13,20]. However, we have been unable to locate any
continental detrital input in the Eocene sediments, which
would support the accretionary hypothesis.
Summarizing, new paleontological and radiometric
ages indicate that the basement of the Piñon Block
extruded at ∼ 89 Ma, which is considerably younger than
its previously proposed Early Cretaceous age. The base-
ment and arc sequences, combined with the temporal
location of gaps, are similar in the Piñon and San
Lorenzo blocks. However, the San Lorenzo Block does
not host the pelagic Calentura and Guayaquil fms. which
are found in the Piñon Block, and the first appearance of
continental detrital material is diachronous in both
blocks.
406 L.D.A. Luzieux et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 249 (2006) 400–414

4. Paleomagnetism sisted of 9 demagnetization steps: 5 mT steps were used

4.1. Method
A total of 29 sites, each containing between 6 and 14
oriented cores, were sampled in the volcanic basement of
the Piñon Fm., and the overlying volcanic and vol-
canoclastic sequences of the Las Orquídeas, San
Lorenzo and Cayo fms. in both the Piñon and San
Lorenzo blocks (Table 1). All specimens were measured
in the Laboratory for Natural Magnetism, ETH Zürich,
using a 3-axis DC-SQUID rock magnetometer (2G
Enterprises model 755R).
In-line alternating field demagnetization was
employed for the 17 mafic, volcanic sites, which con-
from 0 to 20 mT, 10 mT steps were then used until 60 mT.
The orthogonal demagnetization curves usually showed
one major natural remanent magnetization (NRM)
component (Fig. 5a), which aimed towards the projec-
tion origin. In some cases, a small secondary, unstable
component disappeared after the first demagnetization
steps (Fig. 5b). The initial NRM intensities range from
10− 4 to 10− 1 A m− 1. We prepared a set of samples for
magnetic high field analysis to improve our understand-
ing of the magnetic mineralogy, and the origin of the
NRM. A total of 17 specimens from the sampled sites
were crushed to a grain size of 1–2 mm, heated and
subsequently measured using a home-made horizontal
motion Curie balance [42] (in the Laboratory for Natural

Fig. 5. NRM demagnetization curves and Curie temperature analysis. (a) AF demagnetization of sample 03LL57EA (gabbro from the Piñon Fm.,
Piñon Block), showing only one NRM component (bold line). (b) AF demagnetization of sample 04LL75DB (basalt from San Lorenzo Fm., San
Lorenzo Block), with a stable NRM (interpreted as primary) above 15 mT. Open symbols are used for inclinations, full symbols for declinations. (c)
Thermal demagnetization of sample 03LL50AA (volcanic sandstone from the Cayo Fm., Piñon Block). A secondary NRM component is revealed
between 50 and 200 °C. The primary NRM is recognized at temperatures N300 °C. Open symbols are used for the vertical, full symbols for horizontal
component. Coordinate systems are tilt-corrected. (d) High-field magnetization Mi versus temperature for sample 03LL42AA (applied field: 0.2 T).
The heating curve shows only one major phase with Curie temperature of about 570 °C (magnetite). (e) High-field magnetization Mi versus
temperature for sample 02LL06DB. Principal phase with Curie temperature between 300 and 400 °C (titanomagnetite), with appearance of a second
phase at about 350 °C. (f) Histogram of Curie temperature determinations. Two groups are clearly represented: the left one is typical for titanomagnetite
with high Ti content (250–400 °C), the right one has a low Ti content (500–600 °C), interpreted as rather pure magnetite.
 L.D.A. Luzieux et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 249 (2006) 400–414 407

