The Truth

A practical guide for AV designers, installers, and electricians
the
Truth
Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
National Electrical Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Important Things to Remember When Installing AV Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,3
Simplified Grounding Guidelines for Audio, Video and Electronic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Grounding (Myths, Bootleg Grounds and More...) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 6, 7
Neutral-Ground Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Intersystem Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Power Quality Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 9
Benefits of Specialty Isolation Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Electrical Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Common-Mode Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Electrostatic (Faraday) Shielding in Power Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Radio Noise (RFI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Power Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Stray AC Magnetic Fields in Homes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 15
AC Magnetic Field Strengths from Different Wiring Types & Plug-In Power Supplies . . . . . . . . 16
Surge and Spike Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Types of Surge and Spike Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Surge Suppressors and Noise on Safety Ground Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
North American Product Safety Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Typical 120-Volt Receptacles Used For Electronic Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Receptacle Wiring – Common Errors and the Correct Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Dealing with Electrical Inspectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 23
Common AC Wiring Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 24
Calculating System Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Calculating Amplifier Circuit Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Single and Multiple Circuit Sequencer Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25, 26
Symmetrical (Balanced) Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Wiring Methods for Separately Derived Systems (Isolation Transformers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Typical Three Phase Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 30
Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31, 32
Copyright . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Preface
This is a practical guide for Residential AV designers and installers to incorporate effective and efficient
power distribution into their overall system design and installation. In providing this information,
the intent is not to make audio/video equipment installers into electricians. However, designers and
installers do need a basic understanding of properly installed power distribution to avoid potential noise
and safety problems during installation and to facilitate effective trouble-shooting. This guide seeks to
provide basic knowledge of power distribution and grounding so integrators may gain understanding
of how some potential problems present themselves as system performance issues.
Numerous products exist to protect AV systems from noise, lock-ups, re-boots and various power quality
issues. Many of these are sold partly on fear, partly by swindling, and mostly on misleading education
that lacks both meaningful data and effective demonstrations; none alone however, are as effective as
a properly designed and correctly installed system. This guide is a factual education for designers and
installers to make the best choices for their individual projects.
Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth | 1

National Electrical Code
Every state, city, and municipality in the United States is responsible for its own safety standard for electrical
installations. While some choose not to adopt any standard, most adopt and enact the widely-accepted
National Electrical Code (NEC) or a version of the NEC enhanced to reflect the needs of their respective
jurisdictions. Each is at liberty to incorporate additional requirements or remove exceptions, as they see fit.
The state of New Jersey, for example, replaced the term “authority having jurisdiction (AHJ)” with “electrical
subcode official” before enacting the NEC standard. Always be sure to check the requirements of the local
authority having jurisdiction. The information presented in this paper is based on the NEC as it is written. Some
jurisdictions may have more rigid requirements; however, the NEC is generally the minimum requirement.
The NEC is updated every three years. This document is based on the most recently published 2008 version.
The NEC is not intended to be used as a design specification or an instruction manual for untrained persons.
In fact, some experienced installers have problems adapting the NEC to specific installations. Many of these
problems are due to the many exceptions to the rules. The fact is there are more exceptions than there
are rules. In addition, many rules refer to, and are superseded by, several other sections of the NEC. This
document should help to clarify the intentions of the NEC.
Important Things to Remember When Installing

Audio / Video Equipment
1. Safety Comes First: The NEC Code must be adhered to at all times.
2. Bypassing or lifting equipment safety grounds in an effort to reduce hums and buzzes is dangerous,
violates the NEC and should never be done!
3. Ground loops are an entirely normal occurrence, and in a properly designed system will not create
problems; their severity and impact on the system depend on many factors. Ground loops occur when
safety grounds of interconnected equipment are at different potentials, which may cause significant
noise problems.
4. Untwisted signal conductors inside the equipment rack should not be installed parallel (within 2”) to
untwisted power conductors, speaker wires or wall-warts. A hum may be induced from power wires into
the signal conductors. This is especially likely in long parallel wire runs, where more separation may
be required.
2 | Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth

5. When it is necessary to install untwisted signal conductors, and untwisted power conductors or speaker
wires in close proximity to each other (less than 2” separation), coupling is minimized when the cables
cross at 90-degree angles, which may be impractical in practice. It may be permissible to strap signal
cables to power cables in specific cases if the respective conductors of both cables are tightly twisted.
6. Some equipment inherently passes small power line currents (known as leakage currents) onto the ground
circuit via EMI filters and other components. This “noise” may manifest itself as a hum or buzz in the
signal path when proper grounding techniques are not utilized.
7. Although widely used in consumer-grade AV equipment, unbalanced signal connections are inherently
sensitive to very small ground voltage differences. Balanced signal connections are theoretically immune,
but two common problems are equipment whose design is non-compliant with the AES48 standard (i.e.,
have a “pin-1 problem”) and signal cables having shield-current-induced noise (SCIN) issues. Both
problems are beyond the scope of this paper and are well documented elsewhere (an internet search of
the topics should yield helpful information).
8. Best practices dictate that equipment racks should be bonded together per the NEC or local authority
having jurisdiction. It is best to purchase racks with pre-installed ground studs for convenience in bonding
and to ensure good conductivity.
An in-depth technical discussion of signal noise and many useful topics by Bill Whitlock,
including step-by-step troubleshooting procedures, is available at:
http://www.jensentransformers.com/an/generic seminar.pdf
Henry Ott has published a paper on Balanced vs. Unbalanced Audio Interconnections that examines
the practical application of both types of connection, and provides installation best practices in
each case. The paper is available at:
http://www.hottconsultants.com/pdf_files/Audio Interconnections.pdf

Simplified Grounding Guidelines for Audio,
Video and Electronic Systems
Hum & Buzz – Pure 60Hz, when induced or added into an audio signal path, sounds like “Hummm.”
It takes a reasonable amount of current flow (generally tens of milliamps) in the shield of a balanced
line-level signal wire to become audible. Less than 300 microamps of ground loop current can cause hum
as it flows in an unbalanced audio interconnect cable. However, harmonics of 60Hz that are generated
from lighting dimmers or switch-mode power supplies sound like “Buzzz” mixed with a bit of “Hummm” and
are more easily coupled by even smaller currents. Harmonics can add together when equipment is powered
from different phases, so clearly there is an advantage to specifying same-phase electrical service to power
the electronics systems in most cases.
“Hum & Buzz-Free” and “clean” video can ONLY be obtained by having a “noise free” signal path.
Signal path noise vulnerability depends on whether the interface is balanced or unbalanced. Design and
installation of the signal path must include noise interference rejection schemes and effective grounding.
Proper grounding reduces common-mode sources of noise. Both the primary electrical system ground
and the signal interconnection system grounds need to be properly designed and installed to achieve a “noise
free” system. Safety ground connections and neutral-ground bonds at main panels that are loose or corroded
may cause hazardous conditions and will likely increase system noise.
Safety grounding is necessary to limit danger to the user from hazardous voltages due to lightning,
power surges, and ground faults caused by equipment failure or conductor insulation failure. Proper safety
grounding assures safety by providing a low impedance path for “tripping” protective devices such as circuit
breakers and fuses when a ground fault (short circuit to ground) occurs. This saves lives, prevents property
damages and prevents fire. Defeating a safety ground to reduce noise is illegal, dangerous and should never
be done! There are always easy ways to reduce noise without compromising safety.
Digital Signal Processors (DSP) – With an increasing amount of internal DSPs requiring bypass
capacitors in today’s digital equipment, the grounding system wires contain more high-frequency noise than
before. This type of high frequency leakage current is sometimes known as “Digital Hash” on the ground
wires. Some of this noise current winds up in signal cables when the power grounding is not done properly.
There are several meanings of the word “ground” which contributes to confusion and
misunderstanding. Most commonly, ground refers to “safety ground,” which acts as a return path for fault
current and that is the context of how “ground” will be used in this paper. In electrical utility jargon, a ground
is an actual connection to earth for the purpose of lightning diversion and dissipation and for the purpose
of keeping the exposed surfaces at the same potential as the earth. The ground for audio, video, and other
electronic systems must work in conjunction with the safety ground.
For optimal performance of AV systems, all safety grounds must terminate at only one point.
This is also known as a single-point ground (SPG).

