Professional Documents
Culture Documents
By
DOMINADOR N. MARCAIDA, JR.
30 January 2007
2
Introduction
Many people today find the topic on religion quite interesting. Others, due to their
discussed, would rather avoid the topic of religion. In the study of sociology, however, it
The purpose of this paper is not to be critical of any religion. The intention is
human history. In particular, it will: Show the relationships between religion and society;
Present the psychological and sociological theories on the universality of the religious
phenomenon and behavior; Contain a definition of religion and its elements and society
in its different evolutionary stages; and Present a theoretical representation that shows the
predominant forms of religious beliefs that cropped up in the evolution of the human
society. This theoretical model will be presented in a tragic and comic framework of
drama.
1
Richard J. Gelles and Ann Levine, Sociology: An Introduction (6th ed.) (McGraw Hill College, 1999) p.
486.
3
(1854-1941), were interested in the historical origins of religion and speculated on its
earlier stages of human societal evolution. The evolutionist theoretical model of Taylor
and Frazer was criticized as “armchair sociological theory” by some 19th century
that are passing through definite stages of development.” 3 This evolutionist point of view
each element in society has the function to keep that particular society stable in any given
aspirations and abilities. Anthropologist Clifford Geertz (1965) saw religion as “relieving
the intense anxiety people feel when they are at the limits of their analytical capacities
“By trusting that they could be implored for help through rituals
and prayers, the person’s anxieties over the uncertainties of life is
fairly quieted down to a point that gives him self-assurance and
confidence and a mind set for coping up with reality. This is the
adaptive function of religious rituals” (Castroverde, 2000).5
2
Jacob M. Castroverde, Ph. D., “Theories of Society and Culture,” (Photocopy).
3
Ibid.
4
Robert J. Gelles and Ann Levine, op. cit., p. 484.
5
Jacob M. Castroverde, “What Is It That Changed In Society?” (Photocopy).
4
Functionalism is concerned with the close correlation between social structure and
social functions. It explains that the unit of functions of society tend to serve the
structure, and to perpetuate it. According to the functionalist theoretical model, religion
religion. Sigmund Freud and William James saw religion as springing from a deep
psychological need.7
from each other. Whereas the sociological perspective is concerned with the external
expression of religion, how religious behavior affects social relationships among people
in society, psychological perspective concerns with the internal root causes of religion, its
experiences.
6
Richard T. Schaefer and Robert P. Lamm, Sociology (5th. Ed). (NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc.:1983), p. 396.
7
Richard J. Gelles and Ann Levine, op. cit., p. 487.
5
say that religion is the reflection of society and its social conditions.
the two perspectives therefore could not be separated from each other. Both perspectives,
together with the anthropological, have offered theories to account for the universality of
religion. Both the psychological and social needs of man give rise to religious beliefs and
practices.9
Two other sources explaining the complementariness of religion and society are
the psychological source and the Marxian source. The psychological source states that
religion is...
8
Epitacio S. Palispis, Introduction to Sociology and Anthropology (Manila: Rex Bookstore, 1997),
p. 263.
9
Carol R. Ember and Melvin Ember, Anthropology, (Singapore: Prentice Hall Pte. Ltd.: 1999), p. 422.
10
Daniel Bell Leary, That Mind of Yours, (Philadelphia, USA: J.B. Lippincott Co., 1927),
pp. 205-206.
6
two worlds which man tries to reconcile in his personal life: one, the ideal, and the other,
the real world. The ideal life is everything that man’s heart desires, which is limitless.
The real life is everything that he does not like, which he more or less avoids, because it
is painful, cruel, corrupt and bitter. Man tries to reconcile this by discovering a
benevolent force outside, which is much stronger and greater than him, which he
believes, would help him cope or tame the strange and hostile forces of life. Such beliefs
give him the power to attain whatever is desirable or beneficial to him. Man, therefore,
invents religion as a vehicle to approach the natural forces. Relying on some supernatural
forces, he believes that the natural forces could be manipulated, tamed and controlled for
his benefit and advantage in order to make his life more bearable. Thus, religion is
involved in intricate rites and practices, that are mysterious (the weirder, the better) and
magical, believed to have the power to repel the evil forces away from, and attract the
The development of all these religious rites and practices, with their magical or
“miraculous” powers that man knew since the beginning of human evolution, is what
To support this opinion, let us take a further elaboration from the same author of
“The history of religion shows clearly, for each age and each people,
that it is an effort to square an imagined good life with an actual not-
so-good existence. Each new theology is both a philosophy of life and
a sketch of the universe, a bridging of the gap between the organism
and its home. In so far as such philosophies work in terms of fact, use
objective methods, base results on human values of biological
satisfaction and happiness, the become psychologies and ethics, and
the other-worldliness fades and becomes a mere gesture. We now live
7
This home that man tries to bridge is the sense of the “sacred.” Phyllis A. Tickle
says: “The sacred is essence perceived as a place wherein all that can be grasped is
equally present, where the good and the evil have changed to the warm and the cold, and
neither is better; a place where light and its absence are the emotions.”12
Based on these observations, it is discovered that the concept of man about his
human society passed from one mode of production to another, an observation that did
not escape the scrutiny of Carl Marx. The Marxian explanation on the source of religious
beliefs states that the religious phenomenon and behavior had resulted from the
to a great extent, by social existence. Hence, the transformation of the economic base
alters the superstructure of society. Marx wrote, “Whatever is the mode of production of
society, such in the main is society itself, ideas and theories its political views and
institutions.” 14
11
Ibid, p. 208.
12
Phyllis A. Tickle, Rediscovering the Sacred. (New York: Crossroad Publication Co., 1995), p. 14.
13
Dialectical process is a process where “a concept gives rise to its opposite, and as a result of this
conflict, a third view, the synthesis, arises, or else a form of consciousness, through reflection of itself,
discovers a contradiction within itself and is thereby forced to transform itself into a new form of
consciousness.” (Article on “Dialectic,” from Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003).
14
Carl Marx, Critique of Political Economy, 1859.
8
history, or historical materialism, he proposed that in every historical epoch the prevailing
economic system by which the necessities of life are produced determines the form of
societal organization and the political and intellectual history of the epoch. 15
economic base, it can impact in, or influence, the economic base of society. In other
words, the relationship between the economic base and the superstructure is dialectical”16
belief that complements and builds it, according to Carl Marx (1818-1883). An author
wrote:
society (see Figure 2) illustrates the inverse, or dialectical, relationship that existed
between religion and the economic base, or modes of production, in the history of human
society.
Carol R. Ember et al aptly summarizes the psychological and the Marxian sources
in just one statement: “The realm of the gods parallels and may reflect the everyday
15
Article on “Carl Marx,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
16
Amable G. Tuibeo, A Critical Discourse in Sociology, (Makati: Grandwater Publications, 1996), p. 22.
17
Schaeffer and Lamm, op. cit, p. 398.
18
Carol R. Ember et al, op. cit., p. 426.
9
What is religion? Religion, etymologically speaking, comes from the Latin word
In the strict sense, religion is “any set of institutionalized beliefs and practices that
and practices relative to sacred things which unite their adherents into a kind of moral
community.” 20
According to Richard J. Gelles et al, (1999), religion has four elements. These are:
Religious Beliefs – affirms the existence of a divine or supernatural order, define its
character and purpose, and explain the role humans play in that order; Rituals – formal,
stylized enactment of religious beliefs; Subjective experience – grow out of beliefs and
rituals, as a feeling that someone is guiding and may feel transported from everyday
This paper will not go into much detailed discussion of the other elements, the
functions and techniques that go with the practice of religion. It will confine itself with
religious beliefs to focus the discussion on the different predominant forms of religious
beliefs that developed as society evolved. The other elements are mentioned just to make
the reader aware of the dynamics that went through with the practice of religion.