Magnetism of the ETH Zürich), and a VFTB balance in
the Paleomagnetic Laboratory of the University of
Munich. A titano-magnetite component with two popu-
lations could be inferred in every case: one with Curie
temperatures between 300 and 400 °C (Fig. 5e and f),
and another one at 500–580 °C (Fig. 5d and f). The first
group can be regarded as an initial igneous rock magnetic
mineral phase without surface alteration [43], whereas
the second component may be due to rapid cooling rates
and/or crystal-melt fractionation excluding significant
subsequent low temperature oxidation [44]. In both
cases, we can assume that the stable NRM was imprinted
synchronously during initial crystallization and cooling.
The 12 sampled sites of the sedimentary Calentura
(1), and Cayo (11) fms. were progressively demagne-
tized by stepwise heating in air using an ASC TD48
Oven. The samples proved to react well to a 14 step
procedure: 50 °C steps between 0–500 °C, and 25 °C
steps between 500–575 °C. Demagnetization curves
typically show one stable NRM component, which
retreats towards the origin, with initial intensities ranging
between 10− 5 and 10− 2 A m− 1. In some cases, a second
component could be observed up to 200 °C, pointing
towards 0°N with a shallow inclination (Fig. 5c). This
was interpreted as being a secondary NRM of recent
origin, resulting from aerial exposure alteration.
Although real fold tests could not be performed
locally or regionally and tilt tests are also difficult
because the observed tilts are rather similar within blocks
(Table 1), we note that the α95 values [45] between sites
of a block are slightly lower for tilt-corrected values than
those without correction (Table 2). Moreover, given the
significant inclination at a number of sites before tilt
correction is applied, it is unlikely that the observed
characteristic NRMs have a recent origin. In addition, all
NRM directions that are considered being stable, trend
towards the projection origin during demagnetization.
Sites with normal and reversed NRM polarity have
been recorded, and the inclinations are always shallow
negative or positive. Reversed NRM directions with
southerly declinations have been inverted onto the
northern hemisphere before directional analysis and
comparison.
4.2. Results
4.2.1. Mafic basement and volcanics
The data acquired from the mafic basement and
volcanic units of the Piñon, Las Orquídeas, and San
Lorenzo fms. are presented together (Fig. 6; Tables 1
and 2) because it is not always possible to differentiate
between plateau and arc related lavas using solely field
observations and thin-section analyses.
Both the Piñon and San Lorenzo blocks show
comparable results with declinations of the plateau and
arc rocks averaging 50°–70° of clockwise rotation.
Nearly all sites sampled in the basement have normal
polarity and are considered to have recorded the Earth's
magnetic field during the normal magnetic chron C34n
[46], which corroborates basement crystallization ages
of ∼ 89 Ma. The inclinations show consistent shallow
values ranging between 0° and − 10°. The notable
dispersion of declination values may be partly due to
secular variation of the Earth's magnetic field, and may
also reflect an inaccurate determination of the paleo-
horizontal, because the applied tilt corrections either had
to be estimated using magmatic structures (pillow lavas,
flows, columnar joints), or via measuring the dip of
proximal sedimentary strata. Inaccurate paleo-horizontal
determinations would explain why the dispersion is
greater for the declination than for the inclination values
(because declinations are more affected by minor errors
than inclinations, as long as the paleo-horizontal dip is
b 45°). For those sites where orientation structures or
sedimentary bedding could not be measured in a section
or outcrop, we interpreted site NRM directions only if
the sites were situated in areas that (i) were affected by no
or minor faulting, and (ii) were within 5 km of the closest

Table 2
Paleomagnetic mean site directions from coastal Ecuador by block and formation, compared with the results from Roperch et al. [21]
Author Block Fm Dg Ig kg α95g Ds Is ks α95s n
This work Piñon Piñon 50 − 18.1 19.9 12.7 48.2 − 3.9 22.7 11.9 8
This work Piñon Cayo 20.2 − 19 27.5 10 19.6 − 4.2 32.5 9.2 9
This work San Lorenzo Piñon 63.2 − 20.8 39.5 8.3 61.3 − 2.4 31.5 9.3 9
This work San Lorenzo Cayo 11.8 − 23.6 72.8 9 21.3 − 13.2 122.4 6.9 5
This work Coast Piñon 57 − 19.7 24.5 7.4 55.2 − 3.1 23.9 7.5 17
This work Coast Cayo 17.3 − 20.7 33.8 6.9 20.2 − 7.5 40.7 6.3 14
Roperch et al. [21] Coast Piñon 66.3 − 18 15.1 8.5 69.7 − 10.1 12.6 9.3 21
Results given by in situ declination (Dg), inclination (Ig) and related α95g and kg [45], tilt corrected declination (Ds), inclination (Is) and related α95s
and ks [45], including the number of sites (n) considered for each computation.
408 L.D.A. Luzieux et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 249 (2006) 400–414