Grounding
(Myths, Bootleg Grounds, and More...)
Myth #1 An “Isolated Ground” system is not connected to ground.

Myth “Isolated ground” systems connect to “ground” at the neutral-ground bond point in the main
Busted! circuit panel, and must be insulated from any other ground connections. If equipment is
mounted in a rack, to conductive rack rails, the rack itself must also be insulated from any
other grounds, including concrete or conduit, to function as designed.
Myth #2 A supplemental (auxiliary) ground rod is a place where “noise” wants to go.
wants to go.
Myth Noise will always flow back to the source; noise does not want to flow to earth. In addition, the
Busted! NEC mandates that any supplemental (auxiliary) ground rod be bonded to the neutral-ground
bond of a separately derived system, the main service neutral-ground bond or the grounding
electrode system. Improper bonding of a supplemental (auxiliary) ground rod is dangerous! Any
attempt to use a supplemental (auxiliary) ground rod as a magical sink for “noise” will most likely
fail, and result in circulating currents flowing in the ground wires, most likely adding to noise
problems. There is no wire from an airplane to earth, yet it has an effective grounding system.
Myth #3 The earth’s soil is an effective safety grounding point.
Myth Earth ground is not a substitute for safety ground. Driving independent, un-bonded ground
Busted! rods into the earth does not provide a low enough impedance to trip circuit breakers, is a
violation of the National Electrical Code, and can be life threatening when used as
a safety ground. (see diagram below)
Myth #4 More grounds = quieter systems.

Myth Ground only where required for safety. Any additional grounds may provide or create
Busted! additional paths for ground loops and increase system noise. The only exception to this is
when a “mesh grounding” scheme is used. Refer to the “Mesh Grounding” section of Middle
Atlantic’s “Integrating Electronic Equipment and Power Into Rack Enclosures” Rev. 3 - 6/16/08
white paper at http://www.middleatlantic.com/power.htm

“Bootleg” Grounds
Accidental neutral to ground connections will negatively impact system performance and violate the NEC.
“False” or “bootleg” grounds occur when neutral and ground are improperly connected together upstream
from the transformer or service entrance. All grounded metal (beams, pipes, etc.) and ground wires will
become part of the return current-carrying neutral conductor if the neutral and ground are connected
anywhere else in the house other than at the single point connection at the service entrance or separately
derived transformer, and will result in various voltage potentials on electronic equipment. It also creates large
loop area AC magnetic fields which frequently couple to the signal path, creating hum or buzz.
One way to detect which branch circuit has a downstream neutral-ground bond is to see if the noise changes
as you adjust the settings on an inexpensive tabletop dimmer with a load plugged into that circuit.
A parallel connection is created when neutral
and ground are incorrectly bonded together
somewhere downstream of the neutral-ground
bond at the source, which is the one and only
bond required by NEC code (250.24, NEC
2008). Part of the neutral current will be
flowing in the grounding conductor. Noise will
vary proportionately to the amount of neutral
current. The other way to detect a “bootleg”
ground requires working around hazardous
voltages in the main circuit breaker panel and
measuring the safety ground currents with an
amp probe, as shown here.
WARNING: must be performed by qualified personnel.
Grounding Gone Bad

Supplemental (auxiliary) grounding
electrodes (building steel, ground rods,
etc.) are not required or recommended
because they may cause severe ground
loops and may also be a safety hazard
if not bonded properly.
Do not install multiple ground rods or additional

ground rods, except as required per code. See
figure to the right for one example. Supplemental
(auxiliary) grounding via a ground rod or building
steel is allowed by the NEC, though it must be
bonded to the main safety ground (Article 250 III).

Ground Loops Are Not Bad Unless...
Ground loops alone may or may not create problems in AV systems. Unbalanced signal interconnections
should be avoided whenever possible because they’re extremely vulnerable to ground loop currents. With
balanced signal interfaces, low-current ground loops are entirely normal and will not be a problem unless
other things are wrong. Problems are caused by ground loops in conjunction with improper signal wiring and/
or signal equipment with low common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR). Since very few equipment interfaces
are perfect, care should be taken to ensure all ground leakage current that flows on the safety ground wiring
terminates at the “single point” neutral-to-ground bond formed at the power transformer. Additionally, the
shorter the path (lower the impedance) for this return current, the less common-mode voltage will be present.
Audio systems that require low noise floors and wide dynamic range need (among other things) balanced
signal interconnections, good cables, good equipment (no “pin-1” problems, adequate common-mode noise
rejection) and proper grounding. There is no single “right way” to wire an AV system optimally. The equipment
chosen has a profound impact on noise immunity. Many so-called “balanced inputs” perform marginally
against common-mode noise. Field conditions vary. Cable lengths and types vary. Good grounding/
bonding techniques are needed, based on these variables. The communication and data industries are
generally not affected by ground loops (<300 Hz) and have a very different set of requirements for proper
operation. Long runs of signal wire with “SCIN” (shield current induced noise) susceptibility are affected by
ground loops (<300 Hz). Lifting the receive end of a balanced cable signal interconnect shield can greatly
reduce signal noise in these cases. The receive end of the shield can be terminated to the chassis with a .1uF
capacitor (with extremely short leads) if radio frequency interference (RFI) is present (example shown below).
When AV equipment is integrated with data equipment, care needs to be taken regarding shared neutrals,
cable terminations and equipment selection. Additionally, it is wise to utilize single-point grounding.
Neutral-Ground Voltages
Excessive neutral-ground (or common-mode) voltage is a leading cause of system noise and intermittent
DSP and control system hang-up problems, and is usually the result of grounding/bonding problems, or long
runs of wire that have not been properly up-sized. The worst condition is a neutral-ground swap in the power
wiring system, which can make many amperes of current flow through signal cable shields! Outlet testers
cannot detect a neutral-ground swap. This may also be an intermittent problem, as current will only flow when
the reversed outlet is under a load.
Most panel boards (load centers) include a neutral-ground bonding screw. This bonding screw must not be
utilized unless the panel board is used as a main panel (i.e. at the service entrance or immediately after an
isolation transformer). The best way to test the electrical system for neutral-ground reversal is to put a load
(40 watt or greater) into each receptacle fed by the load center on a branch circuit and measure the current
on the ground conductor. The ground conductor should measure less than 18mA for any branch circuit.
Unless otherwise marked the maximum allowable leakage current to ground under UL standards is 3.5mA for
each 3-prong device. The 18mA guideline assumes 5 devices on a branch circuit with full leakage current.

Intersystem Bonding
Cable TV signal shields will often have a different ground potential than the electrical ground wires inside
the house if not bonded properly at the service entrance. For maximum lightning protection, the cable TV
ground and main grounding electrode should have a parallel earthing conductor (PEC) if they enter on
opposite ends of a house. The NEC: 800.100 refers to this PEC as an “intersystem bonding conductor.” In
order to reduce potential voltage differences between electrical and electronic systems such as telephone,
cable TV and satellite dish receivers, connection (bonding) to the main electrical grounding electrode
system is required. This bonding connection is referred to as an “Intersystem Bond.” It is recommended to
make this connection directly to a terminal block
(small bus bar), located on or near the service entry
main electrical panel (see figure to the right). If the
connection is impractical due to any constraints
precluding the installation of this conductor through
the building, it is required to install a bonding
conductor to a grounded metallic system such as
water piping, building steel or similar system. A #6
(minimum) conductor size is required. Even with all
electronics sharing a common ground point, if the
cable TV is grounded separately it will likely cause
system hum and require an inline isolator. Ground
loops can be easily detected by putting an amp
probe around the cable TV wire.
Power Quality Problems
Power Quality
“As much as 80% of all power quality problems can be attributed to inadequate electrical grounding or
wiring, or interactions between loads within the premises.” (Source: EPRI)
Power quality problems can affect sensitive electronic systems and impact operation and reliability. While some
troubles such as system re-boots and lockups are an inconvenience, these problems can have greater implications
including damage to integrated circuits and other sensitive electronic components. A number of conditions
cause distortions in voltage and frequency that result in poor power quality. These include nearby lightning
strikes, transient currents in the house drawn by loads such as air conditioners and motors, utility company
switching, and conducted noise from neighbors connected on the same utility transformer. A properly
configured and installed isolating transformer/filter/surge protector will effectively address all these issues.