19
Robert Gelles et al, op. cit., p. 484.
20
Lucila L. Salcedo et al, General Sociology (Quezon City: JMC Press Inc., 2001), p. 162.
10
religious beliefs attempt to explain the nature and origin of sacred things.” 22
“Religion, for most of us, is an attitude for interpreting history, both the
massive, collective history of our species in general and the private histories
of our own small existences. Religion is also a governor we set upon our
choices, upon both our large society’s choices and upon our own small
individual choices. Religion gives point and purpose to the confusion of our
foreshortened view of life, although sometimes, ironically, it does so to the
diminution and denigration of the sacred. But religion, whether we are
comfortable admitting it or not, is as much man-made construct as a god-
made one. It is, in the popular terminology of our day, at its core a co-
creation between the mystery of immutable absolutes and our attempts to
engage, apply, manipulate, appease, and enjoin those absolutes. The sacred,
however, admits to nothing. It is.”23
Since society is concerned with people, therefore society also underwent a historical
According Richard J. Gelles and Ann Levine, the sociologists Gerhard and Jean
simpler to more complex forms.”25 They mentioned four basic types of societies that
emerged over the course of human history: hunter-gatherer bands, horticultural villages,
agrarian states, and, more recently, industrial nations. It is believed that 99 percent of
21
Schaefer and Lamm, op. cit., p. 401.
22
Epitacio S. Palispis, op. cit., p. 264.
23
Tickle, op. cit., p. 13.
24
J. M. Castroverde, “The Social System Approach,” (photocopy).
25
Richard J. Gelles and Ann Levine, op. cit., p. 186.
11
human history had been spent in the hunter-gatherer stage. To illustrate, below is a
Industrial Nations
Agrarian States
Horticultural Villages
3-4 Million years B.P.
The Dawn of Humanity
Hunter-Gatherer Bands
In this section, it will be noted that a modification was made on the above
Levine. Such modification reflects that the hunter gatherer stage was split into the cave
and nomadic society, horticultural villages was named as the primitive communal or
tribal society, the agrarian states stage was split into the slave and feudal society, and the
26
Ibid, p. 187.
12
industrial nations stage was split into the capitalist and socialist society. The present stage
of society is now called as the cyber society. Adam Presbitero (1990) illustrates the
SOCIETY IDEAL
CAVE SOCIETY “NEW AGE”
ATHEISM
MONOPOLYTHEISM
NOMADIC MONOTHEISM
POLYTHEISM
PRIMITIVE COMMUNAL
H UMAN FETISHISM HISTORY
SLAVE
SHAMANISM
FEUDAL
CAPITALIST
SOCIALIST
ANIMISM CYBER
RELIGION REAL
This drawing tries to illustrate the link, or relationship, that exists between society
and religion, and their complementariness. It uses the tragic and comic symbols of drama.
Three crisscrossing arrows, from the left going to the right side, indicate society
(topmost), human history (center) and religion (bottom). There are also two lines, one on
top and the other at the bottom of the drawing, which are realms, and accordingly marked
as the “Ideal” and the “Real”. The two arrows that represent society and religion are
27
Adam Presbitero, “New Mind, New Heart, New Strength,” Manual of Evangelization, Book 2
Teacher’s Explanation. (Iriga City: manuscript, 1990), p. 110.
13
punctuated with buttons indicating the different forms of society (starting with the Cave
Society and so on and so forth, from the top line on the left side and ending with the
Cyberspace society towards the bottom line on the right side) and religion (starting with
Animism, and so on and so forth, from the bottom line on the left side and ending with
New Age Religion at the top line on the right side) that have arisen as human history
evolved. The broken lines on the left and on the right are the starting and the terminal
The cave society, the first button on the top line in the ideal realm, is the most
ideal society. It is called “cave” to indicate both habitat and mode of life that existed in
that particular society. It is complemented by the Animist religion, also the first button at
the bottom line in the real realm, to indicate that the animist religion is the most real
religion that human history had ever known. The explanation to this assertion may be
found in the statement of George Ritzer who said: “Primitive religion’s ideological
systems are less well developed…As a result, religion can be studied in primitive
28
societies in its most pristine form.” We are now ready to investigate the different
economic base, or modes of production, and their corresponding religion, as man passed
from one form of society to the next in the course of human history.
society, the first society and religion that the first man in pre-historic existence knew was
that of the cave society and animism. In the model, the cave society is shown in the apex
of the Ideal Realm, while Animism is shown in the lowest ebb of the Real Realm. This
28
George Ritzer, Classical Sociological Theory (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1973), p. 197.
14
way of presentation on the complementary relationship that existed between the first
society and religion shows that the Cave Society was the most ideal society and that
Animism is the most real religion that man had ever known in history.
Why were the cave society and animism the first society and religion that the first
man knew? And why is it that the cave society is considered as the most ideal society and
Animism the most real religion that man had ever experienced and known in history?
The earliest beginnings of man could be traced back to the cave man, so called
because of his habitat and mode of life which he inherited, more or less, from the apes,
his most immediate predecessor in the mammalian order Primates. This is the dawning of
Some authorities also called the cave man as the “ape man” (pithecanthropus),
The earliest man may be described as sharing the same physical features as his
ape ancestors, except that he had a more developed brain than them, and a continuing
development of the brain’s cerebral cortex. With full development of the leg muscles, his
hands were freed from its use in walking and he became a “pithecanthropus erectus,” an
erect ape-man. This was during the Old Stone Age, at around 250,000 – 500,000 years
ago.
With the emergence of the erect ape man, such inventions as stone tools and
implements began to appear. Artifacts, such as pottery, knives and dishes, flaked flint
tools, were identified as having been used by pre-historic man, the Homo sapiens
15
(thinking or wise man, because of a fully developed cerebral cortex), in the New Stone
For the consideration of this paper, we shall begin with Homo sapiens. The
hominid family embraces both the Australopithecus 29 and Homo (habilis, erectus,
30
heidelbergensis, neanderthalensis, and sapiens) species. Modern sociologists and
anthropologists begin the study of human society with prehistoric man, Homo sapiens.
The first man showed characteristics of the first primates because social behavior is also
Man’s immediate ancestors were the fist primates. According to Kenneth Cooper,
the order of mammals called primates is of particular interest to man because he himself
Although the ancestors of man, the first primates, or anthropoids, were tree
dwelling animals that lived about 70,000,000 years ago, and continued to dwell in trees,
29
Australopithecus, extinct genus of hominid represented by at least six species that lived in eastern and
southern Africa between 4.5 million and about 1 million years ago. In some ways they were similar to
living apes in having small brains and ape-like body proportions. However, they were distinguished from
them by their upright posture and bipedal (two-footed) gait. In addition, the teeth of australopithecines
included smaller canines as well as thickened enamel on the molars. These features are also found in
humans. The australopithecines can be divided into two groups: the heavier-built forms (A. aethiopicus,
A. robustus, and A. boisei existing about 2.5 to 1 million years ago), which had a diet of rough vegetable
matter; and the lighter-built forms (A. afarensis, A. garhi, and A. africanus existing about 3.7 to 2 million
years ago), which had a more general diet. A new species, A. anamensis, was discovered in 1994 and is
thought to have lived about 4 million years ago. They were partly adapted to bipedal walking and may be
ancestral to both groups of australopithecines. Most anthropologists conclude that one of the lighter-built
species of australopithecine is likely to have been ancestral to species of our own genus, Homo.