Fig. 6. Diagrams showing stable NRM site mean directions of (a) the Piñon Block, and (b) the San Lorenzo Block. Diamonds indicate sites magnetized
during normal polarity periods, whereas squares indicate reversed polarity periods. Horizontal bars represent α95 analytical errors [45]. Open symbols
are used for inclinations, full symbols for declinations.

site where paleo-horizontal corrections could be ac- nation is only due to secular variations and/or tilt-cor-
quired from field relationships. It is, however, not rection estimates. Although post-accretionary strike-slip
possible to say if the dispersion observed on the decli- faulting is certainly not as important as it is reported in
 L.D.A. Luzieux et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 249 (2006) 400–414 409

the Romeral suture zone [3], minor motion through

dextral transcurrent faulting cannot be excluded.
The paleomagnetic results for the volcanic basement
are comparable with those from a previous study [21]
(see Table 2). Interestingly, both studies reveal sites in
the region of the town of Guayaquil (in this study site
03LL59; Fig. 6a and Table 1), which yield reversed
NRM. Given the new radiometric age analyses of
basement rocks, and our revised stratigraphic assignment
of the Calentura Fm., it is very unlikely that these
reversed sites were magnetized during the Early
Cretaceous. We propose that the reversed NRM was
recorded after the long normal 32n magnetochron, which
ends at the Santonian–Campanian boundary. Conse-
quently, these reversals document arc-related magmatic
activity during the Late Cretaceous and until at least
Campanian times, thus revising previous suggestions of
the stratigraphic extension of the Las Orquídeas Fm.
[17,34].

4.2.2. Sedimentary rocks

The finer-grained rocks of the volcanoclastic turbidite
beds (siltstones to fine sandstones) of the Cayo Fm.
preserve an extremely precise detrital record of the
paleomagnetic field (Fig. 6). The data from the Cayo Fm.
were only acquired from the middle and upper members,
because the lower members are too coarse to allow for
proper sampling.
Normal northern polarity declinations in the Cayo
Fm. in both the Piñon and San Lorenzo blocks, change
from north-easterly to northern directions, as the sections
are traversed upwards. The changes are particularly
sharp in two continuous sections (04LL81-83 in the
Piñon Block, Fig. 6a; 04LL72, 04LL73 and 04LL90 in
the San Lorenzo Block, Fig. 6b). Within the Piñon
Block, sites 04LL83-81 were all sampled in the Rio
Bachillero (northwest of Guayaquil, see Table 1), over a
stratigraphic thickness of about 2000 m. Site 05LL83,
which lies immediately above the coarse member of the
Cayo Fm. was dated with planktonic foraminifera, and
yields a depositional age of 73 to 70 Ma (Radotruncana
subspinosa, Rugotruncana subcircumnodifer, and Glo-
botruncana aegyptiaca, det. M. Caron). Similarly, site
05LL83 yields a depositional age of 71.5–70.5 Ma
(Abathomphalus intermedius, Globotruncanita stuarti,
Radotruncana subspinosa, det. M. Caron). The reversal
recorded at this site is consistent with the depositional
age, and indicates that the NRM was acquired during
polarity chron C32n.1r or C31r (Fig. 7). Site 04LL83
was deposited either during chron C32n.2n or C32n.1n.
Late Campanian depositional ages recorded by a
previous study [41] in a section of the Cayo Fm. in the
Fig. 7. Correlation diagram showing depositional ages for sites 05LL83
and 05LL81 (Cayo Fm., Piñon Block), with solutions that satisfy
planktonic foraminifera associations according to Premoli Silva and
Verga [56], and magnetostratigraphy according to Cande and Kent [46].
Stage boundaries according to Gradstein et al. [57].
San Lorenzo Block, sampled between Salango and
Puerto Cayo (sites 04LL72, 04LL73 and 04LL90; Fig.
6b), are coeval with our depositional ages in the Piñon
Block.
The low inclination values obtained from sedimen-
tary rocks in the Piñon Block are in the same range as
those found in the basement and volcanic rocks (Tables 1
and 2). In the San Lorenzo Block, sedimentary rocks
yield slightly higher inclinations than in the Piñon Block,
although not incompatible with the basement. However,
in the San Lorenzo Block, the number of sedimentary
sites analysed was insufficient to accurately average out
secular variations. Hence, we consider the latitude com-
putation resulting from the NRM inclinations acquired
by the Piñon Block rocks as the most reliable one.
5. Discussion
Schematic stratigraphic correlations between the
Piñon, San Lorenzo and Pallatanga blocks are shown
in Fig. 8. The first continental detrital material deposited
in the blocks occurred during the Late Cretaceous in the
Pallatanga Block [27], during the Eocene in the Piñon
410 L.D.A. Luzieux et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 249 (2006) 400–414