Common-Mode Voltage
60Hz common-mode voltage, relating to electronic system performance problems in residences, is
voltage measured between neutral and ground in the electrical system on the branch circuits. As one
of the most serious power quality problems affecting electronics systems, common-mode voltage is a
result of high resistance neutral conductors, neutral conductors shared with other circuits and
excessive branch circuit wire lengths without up-sized wire gauge. One of the best ways of reducing
common-mode voltage is to locate an isolation transformer (i.e. “separately-derived power”) in close
proximity to the equipment which provides a new reference ground. These isolation transformers must
be hard-wired by a licensed electrician. “Balanced power” isolation transformers cannot legally be used
in residences, per 2008 NEC Article 647.3 (1).
Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation addresses variations in the voltage waveform typically caused by large loads turning
on and off, causing abnormal variations greater than 10% of nominal operating voltage that may last
for several line cycles. These variations are commonly known as “swells” and “sags”. Voltage regulation
is the responsibility of the power utility, but because of good power supplies in most of today’s electronic
equipment, there is rarely a requirement of tight voltage regulation for proper operation of electronic
equipment. Modern switch mode power supplies operate differently than their linear power supply
predecessors. Their improved design provides systems with a substantial immunity to voltage variation,
making additional preventative measures like voltage regulators mostly unnecessary, except in extreme
cases like homes at the end of a very long utility power run, or very close to a utility substation.
Other Power Quality Problems
Lightning: Lightning surges are unavoidable in many areas. Inductive coupling from storms miles away can
produce harmful transients in any wiring and metallic structures inside a home.
Blackouts: While accounting for fewer power quality issues than the other problems listed, power loss is the
one most visible to the homeowner and requires UPS safeguarding in specific places to prevent the control
systems, projectors and computers from improper shutdown.
System Interconnect Disturbances: Although not directly on the AC power connections, noise can
enter the system via a secondary path like cable TV, telephone lines, security systems, network cabling, I/O
connections and control wire shields bonded at different potentials (see “Intersystem Bonding” on page 8).
A system approach needs to be taken to address power quality issues rather than addressing
each individually. Voltage spikes and impulses are addressed with a surge diverter, high frequency
electrical noise with a noise filter (conditioner), and common-mode voltage by an electrostatic shielded isolation
transformer. An example of a system approach is shown below.

Benefits of Speciality Isolation Transformers
In residential installations, a dedicated electrostatically shielded isolation transformer will act as a buffer
between the utility company electrical system and the protected electronics systems such as AV equipment,
home theater electronics, automation systems, and data devices. These isolation transformers must be
hard-wired by a licensed electrician.
This transformer, when correctly installed, is an effective “sink” for the collective ground leakage current of
multiple switch-mode power supplies found in almost all modern equipment. The AV and control system will
benefit from the improved power quality, greatly reducing the effects of ground loops through having a single
point source for power and grounding.
An isolation transformer is a device that prevents power quality problems by galvanically isolating the load
from the power source, and incorporates a new neutral conductor that is bonded to a newly derived system
ground. This newly derived neutral to ground bond eliminates common-mode voltages at that point, which
are usually the main cause of unreliable system operation, equipment failure and service calls.
Phasing Of Supply Conductors

When designing power distribution systems, electrical engineers will typically balance the loads among all the
phase conductors in order to reduce the load on individual phase portions of transformers and circuit breaker
panels. This is not always the best design for AV systems.
Three Phase electrical service is most commonly found in commercial and industrial buildings where there
are motors, air conditioners and lighting controllers. Some large homes have three phase service. Due to
leakage current and grounded filter capacitors found in most equipment, loads on each phase usually couple
a small amount of noise onto the ground circuit. Any device that draws a pulse of current for less than the
entire voltage wave generates harmonics. Because the phase conductors are separated by 120 degrees, some
of the harmonic current in the neutral conductor is tripled. The additive currents are referred to as “triplen”
harmonics. In larger homes utilizing three phase power, “triplen” harmonics are not a problem if care is taken
to segregate branch circuits feeding AV equipment from noise-producing equipment like lighting dimmers,
which affect the signal path. The problems with three phase are mostly from harmonic-generating devices
sharing the same safety ground system. A shielded isolation transformer solves this problem by creating its
own low-impedance ground and return path for noise.
Split Single Phase electrical service is most commonly found in residences and smaller commercial buildings,
and is commonly used to feed AV equipment. One key advantage that single phase has over three phase
is that while harmonic currents are still present, it is not possible for the “triplen” components to add in the
neutral. In addition, use of split single phase can result in at least a 6dB reduction in noise floor as compared
to three phase if the capacitances of the connected equipment are relatively well balanced. However, any
leakage currents on the safety ground wires of split single phase load circuits fed by different phase legs will
add together due to the 240V potential difference.
Dual Single Phase is a specialty configuration with two 120V secondary windings (not center-tapped)
arranged so both legs are in phase with each other. The advantage is that there is no 240V potential
difference between any branch circuits, which is beneficial for reducing noise when many switch-mode power
supplies are used in larger installations. However, the neutral wire feeding the load center, and the load center
neutral bar must be double-sized to handle the additional “additive” current.

Electrical Noise
Voltage differences, or “noise” between various locations in premises safety-ground wiring are a driving force
behind ground loops that cause hum, buzz, and video hum bar problems. “Noise” in the context of AC power
generally refers to energy at frequencies up to a few MHz. For example, whenever a power circuit containing a
reactive load is turned on or off by contact closure (a switch or relay), a high frequency voltage or current, which
can be much higher than the nominal line voltage or current, is generated. These transients both result in voltage
spikes over the length of the wires they flow in. In many cases this transient may contain a “ringing waveform,” as
well as many high frequency components.
Many electrical devices throughout the home can create harmonics and high-frequency noise that is coupled onto
the safety ground conductor. Such devices include computers, laser printers, electronic lighting ballasts, compact
fluorescent lights (CFL), lighting dimmers and anything with a “switch-mode” power supply - see figure below.
Many lighting dimmer controls use a thyristor switch, which “chops” the sine wave. The reduced duty cycle of
the resulting wave achieves the desired effect of dimming. However, the extremely fast turn-on of current creates
a large repetitive voltage spike twice per cycle. Rapid changes in current will always produce electrical
noise. AV equipment itself can produce electrical noise and poorly designed equipment containing a
microprocessor can couple “digital hash” into the safety ground system through its power supply or ground prong.