(Contributed by the Department of Paleontology, Natural History Museum. Microsoft Encarta
Encyclopedia 2003).
30
Homo sapiens or Human Being, common name given to any individual of the species Homo sapiens
and, by extension, to the entire species. The term is also applied to certain species that were the
evolutionary forerunners of Homo sapiens Scientists consider all living people members of a single
species. Homo sapiens is identified, for purposes of classification, as an animal (kingdom Animalia) with
a backbone (phylum Chordata) and segmented spinal cord (subphylum Vertebrata) that suckles its young
(class Mammalia); that gestates its young with the aid of a placenta (subclass Eutheria); that is equipped
with five-digited extremities, a collarbone, and a single pair of mammary glands on the chest (order
Primates); and that has eyes at the front of the head, stereoscopic vision, and a proportionately large brain
(suborder Anthropoidea). The species belongs to the family Hominidae.
16
hence these constituted the so-called arboreal primates. It was only the baboons and man
The first hominids (pre-human apes) appeared about 4 million years ago; fossils
discovered in Africa indicate that they walked erect and had bipedal stride even before
32
the great increase in their brain size. Regarding the earliest form of the human species,
the Homo sapiens, to practice religion, the Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia has this to
say:
31
Kenneth Cooper, “Apes, Monkeys and Their Kin,” from the book Science through the Ages, p.251.
32
Article on “Hominid,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2003.
33
From the article “Homo sapiens,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2003.
17
Reuters News (PDI, 6 March 2005) reports “Early 'hobbit' human was smart.”
34
Carol R. Ember and Melvin Ember, Anthropology, (Prentice Hall (Singapore) Pte. Ltd.:1999), p. 421.
35
Richard J. Gelles et al., op. cit., p. 484.
36
Article on “Neanderthal,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
18
Associated Press (PDI, 10 March 2005) reports “Scientists find man's earliest
on two feet) and what makes this significant is because what makes
us human is walking upright,” Latimer said. “This new discovery
will give us a picture of how walking upright occurred”...
Paleotologists previously discovered in Ethiopia the remains of
Archipethicus ramidus, a transitional creature with significant ape
characteristics dating back as many as 4.5 million years. There is
some dispute over whether it walked upright on two legs, Latimer
and Aiello said. Scientists know little about A. ramidus. A few
skeletal fragments suggests it was even smaller than
Australopithecus Afarensis, the 3.2 million year old species widely
known by the nearly complete “Lucy” fossil, measures about 1.2
meters tall. Scientists are yet to classify the new find, which they
believe falls between A. ramidus and A. afarensis.”
The cave man practiced the earliest form of religion, the worship of dead
ancestors. It consisted with the rituals that accompanied the burial of the dead, from the
washing of the body, embalming with herb juices, stuffing into two wooden planks,
drying them on top of tree branches or hollows of tree trunks, and burying them inside
The animist religion began with, and was the predominant form of religious belief
during, the cave society. Nature worship was the religion of the earliest man, his rise from
irreligion to religion. Nature worship, which constitutes Natural religiosity, is the lowest
or minimal form of religiosity. As man saw the awesome forces of nature, he worshipped
their beneficial and life giving powers and recognized his dependence on them. With this
also came the awareness of the destructive forces, the apparent death of nature in the
seasonal cycles with the death of plants, the sun and moon. With darkness comes the fear
Animism (from Latin, anima, “breath” or “soul”) is the belief in spiritual beings.
As a religious belief, animism holds that all objects in the world have an inner
psychological being, or soul. The 18th-century German doctor and chemist Georg Ernst
Stahl coined the word animism to describe his theory that the soul is the vital principle
responsible for organic development. Since the late 19th century, however, the term has
been mainly associated with anthropology and the British anthropologist Sir Edward
Burnett Tylor, who described the origin of religion and primitive beliefs in terms of
spiritual beings and considered it “a minimum definition of religion”. He asserted that all
religions, from the simplest to the most complex, involve some form of animism.
According to Tylor, primitive peoples, defined as those without written traditions, believe
that spirits or souls are the cause of life in human beings; they picture souls as phantoms,
resembling vapors or shadows, which can transmigrate from person to person, from the
dead to the living, and from and into plants, animals, and lifeless objects. In deriving his
theory, Tylor assumed that an animistic philosophy developed in an attempt to explain the
causes of sleep, dreams, trances, and death; the difference between a living body and a
dead one; and the nature of the images that one sees in dreams and trances.
who claimed that primitives could not have been so intellectual and that religion must
have had a more emotional, intuitional origin. He rejected Tylor's theory that all objects
were regarded as being alive. Marett thought that primitive peoples must have recognized
21
some lifeless objects and probably regarded only those objects that had unusual qualities
held, moreover, that the ancient concept of vitality was not sophisticated enough to
include the notion of a soul or spirit residing in the object. Primitive peoples treated the
objects they considered animate as if these things had life, feeling, and a will of their
own, but did not make a distinction between the body of an object and a soul that could
enter or leave it. Marett called this view “animatism” or “preanimism”, and he claimed
that animism had to arise out of animatism, which may even continue to exist alongside
According to Richard Gelles et al, “Animist Religions hold that the world is
inhabited by spirits with motives and emotions like our own. Although believers do not
worship these spirits as gods, they do attempt to influence their behavior through magic.
This animist belief in spirits explains the occurrence of illness or accidents and prescribes
a course of action.”38
reality of things lie spirits that even seemingly dead objects, rocks or earth, have a living
fuse within them, which they called mana. The Sioux called it wakan, the Algonquians,
Manitou, and the Iroquois, orenda. For such people, the environment is alive!” 39
The most ideal society, according the model, is that of the cave society because
man was living in a most pristine kind of existence. Although this society may have
lasted for several centuries only after the first human evolution from the first primates,
37
From the article “Animism,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
38
Richard Gelles et al, op. cit., p. 486
39
Alvin Toffler. Third Wave, New York, NY: Bantam Books, 1981, p. 168.
22
The most real religion that man had ever known is the animist religion, according
The second economic base is the nomadic society. During this time, nomads lived
“in small bands and tribes and subsisting by gathering, hunting, or fishing.” 40 Its religion
the second society (Nomadic) and second religion (Shamanism) which man knew in
history are shown halfway between the Ideal and the Real realms. The Nomadic society is
shown halfway down from ideal realm and the middle line, indicating a decadence of this
society. The shamanistic religion is shown in the model as halfway up from the Real
Realm and the middle line, indicating that this religion was an improvement of the
animistic religion.
Nomads are groups of people whose way of life involves frequent moves from
place to place. Usually nomads live in tents, grass-covered shelters, or other temporary or
mobile dwellings. The term “nomadism” (from Greek, “nomas,” wanderer) is used to
There are three kinds of nomads: Pastoral nomads, Hunter-gatherer nomads, and
Nomadic travelers.
40
Ibid, p. 21.