Fig. 8. Synthetic stratigraphic columns of the Piñon, San Lorenzo and Pallatanga blocks, which clearly show the inter-block, diachronous occurrence of
continental detritus (dark grey coloration). The coeval occurrence of late Campanian clockwise rotations in the coastal terranes (a, b: this work) and the
initial input of continental derived detritus in the Western Cordilleran Pallatanga Block (c: Jaillard et al. [27]), indicated by light grey shading, can be seen.
A common extrusion age (90–87 Ma) for the basement sequences is also shown (d: this work; e: Vallejo et al. [22]). Key symbols as in Fig. 3.

Block [34], and younger than the Eocene in the San
Lorenzo Block. Such diachronism supports previous
hypotheses, which propose that these blocks represent
distinct terranes, which have independent accretionary
histories [15,17,18]. However, it is relevant that
significant clockwise rotations of the Piñon and San
Lorenzo blocks, which were coeval with the earliest
deposition of detrital continental material in the
Pallatanga Block [27], also correlate with the Romeral
suturing event in Colombia [3]. Furthermore, our new
radiometric crystallization ages of basement rocks in the
low-lying, coastal forearc of Ecuador are also coeval
with recent U/Pb (zircon) SHRIMP ages (87.1
± 0.83 Ma) of oceanic plateau-related gabbros, which
define the basement to the Pallatanga Block [22].
Consequently, diachronous arrival of continental detrital
material in the coastal forearc could either simply reflect
(i) a more distal position of the coastal blocks with
respect to the South American margin at the time of
collision, relative to the Pallatanga block, and/or (ii) a
complex hydrographic drainage system, which isolated
coastal basins from the Andean catchment, similar to that
which exists today.
Our paleomagnetic data acquired from the basement
sequences correlate well with a previous study [21],
which yielded similar rotations and slightly steeper
inclinations (average inclination of − 10° resulting in a
latitude estimate of 5°S). Combining our, and previous
work, we propose that the basement sequences extruded
at an equatorial shallow southern latitude, between 0 and
5°S. Furthermore, shallow inclinations recorded during
the Late Campanian indicate that the blocks experienced
insignificant latitudinal drift between 90 and 70 Ma (0–
5°). This is not in agreement with previous proposed
origins [15,17,18], which suggest that the coastal blocks
may be derived from southern Pacific latitudes (e.g.
 L.D.A. Luzieux et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 249 (2006) 400–414 411

30°S). Interestingly, shallow inclinations and clockwise Rapid 40–50° CW vertical axis rotation of the coastal
rotations, which are widely reported from basement blocks between 73 and 70 Ma clearly shows that the
sequences in southern regions of the Caribbean Plate coastal forearc experienced a significant tectonic
[47,48], are similar to our dataset. rearrangement during the Late Campanian. This

