Sex Roles, VoL 36, Nos.

7/8, 1997

Adherence to the Super Woman Ideal and

Eating Disorder Symptoms Among College
Women I
Kathleen Hart
Eating DisordersProgram, ColumbiaBehavioralHealth Services
Bethesda Campus, Denver

M a u r e e n E. K e n n y 2
Department of Counseling, DevelopmentalPsychology
and ResearchMethods
Boston College.

The degree to which three components of the Super Woman construct of

femininity [C. Steiner-Adair (1986) "The Body Politic: Normal Female
Adolescent Development and the Development of Eating Disorders" J o u r n a l
o f the A m e r i c a n A c a d e m y of Psychoanalysis, Vol. 14, pp. 95-114], valuing
physical appearance, striving for success in multiple roles, and insecure
parental attachment, are related to eating disorder symptoms was examined
for a sample of 156 college women (84% white, 6% African American, 6%
Asian, 3% Latina, 1% another race). Canonical analysis yielded three
significant roots, suggesting a complex relationship between components of the
Super Woman model and eating disorder symptoms. The first root supports
the hypothesized relationship between the three components of the Super
Woman model and eating disorder symptoms. The second root suggests that
striving for success, when accompanied by a context of secure parental
attachment, is positively associated with measures of social competence. The
third root highlights the contribution of an emphasis on physical appearance
to weight concern, dieting, and bulimic behavior

1This article is based upon a dissertation completed at Boston College by the first author,
under the supervision of the second author. We gratefully acknowledge the comments of
James Mahalik on a previous draft of this manuscript.
2To whom correspondence should be addressed at Campion 305D, Boston College, Chestnut
Hill, MA 02167.

461
0360-0(0/97/0400-4N61512.50./0 0 I997 Plenum l~tbiishing Corporation
462 Hart and Kenny

In the past twenty years, the prevalence of eating disorders and disordered
eating symptoms has increased dramatically, especially among young
women (Hsu, 1990). Reports of disordered eating symptoms among college
women range from 10% to 20% (Hesse-Biber, 1989; Van Thorpe & Vogel,
1985), with as many as 64% of college women reporting some degree of
eating disordered behavior (Mintz & Betz, 1988).
Psychodynamic, family systems and organic theories have contributed
to explanations for the etiology of eating disorders (Bruch, 1978; Minuehin,
Rosman, & Baker, 1978). These theories do not fully explain, however,
why eating disorders have increased in recent decades and why this dis-
order is most prevalent among women (Gordon, 1990; Steiner-Adair,
1986; Striegel-Moore, Silberstein, & Rodin, 1986). Sociocultural factors, es-
pecially conformity to traditional female gender roles, have gained the at-
tention of some clinicians (e.g. Boskind-White & White, 1983) and
researchers in efforts to understand these phenomenon. Research examin-
ing relationships between gender role conformity and eating disorders, how-
ever, has yielded inconsistent and sometimes contradictory findings. For
instance, some research (Hatsukimi, Owen, Pyle, & Mitchell, 1982; Norman
& Herzog, 1983; Orleans & Barnett, 1984) identified a significant and posi-
tive relationship between eating disorder symptoms and measures of femi-
ninity. Other studies (Cantrell & Ellis, 1991; Lewis & Johnson, 1985) found
significant and positive relationships between measures of masculinity and
eating disorder symptoms, whereas other research (Dunn & Ondercin,
1981; Katsman & Wolchik, 1984; Williamson, Kelly, Davis, Ruggiero, &
Blouin, 1985) found no significant relationship between eating disorder
symptoms and measures of either masculinity or femininity.
Drawing upon the work of "relational theorists" (e.g. Gilligan, 1982;
Kaplan & Klein, 1985; Miller, 1976; Surrey, 1984), Steiner-Adair (1986)
proposed an alternate understanding of the relationship between adherence
to contemporary gender-roles and eating disorders, with the potential to
explain the inconsistent findings in previous gender-role studies. Steiner-
Adair (1986) suggested that the increase in eating disorders and eating dis-
order symptoms may be a response to the developmental "double-binds"
related to body-image, separation-individuation and achievement that girls
experience as they grow up at this point in history. That is, while contem-
porary cultural values idealize thinness as a criterion for physical attrac-
tiveness, girls inevitably experience significant weight gain as they move
from childhood into adolescence. Having been socialized to value interper-
sonal and family relationships, they are expected, as adolescents, to sepa-
rate from relationships that have been central to their identity. Changed
cultural norms simultaneously emphasize traditional feminine gender-role
characteristics such as being beautiful and being a good mother, and tra-
Super Woman Ideal 463