23
The difference between these three is that: the pastoral nomads, or pastoralist
nomads of the Middle Eastern countries, are those who moved and even today move with
their camels, cattle, sheep, and goats, seeking pasture for them at each season of the year;
the hunter-gatherer nomads are those who live by hunting and gathering, have been
peripatetic and without fixed dwellings; and the nomadic travelers are those living and
moving among sedentary peoples and making their living from their sedentary neighbors
gypsies), and a whole range of other occupations that are recurrently in demand. 41
41
James Woodburn, “Nomads,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
42
Richard J. Gelles and Ann Levine, op. cit., page 187.
24
which are loosely structured, technologically simple, and homogeneous. The word
shaman is derived from a word in the Tungus language of Siberia, one of the areas in
Shamans are “women or men who are socially recognized as having special
abilities for entering into contact with spirit beings and for controlling supernatural
44
forces.” According to another source, a shaman is “usually a part-time male specialist
who has fairly high status in his community and is involved in healing. Westerners call
shamans witch doctors because they don’t believe that shamans can effectively cure
people.” 45
vocation, the recognition and call of the individual is always an essential part of that
individual's elevation to the new status. The shaman, usually a man, is essentially a
medium, a mouthpiece of the spirits who became his familiars at his initiation, during
which he frequently undergoes prolonged fasts, seclusion, and other ordeals leading to
The main religious tasks of a shaman are healing and divination. Both are
achieved either by spirit possession or by the departure of the shaman's soul to heaven or
43
From the article “Shamanism,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
44
Marvin Harris and Orna Johnson, Cultural Anthropology, (Singapore: Pearson Education Asia Pte.
Ltd., 2000), p. 268.
45
Carol R. Ember et al, op. cit, p. 432.
25
traveling to the land of the dead to fetch back the deceased's spirit. Shamans also divine
the whereabouts of game, the position of the enemy, and the best way of safeguarding
Marvin Harris et al report: “While in a trance, the shaman may act as a medium,
transmitting messages from the dead ancestors. With the help of friendly spirits, shamans
predict future events, locate lost objects, identify the cause of illness, battle with spirits
on behalf on the patient, prescribe cures, and give advice on how clients can protect
Man left the nomadic stage to live in a more settled life in the tribal villages or
settlements. We call this period the Tribal Village or the primitive communal society.
shown in the theoretical model as halfway between the Ideal and the Real realms,
meaning that this primitive communal society and totemistic/fetishistic religion was the
most normal kind of society and religion; neither too idealistic nor too realistic, but on an
average level.
Sociologists are of the opinion that the fundamental driving force which brought
about the stage of the Village Tribal society was the invention of agriculture. Richard J.
46
From the article on “Shamanism,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
47
Marvin Harris et al, loc. cit.
26
Agriculture became the main economy and force of production, the main form of
occupation for the village people. Hunting no longer appealed to them since the wild
animals became scarce. The forest no longer gave the fruits to men as they have become
more populous. That is why he now learned to cultivate and till the soil to plant seeds that
Man invented the plow and learned to domesticate animals for farming purposes.
He invented the art of irrigating his fields by constructing canals and dikes to channel
water from mountain springs. With the invention of the wheel, he used wooden carts
drawn by animals to transport his product from his farm to the market. Boats were used
With agriculture, man learned to band together for common or joint labor. Thus,
agricultural society was born, and with it, the first civilization.
The members of the agricultural society equally shared in the farm work,
depending upon sex, age and ability; so did they equally share the surplus of their labor.
The tools, equipments and land used for production were owned in common. Thus,
relationship within the agricultural society of the tribal village people was cohesive and
48
Richard J. Gelles and Ann Levine, op. cit., p. 187.
27
The village tribe was composed of one family clan. It was headed by a chief or
shown exemplary strength or heroism in a battle against other enemy tribes. In some
tribes, the chieftain was assisted by the council of elders. Later, chieftainship began to be
chieftainship, the other members shared in the status and dignity of the chief, by being
called nobles. Thus, hereditary chieftainship gave rise to the nobility class among the
communal tribes.
With the conquest of new territories, through the waging of tribal wars or through
intermarriages, the chief grew wealthy and powerful. His wealth could support the needs
of the whole tribe. With wealth, he could furnish his household with a retinue of servants
whose needs were well provided for. With the capture of people from other tribes, his
servants were substituted by these captured prisoners, becoming virtual slaves of the
Private property became in vogue. Production surplus brought more wealth and
more property to be owned privately. The land which was held in common before became
the private property of the chief and the nobility class. The other members of the tribe
could privately own a portion of land belong to the tribal territory through personal
reward for service rendered to the chief, by inheritance, or by purchase. Since work in the
land was now done through slave labor, the members of the tribe did not work directly
but participated in the production force by owning more lands, tools, animals,
equipments, or slaves. With privatization of the means of production, came the end of the
tribal society, as relations became antagonistic and divisive, breaking away of tribal
28
loyalties and ties. Thus, social stratification of society started with the nobility class,
warriors, free men and slaves. Classification may concern property, the propertied and
Social stratification brought society into the next period – slave society. The
propertied class becoming masters, while large masses of people became poor men, to
the basic tools of production, animals, land, etc., are the property of the community as a
whole. The idea that individual private property is an impediment to a just society has led
The characteristics of the Primitive communal or tribal village society are the
following: 1. All tools and lands were collectively owned; 2. all tribal members engaged
in common labor on the basis of their age, sex, and strength; 3. the fruits of labor, or
surplus of production, were commonly owned and shared; and 4. social relations were
mutual, since tribal man had to band together to withstand the forces of nature which they
could neither understand or control. Tribal man “had to associate and work together to
49
From the article on “Communism,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
50
Amable G. Tuibeo, op. cit, p. 35.
51
Richard J. Gelles and Ann Levine, op. cit., p. 186
29
The most predominant religion of the Tribal period was Fetishism. It was the
worship of the Tribal Fetish – a sacred object or thing that is believed to possess magical
powers. This was a development of the ancestor worship were relics of dead ancestors
were carried or worn around the body as necklaces or amulets by nobles and warriors.
When a dead man was a person of renowned or heroic deeds, such as one who
killed a wild beast or brought the biggest game that saved the group from famine, not
only did they preserved his body but his past deeds were retold as well. With the
invention of language, tales about the heroic acts of valiant villagers were retold inside
powerful deeds of dead ancestors when told and retold sanctified their subjects and
inspired the listeners to emulate their feat and revere them. Skeletal remains of these men
were treasured and kept until they became sacred relics of the tribe, called fetishes. Thus,
help their possessors in times of difficulties or crises. With the advent of the Village
Tribal folks, this belief was transferred to the Tribal fetish – a totem pole, the dried head
of a war chief, an ancient tree, a sacred rock or stone, skull or tooth of an animal. The
fetish was worshipped and invoked with elaborate tribal rituals and ceremonies – dancing
and chanting around tribal fires, with eating and drinking wines and spirits. Power is
believed to emanate from the sacred Fetish if accompanied with the killing of a sacrificial
30
victim, a person (usually slave women) or animal. Blood sacrifice is poured over the
fetish object or totem pole. The flesh of victims is eaten raw or roasted in the sacred fire.