Fig. 9. Proposed model for the accretion of the Pallatanga, Piñon and San Lorenzo blocks, showing snapshots during the Campanian and Paleocene
(modified from Ross and Scotese [7] and Burke [3]). The Pallatanga Block occupied a position proximal to the South American margin at the time of
accretion (Late Campanian), whereas the Piñon and San Lorenzo blocks resided in a more distal position. Abbreviations: PF, Peltetec Fault; RSZ,
Romeral Suture Zone.
412 L.D.A. Luzieux et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 249 (2006) 400–414
corroborates anomalously rapid rotations (up to 10°/
my), which have been widely documented at active
margins that experienced a transition from subduction to
collision, via the introduction of buoyant material to the
trench from the upper plate [49].
We propose a new model for the origin and evolution
of the coastal blocks (Fig. 9). The Piñon and San
Lorenzo blocks, as well as the Pallatanga Block, derived
from a common oceanic block, which extruded above a
plume between 90 and 87 Ma at an equatorial latitude.
Since similar basement ages [1,23] and paleolatitudes
[47,48] are reported for the Caribbean Plate, we infer
that the Piñon, San Lorenzo and Pallatanga blocks were
all part of the CCOP when it formed. The subsequent
drift of the Caribbean Plateau towards the E–NE [3,9]
drove it towards the South American margin, culminat-
ing in a collision event during 73–70 Ma. The suture
between the Pallatanga Block (traditionally named the
Romeral suture in the Northern Andes) and the
continental margin was sealed by continental derived
detritus at that time [27], and was probably the most
proximal part of the Caribbean Plateau to the South
American margin. Although the Piñon and San Lorenzo
blocks were located in a more distal position relative to
the South American margin than the Pallatanga Block,
they still recorded the collision via 40–50° of clockwise
rotation. Intense deformation of sedimentary rocks,
which seal the plateau–South American margin suture
in the Pallatanga Block [50], contrasts with the rather
undeformed coastal blocks. This is consistent with the
proposed positions of these basement sequences
relative to the collision zone along the South American
margin. The Pallatanga, Piñon and San Lorenzo blocks
were firmly incorporated into the South American
forearc by ∼70 Ma. The Caribbean Plateau detached
from its marginal southern part, and subsequently
drifted towards the N–NE [9]. The collision event
resulted in rapid cooling and exhumation of the paleo-
continental margin of South America during 73–65 Ma
[14,26].
6. Conclusion
The data presented in this study have major implica-
tions for any reconstruction of the origin and accretionary
history of Late Cretaceous plateau sequences exposed in
western Ecuador. The following observations must be
accounted for in any reconstruction:
1. The Piñon and San Lorenzo blocks extruded between
90 and 87 Ma above a mantle plume located at an
equatorial latitude.
2. Geochronological and magnetostratigraphical data
acquired from the Piñon Block, suggest that island
arc activity, represented by the Las Orquídeas Fm.,
extended at least to Campanian times.
3. The NRM of the coastal blocks records a tectonic
event, which took place between 73 and 70 Ma, and
produced large clockwise rotations of about 40–50°.
A majority of this rotation occurred during a time
span of 4 my.
4. We observe very good geological correlations be-
tween the Piñon and San Lorenzo blocks at the coast,
and the Pallatanga Block in the Western Cordillera:
(a) synchronous extrusion of a hotspot-type mafic
basement between 90 and 87 Ma, (b) Late Campanian
tectonism which was recorded via syntectonically
deformed continent-derived, Maastrichtian turbidites
in the Pallatanga Block, was synchronous with large
clockwise rotations of the basement of the Piñon and
San Lorenzo blocks.
We consider that this information collectively
precludes the possibility of the presence of multiple
plateaus. All of our observations can be accommodated
by the presence of a single oceanic plateau, which
fragmented during its collision with the South Amer-
ican plate, giving rise subsequently to distinct struc-
tural blocks that are currently located in western
Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela. Furthermore, pre-
vious suggestions that some of the allochthonous base-
ment units in western Ecuador were extruded in the
South Pacific are not supported. We have shown that
the Piñon, San Lorenzo and Pallatanga blocks were
part of the Caribbean–Colombian Oceanic Plateau,
until it collided with South America during the Late
Campanian.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge Michèle Caron for sup-
port with microfossil determinations. We would like to
thank Josef Weber for carrying out some of the high field
measurements in the Paleomagnetic Laboratory of Uni-
versity of Munich. Field sampling benefited from the
assistance and knowledge of Stalin Benitez (ESPOL),
Thomas Imbach (Holcim Ltd), Luis Matamoros (Holcim
Ltd) and Pedro Reyes (EPN-Quito). The manuscript was
improved by the thorough reviews of Kevin Burke and
an anonymous reviewer. Paleomagnetic data analysis
was done using PaleoMac 6.1 (software from J.P. Cogné
[51]). This work was supported by the Swiss National
Science Foundation, projects 2-77193-02 and 2-77504-
04.
 L.D.A. Luzieux et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 249 (2006) 400–414
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