Common-Mode Noise
Common-mode noise on the power line is generally defined as the voltage measured between neutral and safety
ground (note that this is quite different from common-mode noise rejection on balanced audio signal lines). It is
the type of noise that can couple into audio/video signal paths through poorly-designed equipment. While any
power isolation transformer reduces common-mode voltage, one with an electrostatic (Faraday) shield further
reduces common-mode noise coupling between the primary and secondary windings, improving the isolation.
Electrostatic (Faraday) Shielding in Power Transformers

Standard Power Transformer (Unshielded) Power Transformer with an Electrostatic Shield
Inter-winding capacitance passes noise
Noise path
Noise Load
Load path
Electrostatic N-G Bond Point

Shield
N-G Bond Point
All transformers have parasitic capacitance between the primary and secondary windings, which allows
certain frequencies of noise to pass – as shown in the diagram above left. Utilizing an electrostatic (Faraday)
shield between the windings reduces the capacitance and provides a path for the noise to flow back to its
source - as shown in the diagram above right.
Radio Noise (RFI)

Radio noise (RFI) in systems can arise from many sources, including transmissions from nearby radio transmitters.
All conductors act as antennas at certain frequencies, including speaker wires. Twisting speaker wires is one way
to prevent them from acting as differential mode antennas; this prevents RFI coupling from the amplifier’s output
to the amplifier’s input via its feedback-loop components. Twisting wires greatly reduces their susceptibility to both
RFI and AC magnetic fields.
Using signal interface cables with high quality full-braid shields (properly terminated), and balanced
interconnects is another solution to RFI problems.

Power Conditioning
“Power Conditioning” is a very misused term, with no industry standards to allow adequate comparison. People
traditionally specify or purchase items that are advertised better. Numerous products are marketed to “cure” AV
systems from noise, lock-ups, reboots and various power quality issues. Many of these are sold partly on fear, partly
by swindling and mostly on misleading education that lacks both meaningful data and effective demonstrations.
People specify and install power conditioners because they are led to believe that power conditioners will
improve the way the system sounds or looks. However, these attributes are determined primarily by the quality and
topography of the safety ground system and the integrity of the signal path of interconnected equipment,
not by the quality of the AC utility power, except in extreme situations.
Two examples of where power conditioning may make a difference:
• When residential power is fed from a utility source that is shared by a nearby user
of industrial machinery that injects high levels of RF noise, such as ultrasonic welders
• When using electronic equipment with cheaply made and poorly designed power supplies,
instead of higher quality equipment that provides adequate noise rejection
Power conditioners are essentially low pass filters that are designed to attenuate high frequencies. However,
within residential AV systems, audible and visual noise frequencies are typically 60Hz and low order
multiples thereof, and are thus unaffected by power conditioners, whose filtering action is typically effective only
at frequencies over about 50kHz.
More effective than power conditioning, shielded isolation power transformers, by the nature of their
construction, are inherently low-pass filters providing benefits that exceed that which traditional power
conditioners supposedly provide.
The following common problems result in many undesirable situations, including hum, buzz and noise in
Residential AV systems, none of which are solved by power conditioners:
Power conditioners do not solve What actually does solve them

any of these common problems
Effects of ground loops (hums, buzzes and video roll Single-point reference ground (derived by an isolation transformer), balanced
bars) interfaces, heavy braid shields on unbalanced signal interfaces (keep shorter than 3 ft.)
Neutral-ground voltage differences, i.e. common- Isolation transformer, properly or oversized power conductors
mode noise
AC magnetic field induction (hums and video roll bars) Coaxial cables, or twisted conductors within signal and power cables; separation
of signal and power wiring bundles
Cross phase coupling (doubles hums & buzzes) Same phase power
Shield current induced noise Heavy braid shields (instead of cables with drain wire)
Pops, clicks and noise from arcing contacts AV equipment powered from dedicated branch circuits, local arc suppression devices
at the appliance or switching device
Control system lock-ups UPS, surge & spike protection, single-point reference ground (derived by an isolation
transformer), avoiding AC electromagnetic induction into control wires , opto-isolators
for RS-232 links
Hissing at loud volumes during quiet passages Tiered gain structure; higher quality equipment

Stray AC Magnetic Fields in Homes
… As a result of incorrectly wired 3-way switches
3-way switches that are wired with a neutral originating from a different circuit
or 3-way switches that are wired without a neutral following the phase conductors
will produce a significant AC magnetic field with a large loop area. This field can
easily inductively couple noise into signal wires even if they are several feet away
from the loop area. This condition can easily be diagnosed with an inexpensive
low frequency AC magnetic field meter (as illustrated right). All switch connections
must be done in accordance with NEC 2008: 404.2
There are several correct ways to wire 3-way switches and many ways to wire them
improperly. The following examples are only typical guidelines to show the concepts
of wrong and right:
WRONG (Neutral not run with load conductors)

It is a violation of NEC 2008: 300.3 to take a neutral from another circuit or to not have the neutral grouped
with the load conductors
Always include neutral wire with hot wires running between 3-way switches.
“3-wire with ground” cable is required.
Neutral
Existing junction Existing junction

box box
3-way switch 3-way switch
RIGHT (Neutral run with load conductors)

Requires “3-wire with ground” type wire run between switches
Always include neutral wire with hot wires running between 3-way switches.
“3-wire with ground” cable is required.
Neutral
3-way switch 3-way switch

Neutral
Existing junction
box

… As a result of “Plumbing Currents”
Another source of elevated AC magnetic field levels in residential dwellings is “plumbing currents.” In a
perfect world all of the current flowing into a home on a particular side (phase) of the electrical service
line will return by way of the neutral conductor to the utility transformer in the same
service drop. Since these conductors are very closely spaced, with a minimal loop
area, most of the magnetic fields that are generated by this current flow will be
canceled. However, various field conditions frequently result in a number of
alternative neutral current return paths, creating a large loop area and AC magnetic
fields which can inductively couple into signal wiring, creating buzzes and hum.
The most common return path is through the plumbing system, with neutral current
flowing through the soil back to the utility transformer via the community water main,
or other metallic objects in contact with the soil. For this reason, that which is actually
a neutral current diversion problem is often referred to as “plumbing current”. This
is easily diagnosed with the use of an inexpensive low-frequency AC magnetic field
meter - example shown*
In a residence with metallic water supply piping, “plumbing current” can be blocked effectively, and in a
manner that is code compliant, by the installation of a dielectric coupler (a.k.a. insulating coupling) in the
water supply line at the point of entry into the home. If this action is taken without an analysis of the nature
of the problem, and if the integrity of the existing grounding electrode system and electrical facilities is not
verified by qualified professionals, extremely hazardous conditions can be created. The dielectric coupler
cannot be used if the water supply line is the primary grounding electrode.
* TriField meter image courtesy of AlphaLab Electromagnetic Instruments.
… Other
Several other common wiring errors create significantly elevated AC magnetic field levels with widespread
distribution throughout a home. These include cross connected neutrals from separate branch circuits,
bootleg neutral-ground connections, non code-compliant three-way switch wiring, and half-switched duplex
outlets. The variety of troublesome configurations seems limited only by the resourcefulness of the electrician
who installs them. These types of problems are usually resolved by locating the error and rewiring, a task that
is greatly facilitated by good troubleshooting methodology and basic wire tracing equipment.

AC Magnetic Field Strengths from Different Wiring Types
& Plug-In Power Supplies
Cable shields of the braid and/or foil type ONLY
attenuate electric fields, NOT magnetic fields.
It is often thought, however, that the shield of
signal cables provides immunity to low frequency
AC magnetic fields; this is not the case.
The only ways to reduce the effect of AC magnetic

fields are through physical separation (distance),
tightly twisting the conductors, or encasing them
in ferrous tubing such as steel.
As evidenced by the chart below, tightly twisting

the conductors is far more effective at shielding
AC magnetic fields than placing the conductors in heavy steel conduit. This is why steel clad “MC” type
flexible cable is recommended for use in proximity to signal wires; it has twisted conductors that greatly
reduce the AC magnetic field.
Field strength, in milligauss, is a unit of measurement of AC magnetic fields. AC magnetic fields are
produced by AC electrical current flow and are a component of electromagnetic fields (not to be mistaken for
static magnetic fields like the souvenir magnet on the fridge at home). AC magnetic fields are notorious for
inductively coupling into the signal paths of sensitive AV systems, often resulting in hum in high gain systems.
The following measurements show the AC magnetic fields of different wiring types at a specified distance
from the signal wires.
Note: While any twist of conductors reduces both emitted, and the effect of received electromagnetic
fields, the more twists per length, the greater the reduction.
Wire Test Current draw, using a Milligauss

Type Subject Resistive Load @ 120V
1/2” Away 2” Away
24 Volt plug-in power supply, .06A (7.2 watts) 270 132
transformer type
6 Volt plug-in power supply, .01A (1.2 watts) 145 70
transformer type
WORST
Single Conductor only 7.5A (900 watts) not in 180 135
#12 (loose, not in conduit) proximity to return conductor
12-2 Romex 7.5A (900 watts) 12.0 7.2
12-2 1” EMT 7.5A (900 watts) 6.9 4.6 BEST
12-2 1/2” EMT 7.5A (900 watts) 2.7 1.7
12-2 1/2” Rigid 7.5A (900 watts) 1.5 0.9
14-3 Rubber Cord, approx. 2” twist 7.5A (900 watts) 1.2 0.4
12-2 1/2” steel-clad spiral MC 7.5A (900 watts) 0.6 0.1
12-3 SignalSafe™ Cord* 7.5A (900 watts) 0.2 0.0
* SignalSafe is a trademark of Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.