Participants of the tribal rituals may experience euphoric feelings during the ceremony.
objects. These sacred objects are called fetishes and totems. In anthropology, fetishism
applies to a form of belief and religious practice in which supernatural attributes are
imputed to material, inanimate objects, known as fetishes. The practice includes magic,
often with many attendant ceremonies and minor rituals. The fetish itself is usually a
figure modeled or carved from clay, stone, wood, glass, or other material in imitation of a
deified animal or other object. Frequently it consists of fur, feathers, hair, or a bone or
tooth of a tutelary (guardian) animal. Sometimes it is the animal itself, or a tree, river,
rock, or place associated with the tutelary in the mind of the devotee. In some cases the
belief is so definitely crystallized about the object that the original connection with the
tutelary is obscured, and the belief merges into idolatry. At one time fetishism was
thought to be practiced only in West Africa, but it is now known to prevail among peoples
in all lands. Anthropologists in the 19th century limited the use of the term to the doctrine
According to more recent data, however, fetishes need not be connected with spirits,
except to the extent that they are employed to thwart malevolent beings.
31
Rites of solidarity were also common among clans and other descent groups.
Tribal groups, or whole villages, usually have names and emblems that identify group
members and set one group off from another. Animal names and emblems predominate,
but insects, plants, and natural phenomena such as rain and clouds also occur. These
The fetishistic religion, and its accompanying Totemism, compensated for the
degradation of man who was being dispossessed of his natural right to own the land in
common. The tribal fetish reminded him that the tribe had only one ancestor, although
now dead, but had always remained in their midst calling his children to surround him.
This was more wonderful and important thing than the powers that the tribal fetish could
give to its worshippers. But tribal men had missed this, or had forgotten this point. The
slaves or the poor men of the late tribal period, who were totally dispossessed of their
tribal rights, began to look upon the tribal fetish for liberation from their oppressive
conditions or for individual salvation from this cruel world. These salves wore their fetish
objects on necklaces around their necks and clan to it devotion during adverse times, and
they felt power surging their bodies to make them endure oppression and deprivation of
the soul and body. But the burning hope was alive in them that one day the land that was
unjustly taken from them will be restored to make them owners and tillers of the soil
again. This was the magic they hoped to get from worshipping or wearing their fetish
objects. However, that day never came for many of the slaves of the late tribal period.
Instead, tribal society was ushered in to its next tragic period, the slave society.
52
Marvin Harris et al, op. cit., p. 270.
32
The fourth society is that of the Slave society. This is shown in the model as
located a little down the middle line towards the Real realm, indicating that this society is
follows: their labor or services are obtained through force; their physical beings are
regarded as the property of another person, their owner; and they are entirely subject to
their owner's will. Since earliest times slaves have been legally defined as things;
therefore, they could, among other possibilities, be bought, sold, traded, given as gifts, or
pledged for a debt by their owner, usually without any recourse to personal or legal
objection or restraint.53
probably first occurred when agricultural advances first made possible more highly
organized societies.
Tribal society, with its agricultural economy, made possible the ownership of
private property. This not only included the means of production, such as land, tools,
machineries, and the surplus of production which brought more wealth to their owners,
but also the ownership of the labor force. The more property to manage meant more
people are needed for production and cultivation. The propertied class relied on slave
force to do the work of cultivation of the land for them. In return, they received
53
From the article on “Slavery,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
33
protection and benefits. Since they owned nothing, they had to sell their labor to those
who have the means of production in order to subsist and to support the needs of his
Others have been captured in battle. The conquest of other territories brought
about the capture of its people. Taken as prisoners into the conquering tribe, mostly the
women and children, who could not resist their capturers or return back home, were made
redeem their own or their parents’ debts. For a large sum of debt was tantamount to be
reduced to slavery.
For others, it was punishment for crimes committed, viz., rebellion, murder, theft,
etc. They were chained to work in mines, or to row battle or merchant ships, or become
Because of these, vast majority of the population became virtual slaves to some
few masters who could do anything to their slaves, either to be sold, or killed if not fit for
land, tools, goods, and wealth due to the accumulation of surplus labor or goods.
The chiefs and the nobility, the war chiefs, army men, statesmen, who were
The establishment of the state became necessary to protect the interest of the
masters against these slaves. The State, headed by the Emperor, brought about the
The formation of armies came about to aid in the work of conquest, in empire
building, and to maintain peace and order among the slaves to prevent rebellion and to
Citizenship was granted only to those who had property, land and slaves. Slaves
Social stratification during the slave society comprised the following: 1. the
Ruling Class, composed of the Emperor, statesmen, army men and warriors; 2. The
Nobility, composed of the most prominent and wealthy citizens; 3. the Citizens, or the
The same stratification was found in the subjugated regions, only that tribute to
the emperor was being demanded from its citizens as payment for imperial protection.
The slaves were a useful commodity, which resulted in the slave-holding venture.
They were found in all aspects of empire building. They were found in households, army,
and gladiators in sports arena, battleships rowing, transportation and road building,
construction work in such wonders of Rome, Greece, Egypt and Asia Minor.
The conquest from the North and the countless rebellions of slaves brought about
the collapse of the Mediterranean empires and the end of the slave society.
The most predominant religion that arose during the Slave society was
polytheism. As shown in the model, this religion is a little above the middle line going up
towards the Ideal realm, indicating that polytheism is a much improvement of fetishism
or Totemism.
35
Polytheism, etymological speaking, is taken from two Greek words “poly”, many,
Polytheism is the belief in the existence of many gods or divine beings. It has
been widespread in human cultures, past and present, and has taken many forms. Natural
forces and objects—celestial, atmospheric, and earthly (such as stars, rain, mountains,
and fire)—have often been identified with divinities. Gods have also been worshipped in
the form of vegetation (especially trees and cultivated plants) and animals (for instance,
the monkey in India and the hummingbird among the Aztecs). The assumption of human
human passions and behavior of the Greek and Roman gods, is virtually a universal
feature of polytheism.
in animism, Totemism, and ancestor worship, but in polytheism the spirits are distinct,
writings. Scholars have proposed several theories to account for its emergence. It has
been attributed, for instance, to the need for supernatural moral sanctions or to the awe
inspired by (and the desire to appease) the uncontrollable forces of nature. It has also
been associated in some theories with the development of a social structure characterized
have exhibited a clear tendency towards monotheism, the belief in and worship of one
36
god or divine power, and polytheistic beliefs and practices sometimes coexist with an
the dead ancestors’ spirit as living in an ethereal, or heavenly existence, in another world.
Polytheistic deities had anthropomorphic personalities, behaving and acting like ordinary
mortals.
Mortal men looked upon the deities as controllers of their fates. The failure or
success of an endeavor was determined or decided by the gods in the heavens. Every
aspect of human life, be it a journey or endeavor, had a heavenly patron who must be
If mortal man had a master on earth, the gods have a chief or master or “high” god
in heaven. For the Greeks, the chief god is Zeus (Latin “Deus”, or Spanish “Dios”) who
lived at the peak of Mt. Olympus. The Romans had Jupiter, or Jove, as their chief god.
These high gods had wives and children and a whole cohort and retinue of gods and
goddess that composed their whole household and court. This observation is indeed in
contrast with the one that was made by Carol R. Ember, who said, “A polytheistic
The temple priests and priestesses were the earthly representatives, and in some
places were even considered as earthly counterparts, of these gods and goddesses. The
chief priests ruled the temple cohort and retinue. The temple was the place of worship,
54
From the article “Polytheism,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
55
Carol R. Ember et al, op. cit., p. 426.
37
and every god or goddess had their own temples dedicated to their honor. The priests took
Temple sacrifices were demanded by the priests as a way to approach the gods:
such as, fruits, human offerings, and blood poured (libation) on the altar or sprinkled on
devotees.