ditional masculine gender-role characteristics such as achievement in the

workplace, self-reliance and separation from parents. Thus, girls may also
be experiencing conflict regarding cultural expectations for success in mul-
tiple, and sometimes contradictory, roles.
Based upon interviews with thirty-two high school girls concerning cul-
tural and individual ideal images of women, Steiner-Adair (1986) charac-
terized girls who scored in the eating disordered range of the Eating
Attitudes Test (EAT; Garner, Olmstead, Bohr & Garfinkel, 1982) as ad-
hering to Super Woman ideals. These girls expressed the belief that they
should be successful, independent and beautiful. For them, being thin was
associated with autonomous career achievement and denial of the need for
interpersonal support. "The image of the Super Woman is most often as-
sociated with a tall thin body, a brief case and a high level of independent
achievement (p. 171)." In contrast, gifts who scored in the non-eating-dis-
ordered categories of the EAT were characterized as Wise Women. These
girls recognized societal pressures to be autonomous, successful and beau-
tiful, but were able to reject these pressures and maintain the value of
connection and interdependence in relationships.
Subsequent to Steiner-Adair's qualitative study, other researchers have
assessed components of the Super Woman ideal of femininity and their
relationship to eating disorder symptoms (Kenny & Hart, 1992; Murnen,
Smolak, & Levine, 1994; Thornton, Leo & Alberg, 1991; Timko, Striegel-
Moore, Silberstein & Rodin, 1987). Several studies, for example, found that
bulimic women were preoccupied with achieving beauty and thinness (Gar-
ner, Olmsted, & Polivy, 1983; Hesse-Biber, 1989; Striegel-Moore, McAvay,
& Rodin, 1986; Timko et al., 1987). Among 45 college women, Timko et
al. (1987) found that the traditionally feminine emphasis on appearance,
combined with the contemporary desire to achieve in multiple roles, was
significantly and positively related to eating disorder symptoms. Additional
support for a relationship between high achievement strivings in multiple
roles and eating disorder symptoms was found by Thornton et al. (1991)
and Murnen et al. (1994).
In addition to adhering to unrealistic cultural expectations for success
and physical beauty, Steiner-Adair (1986) maintained that adolescent girls
suffer from cultural values and traditional developmental models that over-
emphasize separation-individuation. Consistent with Steiner-Adair's hy-
pothesis, Kenny and Hart (1992) proposed that adolescent and young adult
women who have been able to attain autonomy without disrupting parental
attachments would be less likely to experience eating disorder symptoms.
In contrast with classic developmental models (e.g., Blos, 1967; Freud,
1969) that view a decline in parental attachments as prerequisite to the
attainment of autonomy, attachment theory (Amsworth, Blehar, Waiters,
464 Hart and Kenny