Surge and Spike Protection
The following are the three main considerations when implementing

residential surge and spike protection:
Direct lightning strikes – are not covered in the scope of this paper as there are many techniques to
address this for different geographical areas. For more in-depth analysis, the IEEE guide “How to Protect
Your House and its Contents from Lightning” is an excellent resource.
Nearby lightning strikes – Lightning strikes always want to get to earth. Of critical importance is to
ensure that the path to earth is not through the home’s safety ground wiring system. The most effective way
to keep these hazards outside the home is to install a whole house surge protection device (SPD) at the
main service panel. SPD was formerly known as TVSS, changed per 2008 NEC, and UL 1449 3rd edition.
To perform effectively, this SPD must have “3 mode” protection, which diverts surges between the phase
conductors themselves, and between phase conductors and earth ground (L-N, L-G and N-G). Surge
protection that incorporates all three modes (L-N, L-G and N-G) should only be installed at the service entry,
with Telco and cable TV grounds all bonded per 2008 NEC: 800.100 (see “Intersystem Bonding” page 8).
When equipment is bonded at only one point, commonly known as a single point ground (SPG), surges that
are conducted through the building ground will not pass through the equipment.
Under no circumstances should “3 mode” protection subsequently be used anywhere inside the house,
including at the equipment racks and local convenient receptacles. While many commercially available
surge and spike protection devices do, however, contain line-to-ground (L-G) or neutral-to-ground (N-G)
MOV diverters, this style of protection with a nearby lightning strike will increase the risk
of flashover arcing and fire! Additionally, this style of protection can increase system noise due to the
fact that the MOVs used in these designs capacitively couple higher frequency line noise to the ground circuit.
Surges and spikes arising from inside and outside the home - “Switching” surges or spikes
are typically one of the most common problems in residential power quality and most often occur when a
load (resistive, reactive, or both) is turned on or off. When switching a reactive load, an abrupt voltage or
current surge can occur, the magnitude of which will increase as switching time decreases. When compact
fluorescent lights (capacitive reactance) are switched on an abrupt change in current draw occurs, which
creates a spike. When inductive components are switched off, they release magnetically-stored energy that can
cause arcing across the contacts of the switch and produce voltage spikes on the line conductors. To protect
residential AV equipment from switching surges, ensure AV equipment is powered from dedicated branch
circuits, and install local arc suppression devices at the offending appliance or switching device.
Other voltage spikes and impulses, aside from lightning, mostly arise from electrical devices inside the
house switching on and off, such as motors, furnaces, pumps, air conditioning units and other appliances.
The switching action causes abrupt transient currents throughout the electrical wiring system. Additionally,
because of shared utility service wires with neighbors, voltage spikes and impulses can be introduced from
outside the home. Microprocessors and digital electronics have evolved to utilize faster data rates and smaller
signal voltages, which make the equipment more sensitive to transients - poor equipment design plays a role,
too. Symptoms range from disruption to degradation. Transients as short as 0.1 microseconds can degrade
some electronic circuits permanently. It is recommended to protect these sensitive devices by installing
“1 mode” (Line to Neutral) surge and spike protection.

Types of Surge and Spike Protection
Although there are many different types of surge and spike protection technology, the three most commonly
utilized in residential installations are series type surge suppression, shunt mode surge suppression and shielded
isolation transformers. All these technologies offer varying benefits depending on deployment and system design.
Series Type
The most important benefit of series type suppressors is that they block or reduce the size of the transient
surge current. The most commonly perceived benefit however is that their components do not degrade. This is
true only when series type devices are operating within their current draw design limits. For this reason, series
type suppressors cannot be effectively used at the service entry for lightning protection nor to suppress surges
on large amperage circuits. Additionally, when series type suppressors are connected to devices which draw
large, rapid peaks of current (such as power amplifiers) the series inductance, by its very nature, opposes the
required flow of current, which can rob the peak power delivery.
Shunt Mode
The most common form of shunt mode surge suppression utilizes MOVs (Metal Oxide Varistors) which, under
normal operating voltages, act as an open circuit and allow no current (other than high frequency leakage
current) to flow through them. However, should the voltage level rise above the clamping voltage of the MOVs
(i.e. a surge condition), then the MOVs will start to conduct, shunting the potentially damaging surge away
from connected equipment. MOVs respond extremely quickly to surge and spike conditions, typically shunting
within 1 billionth of a second. If not properly specified, MOVs can be permanently degraded if subjected to
repeated surges above their rated capacity.
Shielded Isolation Transformers
Voltage spikes (sometimes called transients) are rapid Differential-Mode Transient
changes in voltage typically caused by nearby lightning

strikes, power grid switching, motor control circuits, etc.
Transients can be of two types: differential-mode or
common-mode. Differential-mode transients, which can
arise within or outside the premises (such as lightning
strikes to the power line) occur between current-carrying
load conductors. See figure to the right for example of
differential-mode transients.
Common-mode transients arise only within the premises wiring (since neutral and safety ground are bonded
at the main service panel) and are undesirable voltages appearing on the neutral conductor with respect
to the safety ground conductor. For transformers without an electrostatic (Faraday) shield, common-mode
transients may be coupled through the transformer’s parasitic inter-winding (primary to secondary) capacitance.
For the best performance, specify transformers that have one or more electrostatic (Faraday) shields,
which divert common-mode transient currents to ground, effectively preventing them from appearing on
the secondary. Additionally, the inductance of the transformer’s primary winding suppresses rapid voltage
transients. In extreme over-current cases, the transformer core’s ability to magnetically couple voltage is
reduced, further attenuating the spike.
With all methods of surge and spike protection, it is recommended that installers specify SPDs that include
remote status notification to alert a control system or home owner that service may be required.

Surge Suppressors and
Noise on Safety Ground Wires
Example of a Branch Circuit Surge Suppressor Design
that Can Pass Noise to Ground
This design provides both common-mode and differential-mode surge protection, which should only be used
at the service entry.
A disadvantage with using this design
on branch circuits is that the MOV’s
capacitance couples higher frequency
line noise to the safety ground wiring.
Also, the use of this type of surge
suppressor at the location of equipment
can actually increase the risk of equipment
damage as during a large surge or spike,
very high voltage differences may be
created in the safety ground wiring. These
differences can appear across the signal Differential-mode Common-mode
wires interconnecting equipment and MOV that does not
pass noise to ground
MOVs that pass
noise to ground
damage input and output circuitry.
Example of a Branch Circuit Surge Suppressor Design

that Does Not Pass Noise to Ground
Since no MOVs are connected to ground, there is no possibility of high frequency noise coupling to ground
through it.
This design provides differential-mode
surge protection and is adequate in the
vast majority of cases.
For increased surge capacity, many

MOVs can be placed in parallel.
However, while providing additional
benefit, the increase in surge protection
capacity is not directly proportional to
the number of MOVs added because
MOVs are not precisely matched.