Fertility cults and temple fornications were practiced. Slave virgins were offered
Polytheism affected the life of the people. Its elaborate rituals aroused euphoria
among devotees. The sight and spilling of blood through the butchering of sacrificial
animals gave satisfaction to masters and slave spectators alike, both of which lusted for
blood. The variety of gods for a variety of functions aroused the imagination of the Greek
and Roman classical writers to produce immortal literatures about the immortal gods and
goddesses.
Slaves, who had suffered much the tragedy and misery of slavery, looked to the
immortal gods enthroned in the heavens for much sought solace and refuge from their
daily sufferings. Slaves were forbidden to practice the religion. However, they became
part of the worship of such religion when they become the sacrificial victims offered on
the altar of the master’s gods and goddesses or to be the sports and entertainment for the
emperors. The slaves were burned on the sacred fires both for the satisfaction of the gods
compensate for human degradation, which the slaves endured. It offered them a sense of
contentment which were physically denied of them. As they were roasted alive in sacred
fires, their masters watched with pious satisfaction that they were fulfilling a religious
obligation to their gods and goddesses. These slaves constructed the temples of these
gods and goddesses and the tombs of the emperors as they endured much hunger and
disease. The propertied class who propagated polytheism for the entertainment of the
slaves watched them languish in their oppressive chains. The propertied class felt ecstatic
at the sight of blood oozing from the necks of their slaves being butchered upon the altar
of inhumanity. As the priests sprinkled the blood of slaves over them, the propertied class
claimed responsibility over these inhuman acts in the name of religious belief.
Meanwhile, these slaves paid much for their long-awaited liberty and freedom at the
hands of death.
Polytheism rose to become monotheism to free at last the slave masters of their
crimes against humanity though the capture, torture and sacrifice of the slaves in the
name of religion and to cover up for another decadent inhuman society, which is the
The slaveholding society and its polytheistic religion had gone away, only to be
replaced by another more decadent society, the Feudal Society. The masters of the slave
society had gone away, only to return in a new form, the lords of the Feudal Society.
39
This society is shown in the model as half way down in the Real realm, next to
and, therefore, higher in the ideological ladder, is shown half way up to the Ideal realm.
Feudal society first appeared in Western Europe during the Middle Ages, after the
fall of the Roman Empire. While many Mediterranean states were still slave-holding, a
new political and socio-economic system was emerging in the subjugated regions of the
Western Europe was once the barbarian kingdoms of the Gaul, Teutons, Swiss,
Iberians, and Belgians. These were conquered by the Romans at the first half of the 2 nd
century, A.D. When the Roman Empire collapsed, these kingdoms, or subjugated regions,
were awarded to some Roman military generals. Because of their outstanding military
service to the Roman Emperor, they were given territories to administer. They were
awarded tracks of lands on condition that they will continue to render military service.
relationships existing among members of the nobility in Western Europe during the High
Middle Ages.” 56
Feudalism was characterized by the granting of fiefs, chiefly in the form of land
and labor, in return for political and military services—a contract sealed by oaths of
56
From the article on “Feudalism,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
40
When the German invaders conquered the Western Roman Empire in the 5th
century, they destroyed the professional Roman army and substituted their own armies,
made up of warriors who served their chieftains for honor and booty. To support his
cavalry soldiers, Martel gave them estates farmed by dependent laborers, which he took
from the Church. Such estates, called benefices, were given for the duration of the
soldiers' service. The soldiers were called vassals (from a Gaelic word meaning servant).
The vassals, however, being selected soldiers with whom the Carolingian rulers
surrounded themselves, became models for the nobles who followed the court. With the
breakup of the Carolingian Empire in the 9th century, many powerful men strove to
assemble their own bands of mounted vassals, giving them benefices in return for their
services. Some of the weaker landowners then found themselves obliged to enter into
vassalage and to concede their lands to the lordship of the more powerful, receiving them
back as benefices. The greater lords were expected to protect their vassals, as the vassals
Some of the essential features of classical feudalism are: 1. The fief - the estate
given a vassal, understood to be hereditary, provided that the vassal's heir was
satisfactory to the lord, and provided further that he paid an inheritance tax called a relief;
and, 2. A special oath of homage to the feudal lord who invested him with a fief. Thus,
feudalism was a political as well as military institution that was based upon a contract
Feudalism reached its maturity in the 11th century and flourished in the 12th and
13th centuries. Its cradle was the region between the Rhine and the Loire, but in the late
41
11th century rulers of that region conquered southern Italy and Sicily, England, and, with
the First Crusade, the Holy Land. To each place they took their feudal institutions.
In its classical form, western feudalism assumed that most of the land belonged to
The prince then granted fiefs to his barons, who made their oaths of homage and
fealty to him and were required to give him political and military service according to the
terms of the grant. The barons, in turn, might grant portions of their fiefs to knights who
swore homage and fealty to them and served them according to their grants.
Military service in the field was fundamental owed by a vassal to his lord. When
the lord had a castle, he might require his vassals to garrison it, a service called castle-
guard. The lord also expected his vassals to attend his court in order to give him advice
and to participate in judgments of cases concerning other vassals. If the lord had need of
Monotheism was the religion of the Feudal society. It originated with the
monotheistic beliefs of the Hebrew people. Began with the legendary Hebrew patriarchs,
Abraham, until this God revealed (“revelare”, lit. means to remove the veil) himself as
“YHWH” to Moses. It was not a powerful religion until King David founded a kingdom
with monotheistic laws and institutions. The temple worship of monotheistic religion
began.
42
57
Monotheism is the “belief in one God.” Carol R. Ember describes monotheistic
religion as: “…one in which there is one high god as the creator of the universe or the
director of events (or both); all the other supernatural beings are either…” 58 In another
part, she adds, “Although monotheism means “one god,” most monotheistic religions
actually include more than one supernatural being (e.g., demons, angels, the Devil). But
the Supreme Being or high god, as the creator of the universe or the director of events (or
firms carry on the production and exchange of goods and services through a complex
Karl Marx, the founder of Communism, first introduced the term capitalism in the
mid-19th century.
capitalism is the Scottish philosopher Adam Smith, who first set forth the essential
economic principles that undergrid this system. In his classic An Inquiry into the Nature
57
From the article on “Monotheism,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
58
Carol R. Ember et al, op cit., p. 437.
59
Ibid, p. 426.
60
From the article on “Capitalism,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
43
and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776), Smith sought to show how it was possible to
pursue private gain in ways that would further not just the interests of the individual but
those of society as a whole. Society's interests are met by maximum production of the
things that people want. In a now famous phrase, Smith said that the combination of self-
interest, private property, and competition among sellers in markets will lead producers
“as by an invisible hand” to an end that they did not intend, namely, the well being of
society.
and capital—are privately owned. Capital in this sense means the buildings, machines,
and other equipment used to produce goods and services that are ultimately consumed.
Second, economic activity is organized and coordinated through the interaction of buyers
and sellers (or producers) in markets. Third, owners of land and capital, as well as the
workers they employ, are free to pursue their own self-interests in seeking maximum gain
from the use of their resources and labor in production. Consumers are free to spend their
incomes in ways that they believe will yield the greatest satisfaction. This principle,
called consumer sovereignty, reflects the idea that under capitalism producers will be
forced by competition to use their resources in ways that will best satisfy the wants of
consumers. Self-interest and the pursuit of gain lead them to do this. Fourth, under this
society from foreign attack, uphold the rights of private property, and guarantee contracts.