& Wall, 1978; Bowlby, 1969) proposes that secure attachments promote,
rather than hinder, environmental exploration, risk-taking, and instrumental
and social competence. Consistent with relational theory, the attachment
model views interdependence, rather than separation, as a hallmark of
adaptive development (Batgos & Leadbeater, 1994). Kenny and Hart's
(1992) findings suggested that characteristics of secure parental attach-
ments, including perception of positive affect toward parents, availability
of parents as a source of support when needed, and parental fostering of
autonomy, are psychologically adaptive in late adolescent and young adult
women and are associated with lower levels of bulimia and drive for thin-
ness among both clinical and college student women.
Steiner-Adair's (1986) study suggested that a complex pattern of
changing sociocultural values contributes to the risk for eating disorders
among young women. Although components of her model have been tested
in subsequent research, no single study has simultaneously examined the
joint contributions of valuing physical appearance and success in multiple
roles and quality of parental attachments to the development of eating dis-
order symptoms. The goal of this study was to examine the relationship
between the components of the Super Woman ideal of femininity and eat-
ing disorder symptoms among college women. In recognition that a variety
of psychological symptoms are associated with eating disorders (Garner,
1991, Garner & Olmstead, 1984), we were also interested in assessing how
components of the Super Woman ideal are associated with a broad range
of symptoms. Consistent with Steiner-Adair's description of the Super
Woman, we hypothesized that placing a high value on physical appearance,
holding expectations for success in multiple roles, and experiencing parental
attachments as both affectively negative and limiting of autonomy would
be associated with eating disorder symptoms.

METHOD

Participants

Participants for the study were 156 undergraduate college women en-
rolled at a private, coeducational Jesuit university in the Northeast. Par-
ticipants' ages ranged from 18- to 22-years old (X = 19.63, SD = .96). The
sample included 5% seniors, 21% juniors, 55% sophomores, and 19%
freshman. Eighty-four percent of the sample were white, 6% were African
American, 6% were Asian, 3% were Latina, and 1% were of another race.
Seventy-six percent of the sample were Catholic, 13% were Protestant, 10%
were Muslim, and 1% were of another religion. Socioeconomic status of
Super Woman Ideal 465

the sample was derived by the "Two Factor Index of Social Position"
(Hollingshead, 1957), designed to estimate the social position of individuals
within American culture. Thirty-nine percent of the sample used in this
study were from the Social Class I (upper SES), 33% were from Social
Class II (upper-middle SES), 14% were from Social Class III (middle SES),
10% were from Social Class IV (middle-lower SES), and 4% were from
Social Class V (lower SES). Based on data available from university ad-
missions, this sample is similar to the undergraduate population at this col-
lege in terms of race, religion, and SES.

Measures

Achievement in Multiple Roles. The Superwoman Scale (SWS)3 (Murnen

et al., 1994) is a 27-item self-report measure designed to assess the desire
to achieve perfection in multiple and sometimes contradictory roles, includ-
ing career success (i.e., Getting the best assignments and fast promotions
at work is important to me; Respect from co-workers and peers is very im-
portant for my self-esteem), attitudes towards parenting (i.e., I will be dis-
appointed if my children did not qualify for the "gifted and talented
program"; As a parent, I will attend all of the school functions of my chil-
dren), community status (i.e., Being known as a prominent woman in the
community is important to me) and the ability to combine roles (i.e., I model
myself after other people who "have it all"--successful marriages, careers
and great kids; While it is hard for most people to do, I think I can have
a strong family life and a very successful career). The SWS was developed
using a sample of college women. Although college students are not cur-
rently participating in all of the roles assessed by the measure, the SWS is
designed, consistent with the Superwoman theory, to tap the expected value
or importance of achievement in multiple roles, rather than actual partici-
pation. Many items are phrased in the future or in the conditional tense.
Respondents are asked to rate how well each statement characterizes them
on a six-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = Extremely Well to 6 =
Not at All. The SWS was developed to assess one underlying dimension of
perfectionistic achievement in a variety of domains. Significant item-total
correlations and the finding of a single factor from principal components
analysis support use of a single total SWS score (Murnen et al., 1994). Re-
ported internal consistency (alpha) of the SWS was .83 and test-retest cor-
relation over a three week period was .80 (Murnen et al., 1994).