North American Product Safety Certification
The Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory (NRTL) program is mandated by the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) and recognizes organizations that provide product safety testing
and certification services to manufacturers (further information on OSHA can be found on its website at
http://www.osha.gov). There are a number of well known NRTL organizations that act as third parties,
evaluating thousands of products, components, materials and systems.
NRTLs that are accredited to test similar types of products should be equally acceptable to inspectors or
Authorities Having Jurisdiction (AHJs). Some of the more common include:
ETL The ETL Listed Mark is the fastest growing product safety certification mark
in North America with more than 50,000 product listings
UL Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. is currently the most recognizable NRTL.
TÜV TÜV SÜD America Inc. is a globally recognized testing, inspection & certification
organization offering the highest quality services for a wide range of industries worldwide.
This symbol represents a product that has passed ETL’s certification

to comply with both U.S. and Canadian product safety standards.
This symbol represents a product that has passed UL’s NRTL tests,
in both the United States and Canada.
This category is for UL Recognized COMPONENTS only. Generally UL listed products

are manufactured using all “Recognized” components; however, this does not mean
that the product is “UL Listed” to meet NRTL requirements.
This symbol represents a product that has passed TÜV’s certification to comply
with both U.S. and Canadian product safety standards.
* NRTL Inspectors also visit the factories where the NRTL listed products are manufactured on a regular basis
to ensure products are manufactured according to NRTL safety standards.
In advertising, labeling or marketing products, all NRTLs specifically forbid the use of the following terms:
“Approved” “Pending” “Made With Recognized Components”
Be skeptical of equipment that is marked in such a way.

Typical 120-Volt Receptacles Used
for Electronic Equipment
All receptacles have specific prong configurations indicating the voltage and amperage of the circuit
for which they are designed. These receptacles and the corresponding circuit must match the plug that
is attached to your equipment. Isolated ground receptacles are identified by a triangle engraved on the
face. Hospital grade receptacles are identified by an engraved green circle on the face. Both symbols
may appear on the same receptacle. The color of the receptacle itself has no bearing whatsoever, i.e. orange
colored receptacles with no engraved designations only mean that they are colored orange.
Hospital grade receptacles must pass additional UL testing, per UL Standard 498, including:
• Abrupt Plug Removal Test • Ground Contact Overstress Test
• Impact Test • Assembly Security Test
Do not modify the plug on your equipment to match a receptacle that is not intended to work with your
equipment. (NEC-406.7)
NEMA 5-20R NEMA 5-20R NEMA 5-20R NEMA 5-15R
Red typically indicates Hospital grade Orange typically indicates 15 amp circuit accepts
emergency power isolated ground NEMA 5-15P plug
Hot leg typical
Identified by an engraved Identified by a triangle Neutral leg typical

green circle on the face engraved on the face
NEMA 5-20R NEMA L5-15R NEMA L5-20R NEMA L5-30R

20 amp circuit accepts NEMA 15 amp circuit accepts 20 amp circuit accepts 30 amp circuit accepts
5-15P, or NEMA 5-20P plug NEMA L5-15P plug NEMA L5-20P plug NEMA L5-30P plug
Hot leg typical
Neutral leg typical
Receptacle Terminal Identification
Brass Hot Leg

White/Silver Neutral
Green Ground

Receptacle Wiring –
Common Errors and the Correct Way
These wiring errors may not be detected by simply plugging in your equipment; it will seem to work ok, but it may
cause electrical noise and may be hazardous. Always test the outlets by using a meter. When neutral and hot
conductors are reversed, this condition can be detected by using a voltmeter. Between neutral and ground the
meter should never display more than a few volts. Between hot and ground the meter should display 120 volts
(nominal). “Three prong” receptacle testers cannot detect ground and neutral reversal.
This reversal can be a significant
cause of system noise and can only
be tested by using an amp meter.
If neutral and ground conductors are reversed,

it can be detected by using a clamp-on amp
meter installed on the ground conductor (with
a load on the circuit). No current should flow
through the ground conductor (other than
equipment leakage current) under normal
circumstances.
“Inspectors are like fuses… They only blow if there’s a problem.

And like fuses, they are there for your protection;
they’re not just an inconvenience.”
- Jim Herrick, 2002
Dealing with Electrical Inspectors

Most electrical inspectors (who are usually very experienced electricians) don’t know much about audio, video
or communications design and installation. What they usually do know very well is electrical safety and power
distribution, as far as wiring and associated wiring methods are concerned. For the most part, they are only
concerned with safety and not performance. For example, while an electrical inspector may recognize an
incorrectly installed isolated (technical) ground system as safe, it may create multiple ground paths, which
could contribute to system noise problems. In most areas of the country an electrical contractor’s license is
required to do any type of electrical work (sometimes even low voltage). An electrical permit, issued by the
municipality, is almost always required. If you are caught doing work without a permit you could pay more
in fines than what you might earn on the job. If you’re not a licensed electrical contractor, it’s a good idea to
develop a working relationship with one.
Inspectors Will Look For:
1. Permits and licenses (State and local law).

2. Wiring installed in a neat and workmanlike manner.
-NEC: 110.12/640.6/720.11/725.24/760.24/800.24/820.24/830.24.
3. Wiring methods that are consistent with the area you’re working in. Places of assembly, such as
churches, schools, and auditoriums require different wiring methods than residential installations.
4. NRTL Listed equipment. –NEC: 110(Labeled)/110.2
5. Honest answers and somebody there to give them, during the inspection
(Don’t leave a person with limited knowledge at the job site to wait for the inspector!)

You’ll Need To:
1. Know where the circuit breakers are that feed the equipment, and be sure the breakers are marked. –NEC: 110.22
2. Know the electrical load of your equipment and be sure wiring is of adequate size. –NEC: 220/210.19
3. Ensure low voltage wiring is not installed in the same raceway or conduit, or in close
proximity to the power wiring - NEC 725.136 (unless exempted by this article)
4. Know your local codes that may supersede the NEC, which is often the case in large cities.
If your equipment is installed properly, and looks like it, you most likely will not have any
problems with the inspector.
“Arguing with an inspector is like wrestling with a pig in the mud…
After a while you realize the pig likes it.”
(Author Unknown)
Common AC Wiring Types

The NEC does not require a supplemental (auxiliary) equipment grounding conductor in metallic conduit.
However, it is highly recommended to add an insulated grounding conductor. Without a supplemental
(auxiliary) grounding conductor the integrity of the ground is dependent on all of the conduit fittings in
series. If one fitting is loose or corroded, the safety ground system is compromised. Additionally, noise may
be induced into the signal path.
Metal-clad cable, commonly known as “MC”
MC cable is manufactured in both steel and aluminum.

“Steel-Clad MC” cable with insulated ground
wire is the best choice for AV systems. It has
a steel jacket that helps reduce AC magnetic fields, While the NEC allows the use of a bare
however the twisted conductors are what helps most. ground wire, the best wire for AV installations
is MC with an insulated ground wire. The outer sheath
is not to be used as the primary ground; it is supplemental
to the ground wire.
Non-metallic sheathed cable, commonly known as “Romex”
Non-Metallic Sheathed Cable (NM) is commonly

referred to as “Romex.” Primarily used in residential
construction, it may be installed concealed, or under
certain conditions, exposed.
When used in conjunction with plastic outlet boxes it provides isolation of the grounding conductor, thus
providing an isolated ground circuit. Isolated ground type receptacles are not required and would show no
benefit for this type of installation.