This 19th-century view of government's role in the capitalist system has been
Two developments paved the way for the emergence of modern capitalism; both
took place in the latter half of the 18th century. The first was the appearance of the
physiocrats in France after 1750; and the second was the devastating impact that the ideas
the existence of a natural order in economics, one that does not require direction from the
state for people to be prosperous. The leader of the physiocrats, the economist François
Quesnay, set forth the basic principles in his Tableau économique (1758), in which he
traced the flow of money and goods through the economy. Simply put, this flow was seen
to be both circular and self-sustaining. More important, however, was that it rested on the
division of society into three main classes: (1) the productive class was made up of those
engaged in agriculture, fishing, and mining, representing one-half of the population; (2)
the proprietary class consisted of landed proprietors and those supported by them, which
amounted to one-quarter of the population, and (3) the artisan, or sterile, class, made up
Quesnay's Tableau is significant because it expressed the belief that only the
agricultural classes are capable of producing a surplus or net product, out of which the
state either could find the capital to support an expansion of the flow of goods and money
or could levy taxes to meet its needs. Other activities, such as manufacturing, were
regarded as essentially sterile, because they did not produce new wealth but simply
transformed or circulated the output of the productive class. It was this aspect of
physiocratic thought that was turned against mercantilism. If industry did not create
45
wealth, then it was futile for the state to try to enhance society's wealth by a detailed
The ideas of Adam Smith represented more than just the first systematic treatise
on economics; they were a frontal attack on the doctrines of mercantilism. Like the
physiocrats, Smith tried to show the existence of a “natural” economic order, one that
would function most efficiently if the state played a highly limited role. Unlike the
physiocrats, however, Smith did not believe that industry was unproductive or that only
the agricultural sector was capable of producing a surplus above the subsistence needs of
society. Rather, Smith saw in the division of labor and the extension of markets almost
limitless possibilities for society to expand its wealth through manufacture and trade.
Thus, both the physiocrats and Smith contributed to the belief that the economic
powers of governments should be limited and that there existed a natural order of liberty
applicable to the economy. It was Smith, however, far more than the physiocrats, who
opened the way for industrialization and the emergence of modern capitalism in the 19th
century.
The ideas of Smith and the physiocrats provided the ideological and intellectual
transformations in society and the world that characterized the 19th century.
introduction of mechanical power (originally steam) to replace human and animal power
momentum in England and gradually spread to other parts of the world, several
larger units, called factories. The modern working class began to emerge; workers no
longer owned their tools, they had little property, and generally they had to exchange
their labor for a money wage. The application of mechanical power to production brought
with it a great increase in worker efficiency, which made goods abundant and cheap.
Consequently, the real standard of living rose throughout much of the world during the
19th century.
The development of industrial capitalism had serious human costs. The early days
of the Industrial Revolution were marred by appalling conditions for large numbers of
workers, especially in England. Abusive child labor, long working hours, and dangerous
and unhealthy workplaces were common. These conditions led Karl Marx, who spent
most of his adult life in England, to produce his massive indictment of the capitalistic
system, Das Kapital (3 vol., 1867-1894). Marx's work, which is the intellectual
foundation for the kind of Communist economic systems, used in the USSR and still
ownership of the means of production. Marx believed that land and capital should be
owned collectively (that is, by society) and that the products of the system should be
Capitalism was also beset by business cycles of “boom and bust”, periods of
Marxian criticisms, along with frequent depressions in the major capitalist nations,
47
helped to establish vigorous trade union movements that fought to raise wages, shorten
In the late 19th century, especially in the United States, the modern corporation,
with its limited liability and immense financial power, began to emerge as the dominant
led to many attempts to create combines, monopolies, or trusts that could control an entire
industry.
without limit throughout the 19th century. It was successful because it demonstrated an
enormous ability to create new wealth and to raise the real standard of living for nearly
everyone touched by it. As the century closed, capitalism was the dominant economic and
social system.
Monopolytheism comes from the Greek word “mono”, one, “poly”, many, and
“theos”, god. This is the Trinitarian belief of the Christian churches. Because they
48
believed the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, one God in three divine persons, some
holding society, or private property pre-existed the tribal period. And so,
arose when Christianity began to be influenced by pagan beliefs and practices, with the
intrusion of the Roman emperor into the administrative activity of the early Christian
churches. At this time, early attempts had been made to amalgamize the two beliefs of
monotheism and polytheism that gave birth to Monopolytheism, a belief in three equally
divine persons within the one God, as a way to accommodate the monotheistic beliefs of
Monopolytheism is the worship, or belief, in the one God in three persons, or the
Of particular interest of the two religious groups are the Protestants, with their
religious belief on austerity and renunciation of wealth. The Protestants claim to have
given rise to the capitalist system of the economy, with the doctrine of Max Weber (1864-
1920).
Max Weber was a “German economist and sociologist, known for his systematic
approach to world history and the development of Western civilization. His best-known
49
works, Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus (The Protestant Ethic
and the Spirit of Capitalism, 1904-1905; trans. 1930), wherein he tried to prove that
ethical and religious ideas were strong influences on the development of capitalism. He
expanded on this theme in his later writings on Asian religions, in which he postulated
that the prevailing religious and philosophical ideas in the Eastern world prevented the
economic factors.”61
the organized working class, generally antagonistic towards capitalism.”62 While the final
social reforms within capitalism. As the movement developed, the concept itself acquired
The term began to be used in the first half of the 19th century by radical
intellectuals who considered themselves to be the true heirs to the Enlightenment. Among
its early theorists were a French aristocrat, Claude de Saint-Simon, and a British
capitalist, Robert Owen. With Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, socialism acquired a
democratic countries, that violence might be necessary where despotism prevailed, and
61
Article on “Max Weber,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
62
From the article on “Socialism,’ Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
50
ruled out participation in bourgeois governments. The majority assumed that their task
was to build up the movement until the eventual collapse of capitalism would enable
socialism to be established.
production. This means that society should hold wealth in common; that the management
of the economy should be by the state and that public sector should be expanded through
nationalization.
cooperation. There is social ownership in the means of production, so that people are no
longer divided into those who own and to those who own nothing. Abolition of private
social relations. Any individual regards his work and its results as contribution to social
transformation and to the enrichment of the various aspect of social life. Idleness has no
place in socialist society – putting into practice the Christian dictum “from each
according to his abilities, to each according to his needs”. Man has to work and to
The socialist state is still a revolutionary phase towards the communist state,
because it has to consolidate the gains of the proletariat class and to attain the economic
and cultural reconstruction of society. Hence, the superstructure must play an important
role as socialism is not the end of social revolution as it must lead to communism. The
totality of the ideological, political and other institutions is mobilized in a scientific way
to advance a worldview that is reflective and supportive of the aspirations of all people
for equality, brotherhood and prosperity. The present socialist society must, therefore, be
“Towards the end of the 1950s West European socialist parties began to discard
Marxism openly, accepted the mixed economy, loosened their links with the trade unions,
and abandoned the idea of an ever-expanding nationalized sector. The late 1950s
deity can neither be proved nor disproved. Many people have incorrectly been called
atheists merely because they rejected some popular belief in divinity. To the Romans, the
63
From the article on “Socialism,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
64
From the article on “Atheism,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
52
early Christians were atheists because they denied the Roman gods. Adherents of various
Christian sects have applied the term to anyone unwilling to accept every tenet of their
doctrine. Freethinkers, such as the French philosopher and writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau,
the French writer Voltaire, or the Anglo-American political philosopher and author
an atheist. The Sankhya philosophy, one of the great systems of Hindu thought,
Buddhism, and Jainism have all been described as atheistic because all deny a personal
God.