3A copy of the Superwoman Scale can be obtained from Dr. Sarah Murnen, Department of
Psychology, Kenyon College, Gambier, OH 43022.
466 Hart and Kenny

Murnen et al. (1994) assessed the validity of the SWS using a sample
of college women. Significant and positive correlations (r = .35, p < .001)
with scores on the LinviUe Self-Roles Inventory (Linville, 1985), a measure
assessing the importance of different roles to sense of self, provide evidence
that the SWS is assessing commitment to multiple roles. As the Super
Woman was put forth as an alternate conceptualization of contemporary
gender-roles for women, Murnen et al. (1994) hypothesized that the SWS
would be minimally correlated with adherence to traditional feminine traits.
As expected, the SWS was not significantly correlated (r = -.01, p > .05)
with the femininity scale of the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (Spence
& Helmreich, 1978). A significant correlation (r = .29, p < .001) was found
between the SWS and the masculinity scale of the Personal Attributes
Questionnaire. Murnen et al. interpreted this finding as consistent with the
view of the Super Woman adhering to traditional male values of achieve-
ment and fitness. SWS scores were also related to total scores of the EDI
(r = .23, p < .01) (Murnen et al., 1994), providing initial support for a
relationship between eating disorder symptoms and Super Woman ideals.
Importance of Appearance. The Importance of Appearance Scale
(Timko et al., 1987) is a five-item, self-report measure designed to obtain
ratings of importance for being physically fit, slim, physically attractive to
members of the same sex, physically attractive to members of the opposite
sex, and attentive to physical appearance (Timko et al., 1987). Each of the
five attributes are rated from 1 = Not at All Important to 5 = Extremely
Important. Internal consistency reliability for the Importance of Appear-
ance Scale calculated for this study was .77. In terms of validity, Timko et
al. (1987) found that Importance of Appearance scores were largely unre-
lated to measures of body dissatisfaction, supporting the hypothesis that
importance of appearance is a construct which is distinct from the degree
of satisfaction with one's body size and physical appearance.
Attachment. The Parental Attachment Questionnaire (PAQ; Kenny,
1987) is a 55-item, self-report inventory designed to operationalize
Ainsworth et al.'s (1978) conceptualization of attachment with adolescents
and young adults. The PAQ consists of three scales derived from factor
analysis: Affective Quality of Attachment (24 items); Parental Fostering of
Autonomy (14 items); and Parental Role in Providing Emotional Support
(14 items). A five-point Likert scale (1 = Not at All to 5 = Very Much)
is used for rating each item. Internal consistencies (coefficient alphas)
across the three subscales of the PAQ are adequate, ranging from .88 to
.96 (Kenny, 1990). Test-retest stability over a two week interval ranges from
.82 to .91 (Kenny, 1990; Kenny & Hart, 1992). The scales of the PAQ are
consistent with Ainsworth et al.'s theoretical model of attachment as a con-
tinuous affective bond which provides a secure base for emotional support
Super Woman Ideal 467