Other Common Cable Types...
Electrical metallic tubing, commonly

known as “EMT” or Thin-Wall
For AV installations it is recommended to use
an insulated ground wire when metallic conduit
is required or specified.
Flexible metal conduit, commonly
known as “Greenfield”
For AV installations it is recommended to use

an insulated ground wire when metallic conduit is required
or specified. 6 foot or larger does require a grounding
conductor.
Armored cable, commonly
known as “BX”
This cable is not recommended because

of its high impedance ground.
Do not use existing “BX” cable in older
homes for any A/V feeds.
This wire is not a ground wire, it’s a bond for the outer
sheath. Do not terminate. To be folded back under connector
or cut-off. The sheath is considered a grounding conductor.
Calculating System Load

If an electrical load is operated for three hours or more under usual and customary conditions, it is termed by
the NEC as “continuous” (Article 100, definitions). The wiring and the over current protection (circuit breaker)
must be sized at 125% of the load (NEC 210.19). If the load is operated for less than three hours, the wiring
may be sized at 100% of the load. General Rule: The load (1) determines the power strip rating (2) and wire
size (3); the wire size determines the circuit breaker size (4), as shown in the figure below.
2
There are many other factors that 20 amp power
strip required
may increase the wire size required. 4
The most common factors include: 20 amp

Circuit breaker
required
A. Length of run (voltage drop) 1

B. Ambient temperature Total continuous load 15 amps.
15 amps x 125%=18.75 amp
wiring required
C. De-Rating: the number of EQ
conductors allowed in conduit DSP
based upon amperage and Main Panel X-Over
heat build up The smallest standard

3 wire size required that
will handle 18.75 amps is PowerA mp
#12 (20 amp)
PowerA mp
PowerA mp
On continuous loads, the allowable ampacity draw is 80% of the circuit rating. For example,
20 Amp x 80% = 16 Amps, which is within the 15 Amp continuous load shown in step 1 above.

Calculating Amplifier Circuit Requirements
Since the current demand of audio amplifiers is dependent on many factors, do not rely solely on the nameplate
or spec sheet rating for load calculations. Following are typical examples of how applying different loads and
varying program material can substantially change the overall current draw of an amplifier.
Program Speaker Amplifier “A” AC Circuit Amplifier “B” AC Circuit
Type Ohms Current Draw Current Draw
Individual Speech 8 Ohms (Stereo) 4.1 Amps 3.4 Amps
Individual Speech 2 Ohms (Stereo) 5.8 Amps 6.2 Amps
Compressed Rock Music 8 Ohms (Stereo) 13.4 Amps 12.8 Amps
Compressed Rock Music 2 Ohms (Stereo) 20.1 Amps 19.6 Amps
The factors depicted in the above examples will influence the required ampacity of the circuit(s) required to
power the amplifiers. Although the NEC allows 100% circuit sizing for non-continuous loads, when sizing an
amplifier AC circuit, the calculated load should be multiplied by 125% in order to determine the conductor
size and over-current protection (circuit breaker) required. This additional capacity will allow for adequate
headroom, and minimizes resistive voltage drop when the amplifier is required to reproduce peaks in program
material. Calculation Example: If the calculated load is 17 amps, the minimum size conductor would normally
be #12 copper (20 amps), however, when the 125% factor is applied (17 amps X 125% = 21.25 amps), the
next standard wire size is #10 (30 amps). The gross over sizing of branch circuits may be somewhat restricted
by the National Electrical Code in some cases. Consult the amplifier manufacturer for maximum circuit size
specifications. Modifying or changing input connectors (plugs) could void the NRTL listing and the product
warranty if it is done in such a manner that is inconsistent with the installation instructions.
Single Circuit Sequencer Systems

Two common problems can occur when a sound system’s power switches on and off on a regular basis:
• loud “pops” result from source or processing equipment that is turned on after power amplifiers, putting speakers at risk
• the circuit overloads from the in-rush current to power amplifiers
‘ON’
Sequencer Sequence
These problems can be solved with a sequencing
system. Single circuit sequencers are to be used when Preamp
the total electrical load of all the controlled equipment

does not exceed 80% of the capacity of the sequencer. EQ
Power amplifiers must switch on last and switch off first,

DSP
as indicated in the figure to the right.
X-Over
‘OFF’
Sequence

Multiple Circuit Sequencer Systems
Multiple circuit sequencer configurations
are used when the total electrical load
of all the controlled equipment exceeds
the current handling capacity of a single
circuit, or if remote sequenced locations
are required.
Power amp section must switch on last

and switch off first, as shown in the figure
on the right.
Symmetrical (Balanced) Power Systems

Per the 2008 NEC, Article 647.3(1) states: “THE SYSTEM IS TO BE INSTALLED ONLY IN COMMERCIAL OR
INDUSTRIAL OCCUPANCIES”. Any balanced power system installed in a home (residence) is
in violation of the 2008 National Electrical Code (NEC). In a 60/120-volt symmetrical balanced
power system the load current return path is not a grounded conductor, as it is for the standard 120-volt
system. Neutral and safety ground are no longer tied together as in a standard electrical system.
Symmetrical (balanced) power transformers do nothing to eliminate differential-mode noise found on the power
line. Another disadvantage of balanced power systems is the requirement for ground fault circuit interrupter
receptacles (GFCI).
These receptacles can trip due to normal

ground leakage currents, and currents
that flow through signal interconnect
cables in a system. When the GFCI
receptacles are disabled or bypassed, the
system becomes an electrocution hazard!
BAD
IDEA!

Wiring Methods for Separately Derived Systems
(Isolation Transformers)
Common-mode noise is generated in homes by many devices, including motors, lighting dimmers, etc. This noise
is present on the AC wiring system. To greatly reduce common-mode noise, an isolation transformer should be
used. This provides a new neutral/ground bond point, and at that point there will be no common-mode noise.
As the length of the wire from the isolation transformer to the equipment increases, the chance for induced
common-mode noise also increases. When a voltage is provided by a transformer or derived from a generator
or Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS), it is termed “separately derived” (NEC Article 250.30).
NEC Approved for Safety, Not Performance
NEC Approved & Better for AV Systems
NEC Approved & BEST for AV Systems

Typical Three Phase Services
In smaller residences, split single phase service is common. In larger residences, three phase WYE service
may be used (see “WYE” figure below). In some commercial buildings, a High Leg Delta service may be found
(see “DELTA” figure below). The below figures compare the single and three phase voltages for 120/208 WYE
(below, top) and 120/240 volt High Leg Delta (below, bottom).
120/240 Volt “WYE”
120/240 Volt High Leg “DELTA”
In a High Leg Delta load center, every 3rd circuit breaker space should be blank. If a circuit breaker is put in
that space, the voltage will be 208 volts, which can easily damage most equipment intended for 120 volts.
Always check the line voltage on the circuit supplying your equipment before plugging it in.
Although it is not recommended to have a grounded conductor (neutral) in the same circuit breaker panel
that also contains a “DELTA” system “High Leg”, there are several systems in the field wired this way. If an
electrician mis-wires a circuit using a neutral and high leg, 208 volts will appear at what should be a 120 volt
outlet (see “DELTA” figure above). No single phase load can be connected between the B Leg and the Neutral.
Additionally, if this transformer is shared by other facilities, the neutral/ground currents will also be shared.

Notes
This page is for your convenience to make notes and drawings.

Notes
This page is for your convenience to make notes and drawings.

Authors
This document was written by and in collaboration with:
Henry W. Ott – MSEE Principle Consultant, Henry Ott Consultants
Bill Whitlock – President & Chief Engineer, Jensen Transformers
Bob Schluter – President & Chief Engineer, Middle Atlantic Products
Murray Williams – Product Manager, Electrical and Electronic, Middle Atlantic Products
Jim Herrick – Senior Design Engineer, Power Products, Middle Atlantic Products
(N.J. Elect. Cont Lic 6748 / Elect Insp Lic 7702)
Edited by: Rebeca Trautner – Middle Atlantic Products
References
Information copied from the National Electrical Code (NEC) was reprinted with permission from NFPA
70-1999, The National Electrical Code, © 2008. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA 02269.
BICSI Telecommunications Distribution Methods Manual, 10th Edition
IEC 61000-5-2 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Part 5: Installation and Mitigation Guidelines –
Section 2: Earthing and Cabling
Atkinson, Charles & Philip Giddings. “Grounding Systems and their Implementation.”
Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, Vol. 43, No. 6, June 1995.
Brown, Jim. “Testing for Radio-Frequency Common Impedance Coupling (the “Pin 1 Problem”) in
Microphones and Other Audio Equipment.” New York, NY: AES 115th Convention, October 10-13, 2003.
Brown, Jim. “Shield Current Induced Noise Causes & Solutions.” Synergetic Audio Concepts, Inc. Vol. 31
No. 3 Summer 2003.
Brown, Jim. “Shield Current Induced Noise Causes & Solutions Part 2.” Synergetic Audio Concepts, Inc.
Vol. 32 No. 1 Winter 2004.