Cyber society, the term used by Toffler to refer to Third Wave civilization, began
in the United States of America “sometime in mid ‘50s”, when the Silicon Valley in
California zoomed.65 Toffler says: “Electronics and computers clearly form one such
interrelated cluster, and is the fourth largest industry. Computers are destined to reshape,
not only business, from production to retailing, but every nature of work and even the
65
Alvin Toffler, op. cit., p. 139.
66
Ibid, p. 140.
53
The term “cyber” is derived from the word “cyberspace.” Cyberspace is the
67
“environment created by the global networking of computer systems.” The term is
widely applied to the Internet as it exists today, but in its origins in science fiction it
referred to a far more ambitious and speculative conception: the total immersion of the
experience would actually be generated by the machine and fed directly into the human
brain. The other aspect of cyberspace is indicated by this quotation: as a system for
organizing and accessing the vast amounts of data stored on computers. Currently the
Internet, and especially that facet of it called the World Wide Web, is the major system
One characteristics of Cyber society is its cyber infosphere, one that is “imparting
The key point is the computer, combination of electronic memory with programs
that tell machines how to process stored data. Cyber society is also characterized by
fiction writers use them to symbolize the future, and pictured the computer as all-
Other characteristics are the Electronic cottage, where “people huddled around a
computer” and the telecommuters.70 Toffler says of the cyber society as a “home-
centered society.”71 Certainly not everyone can and will work at home. Many people will
67
From the article on “Cyberspace,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003.
68
Alvin Toffler, op. cit., p. 168.
69
Ibid, 169.
70
Ibid, pp. 199, 200, 250-251.
71
Ibid, p. 204.
54
work at home part-time and outside the home as well. Dispersed work centers will no
doubt proliferate. Some will work for months or years in their homes and then switch to
outside job. Small firms will take the responsibility to organize, train, and manage teams
of houseworkers.
b) Environmental impact – work transfer into the home not only reduce
out energy demand and thus make easier the use of solar, wind and other
each home could substitute for at least some centralized energy now
required;
With cyber society comes “cyber religion,” a term that was used by Richard
Gelles and Ann Levine.72 The World Wide Web offers information on all kinds of
religious beliefs current in the world today. All that one has to do in other to learn and
“Today, millions are desperately searching for their shadows, devouring movies, plays,
novels and self help books that promise to help them locate their missing identities.
The New Age Movement, the predominant religious beliefs of the cyber society,
is a:
72
Richard J. Gelles and Ann Levine, op. cit., p. 511.
73
Alvin Toffler, op. cit., pp. 123 and 127.
56
among others. Ideas frequently associated with the New Age movement
include anthroposophical teachings, inner transformation, reincarnation,
extraterrestrial life, biofeedback, chanting, alchemy, yoga, transpersonal
psychology, shamanism, martial arts, the occult, astrology, psychic
healing, extrasensory perception, divination, astral travel, acupuncture,
massage, tarot, Zen, mythology, and visualization.74
religious views, like our tastes, are becoming less uniform and standardized.”75
We have seen the drama between religion and society. Society played the tragic
drama in human history, one which started from the apex of life. Religion played the
comic drama that started from the ebb gradually going up to the apex of life.
Man is dead – and so is his society – this is the greatest irreligion of all. For
everything he went through from one religious belief to another to hide from his fear of
death, and what he went through from one form of society to another to assuage his
74
From the article on “New Age Movement,” Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia, 2003
75
Ibid, p. 255.
57
hunger for food, shelter and clothing, all the while he was just looking at the ground for a
As earliest man left the pristine life of his arboreal existence, living on the bounty
of the forest jungles and where he did not labor much, going to the last stage of
And from his lowest level of irreligion in the Cave society, where he practiced the
crudest form of religion which is animism, a religion that is a kind of dialogue with
nature, he progressed upward from one religious belief to another, until he reached the
All these show man that one need is supplied by another need. His lack in the real
world is supplied and filled in his ideal world, and vice versa.
Human nature then learns to balance, and to compensate for his needs in life. This
That is how religion and society played their role in human history. Whatever had
been lacking in human society was supplied by religion, and whatever is lacking in
religion was supplied by society. Man to compensate, to balance, and to reach the average
or normal, what society was actually losing gradually, which is life, used religion. Hence,
man to cover up what society lacks, and vice versa used religion. There was that type of
In the final stage, in communism, man is in the most decadent, in the lowest ebb
of social existence, as he labors in order to eat (one has to be a productive citizen so that
he could eat – “no produce - no food”). One must therefore learn once more how to
protect and to dialogue with nature for it to produce more food. In this stage, he does not
bother with any god or gods to be a religious believer, as it could not help him get his
food – he is busy looking for it. But from its lowest ebb in communism, man could either
die or rise up again to continue his existence, he could start his climb in society, while
from atheism, his highest irreligion, he could gradually go down to another form of
religion.
Anyone who thinks that society can do without religious belief of any form is
surely mistaken. As can be seen from the beginning to the end of human history, man
cannot do away with the drama and the interplay between religion and society. Religion,
together with all the other institutions or superstructures of society, will always be there
One has to take account the present religious behavior in studying the past and the
future of human society. The past of all religions is animism. Its future form is the New
Age religion. There is a type of religious belief that is suited to a particular type of
society, one that dominates all the others. Religion serves to cover up what society lacks
and vice versa. When society was in the ideal state, it seems that man did not need the
God of religion.
For every trouble in society that man encounters, there is always born an
aspiration and longing for a messiah or savior. Religion and society has served the
59
interest of man for a long time since the beginning. As we said in the beginning, the
intention of this paper is not to be critical of any religion. The intention is simply to
mention the predominant religious beliefs that cropped up in every form of society. For
man cannot do away with religion in society because of his longing for the sacred: “those
dangerous and awe-inspiring. The sacred consists of the things kept separate or apart
Those in the business of religion are necessary in society since the existence of these
religious beliefs make people resilient and able to cope up with the bitterness and
sufferings in life. These services may not only be offered now-a-days by religion but are
society is likely to produce a kind of religion that best reflects its predominant socio-
economic condition.
Human institutions, just like human beings, are here today in order to survive by
Religion, particularly the Roman Catholic form, has served well Philippine
society as one factor that keeps it away from going into a bloody civil revolution, as
60
much do the other factors of OFW remittances and the rampant drug use among the
institution. It is considered to be man’s attempt to link reality, one that exists outside his
external senses, to an ideal world that exists merely in the mind. In the final reckoning,
however, religion still serves this purpose by bringing to his reality the sense of the
sacred. What man considers sacred to him will his home in the ground where he will be
finally rested when he die. His burial ground is one reality most sacred to man because it
is his real home after all. As a human institution, then, religion will always be a subject
to sociology. In fact, religion, with its concept of a transcendent and unknowable god, is a
sociological invention in the sense that it is the type of human society with a predominant
world to that which is opposite to what is experienced in the real world. With this
assertion, religion falls under the realm of science since sociology is within the dominion
of scientific study.
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