References continued...
Brown, Jim. “Pin 1 Revisited.” Synergetic Audio Concepts, Inc.
Brown, Jim. “Pin 1 Revisited Part 2.” Synergetic Audio Concepts, Inc.
Brown, Jim & Bill Whitlock. “Common-Mode to Differential-Mode Conversion in Shielded Twisted-Pair
Cables (Shield-Current-Induced Noise).” Amsterdam, The Netherlands: AES 114th Convention, March 2003.
Burdick, Allen H. “A Clean Audio Installation Guide.” Syracuse, NY: Benchmark Media Systems, 1997.
Giddings, Philip. Audio Systems Design and Installation. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1990.
Giddings, Philip. “Power and Ground Update.” Toronto, Canada: February 15, 1996.
Holt, Mike. Grounding & Bonding NEC 250. Tamarac, FL: Mike Holt Enterprises Inc. August 2002.
Holt, Mike. Grounding Versus Bonding. Mike Holt Enterprises Inc. 2005.
Lewis, Warren H. Handbook of Electromagnetic Compatibility. Chapter 8, Grounding and Bonding.

Edited by Reinaldo Perez: Academic Press, Inc. 1995
Macatee, Stephen R. “Considerations in Grounding and Shielding Computer-Controlled Audio Devices.”

Mukilteo, WA: Rane Corporation, AES 13th International Conference, pp 135-139.
Morrison, Ralph. Grounding and Shielding Techniques Fourth Edition. New York, NY:
John Wiley & Sons, 1998.
Morrison, Ralph. Noise and Other Interfering Signals. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1991
Morrison, Ralph & Warren H. Lewis. Grounding and Shielding in Facilities. York, NY:
John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
Muncy, Neil. “Noise Susceptibility in Analog and Digital Signal Processing Systems.”
Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, Vol. 43, No. 6, June 1995, pp. 435-453.
Muncy, Neil. “Star Grounds, Loop Areas, and Electrical Safety in Project Studios, Edit Suites,
& Other Compact Audio Installations.” Toronto, Canada: December 15, 2001.
Ott, Henry W. Noise Reduction Techniques in Electronic Systems Second Edition.

New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1988.
Rane Technical Staff. “Sound System Interconnection.” RaneNote 110, Rane Corporation,
1985, 1995, 2006.
Simmons, J. Philip. Soares Book on Grounding (7th Edition). Richardson, Texas: International
Association of Electrical Inspectors.
Whitlock, Bill. “Understanding, Finding, & Eliminating Ground Loops in Audio & Video Systems.”
Chatsworth, CA: Jensen Transformers, Inc. 2005.
Whitlock, Bill. “Hum & Buzz in Unbalanced Interconnect Systems.” Van Nuys, CA: Jensen Transformers, Inc.
Whitlock, Bill. “System Problems and Equipment Manufacturers.” Systems Contractor News,
September 1997.

Copyright
Copyright ©2002-2009 Middle Atlantic Products, Inc (“Middle Atlantic Products”). All rights reserved. All
original information, logos, charts, graphics, images, and/or nomographs herein are the sole property of
Middle Atlantic Products.
Warning: Unauthorized reproduction, copying, display or revision of this reference guide, or the information,
charts, images and content of the reference guide, is prohibited by federal law and is subject to federal
prosecution.
Middle Atlantic Products gives the viewer of this Reference Guide a limited nonexclusive license to view or print
this publication. All uses of this Reference Guide must be for non-commercial purposes. The Reference Guide
may not be copied or distributed without first obtaining the written permission of Middle Atlantic Products.
This Reference Guide is provided to the user for informational purposes only. Middle Atlantic Products
makes NO WARRANTIES of any kind with regard to this document, including but not limited to liability for
system failure due to design. The Reference Guide is provided “AS IS” WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR NON-INFRINGEMENT. Some jurisdictions
do not allow the exclusion of implied warranties, so the above exclusion may not apply to you.
Middle Atlantic Products shall not be held liable for any damage, direct or indirect, actual or consequential, that
may occur as a result of relying upon, using, following, or circumstances arising out of or in connection with this
publication, or information provided, or referenced herein.
Middle Atlantic Products, nor its officers, directors, employees, contributors nor agents shall be held responsible
for any errors or omissions in this Reference Guide. Information in this publication is subject to update or change
without notice at any time.
References to other companies, their products or services, are provided without ANY WARRANTY OF ANY
KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED.
Nothing contained in this Reference Guide should be construed as granting any right or license to use,
reproduce, transmit, perform, publish, license, modify, rewrite, create derivative works from, transfer, store, or
sell the content.
This publication may be accessed by users internationally and may contain references to products or services
that are not available in your country. These references do not imply that Middle Atlantic Products intends to, or
will make, such products and/or services available in your country.
This document is a guide only. Suggested wiring methods, described herein are not intended to supercede
any National or Local codes or regulations. Work must be performed by qualified personnel only, which may
include required licensing and inspection of work.

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A practical guide for AV designers, installers, and electricians

Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth | 1

Important Things to Remember When Installing

2 | Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth

Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth | 3

4 | Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth

Myth #1 An “Isolated Ground” system is not connected to ground.

Myth #3 The earth’s soil is an effective safety grounding point.

Myth #4 More grounds = quieter systems.

Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth | 5

Grounding Gone Bad

Do not install multiple ground rods or additional

6 | Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth

Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth | 7

Power Quality Problems

8 | Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth

Other Power Quality Problems

Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth | 9

Phasing Of Supply Conductors

10 | Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth

Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth | 11

Electrostatic (Faraday) Shielding in Power Transformers

Electrostatic N-G Bond Point

Radio Noise (RFI)

12 | Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth

Two examples of where power conditioning may make a difference:

Power conditioners do not solve What actually does solve them

Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth | 13

… As a result of incorrectly wired 3-way switches

WRONG (Neutral not run with load conductors)

Existing junction Existing junction

RIGHT (Neutral run with load conductors)

3-way switch 3-way switch

14 | Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth

* TriField meter image courtesy of AlphaLab Electromagnetic Instruments.

Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth | 15

The only ways to reduce the effect of AC magnetic

As evidenced by the chart below, tightly twisting

Wire Test Current draw, using a Milligauss

* SignalSafe is a trademark of Middle Atlantic Products, Inc.

16 | Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth

The following are the three main considerations when implementing

Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth | 17

Shielded Isolation Transformers

Voltage spikes (sometimes called transients) are rapid Differential-Mode Transient

changes in voltage typically caused by nearby lightning

18 | Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth

Example of a Branch Circuit Surge Suppressor Design

For increased surge capacity, many

Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth | 19

This symbol represents a product that has passed ETL’s certification

This category is for UL Recognized COMPONENTS only. Generally UL listed products

20 | Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth

Hot leg typical

Identified by an engraved Identified by a triangle Neutral leg typical

NEMA 5-20R NEMA L5-15R NEMA L5-20R NEMA L5-30R

Hot leg typical

Neutral leg typical

Receptacle Terminal Identification

Brass Hot Leg

Residential Power Distribution & Grounding - The Truth | 21

If neutral and ground conductors are reversed,

“Inspectors are like fuses… They only blow if there’s a problem.

Dealing with Electrical Inspectors