and for fostering autonomy and mastery of the environment. Support for
validity of the PAQ includes predictable relationships between the PAQ
scales and the subscales of the Family Environment Scale (Moos, 1985;
Kenny & Donaldson, 1991) and theoretically consistent relationships be-
tween PAQ scores and measures of psychological functioning (Holmbeck
& Wandrei, 1993; Kenny & Donaldson, 1991). Because correlations be-
tween the PAQ Affective Quality of Parental Attachment and PAQ Parental
Role in Providing Emotional Support have been high (Kenny & Donaldson,
1991), those scales have been combined in previous research (Kenny &
Hart, 1992).
Eating Disorder Symptoms. The eight scales of the original EDI and
two (Impulse Regulation and Social Insecurity) of the three provisional
scales of the EDI-2 were used to assess eating disorder symptoms. The
EDI has been frequently used in nonclinical populations including college
students (Hesse-Biber, 1989; Klemchuk, Hutchinson & Frank, 1990) and
has been used for screening purposes to determine disordered eating pat-
terns and behaviors in a nonclinical population. The eight scales included
in both the EDI and EDI-2 and used in this study are Drive for Thinness
(excessive concern with dieting and weight); Bulimia (tendency towards epi-
sodes of uncontrolled overeating usually followed by the impulse to engage
in self-induced vomiting); Body Dissatisfaction (dissatisfaction with overall
shape and with the size of those regions of the body that are of the greatest
concern to those with eating disorders); Ineffectiveness (feelings of general
inadequacy, insecurity, worthlessness, and lack of control over one's life);
Perfectionism (the extent to which one believes that personal achievement
should be superior); Interpersonal Distrust (an individual's general feeling
of alienation and reluctance to form close relationships); Interoceptive
Awareness (reflecting one's lack of confidence in recognizing and accu-
rately identifying emotions or visceral sensations related to hunger or sa-
tiety); and Maturity Fears (the desire to retreat to the security of
childhood). The three provisional scales added to form the EDI-2 are As-
ceticism (tendency to seek virtue through the pursuit of spiritual ideal such
as self-discipline, self-denial, self-restraint, self-sacrifice, and control of bod-
ily urges); Impulse Regulation (tendency toward impulsivity, substance
abuse, recklessness, hostility destructiveness in interpersonal relationships
and self-destructiveness); and Social Insecurity (the belief that social rela-
tionships are tense, insecure, disappointing, unrewarding and, generally of
poor quality). Psychometric properties for the original scales EDI scales
are good (Garner & Olmstead, 1984). Reported internal consistency reli-
abilities for the new subscales for nonpatient college women were .44 for
Asceticism, .79 for Impulse Regulation and .80 for Social Insecurity (Gar-
468 Hart and Kenny

ner, 1991). We decided not to include the Asceticism scale in our analyses
because of inadequate reliability.
The EDI-2 contains a six-point Likert response scale, ranging from
"always" to "never." Garner (1991) maintains that responses in the non-
symptomatic direction should not contribute to the total subscale score re-
flecting psychopathology. For scoring purposes, therefore, each item
response is weighted prior to scoring from zero ("asymptomatic" direction)
to three ("symptomatic" direction), with positively scored items weighted
as follows: Always = 3, Usually = 2, Often = 1, Sometimes = 0, Rarely
= 0, Never = 0. Reverse-scored items were weighted as: Never = 3, Rarely
= 2, Sometimes = 1, Often = 0, Usually = 0, Always = 0.

Procedure

Participants for the study were recruited from five different dormito-
ries on the college campus. Dorm counselors provided a list of female resi-
dents and their dorm room numbers. The primary researcher systematically
visited the dorm rooms of all female residents and invited those students
who were in their rooms to voluntarily participate in the study by complet-
ing a questionnaire packet within one-and one-half hours in exchange for
a free hand painted T-Shirt with a colorful abstract design. One hundred
and eighty-three questionnaire packets were distributed over a four day
period. Eighty-five percent (N = 156) of the questionnaire packets were
completed and returned within the one- and one-half hour time period.

RESULTS

Sample Characteristics

The sample means and standard deviations for all variables are pre-
sented in Table I. In comparison with published norms for nonpatient col-
lege females, the EDI-2 subscale percentile ranks for the students
participating in this study were as follows: (Drive for Thinness, 73 %ile,
Body Dissatisfaction, 69 %ile; Ineffectiveness, 81%ile; Perfectionism, 71
%ile: Interpersonal Distrust, 76 %lie; Interoceptive Awareness, 83 %ile,
and Maturity Fears, 79 %ile; Garner, 1991). Percentile ranks for non-pa-
tient college women for the new subscales (Impulse Regulation and Social
Insecurity) are not published.
Super Woman Ideal 469

Table I. Means and Standard Deviations for Importance of Appearance, Superwoman

Scale, Parental Attachment Questionnaire, and the EDI-2
Variable M SD Range
1. Importance of Appearance Scale 18.06 3.64 9-25
2. Superwoman Scale 102.26 15.60 73-150
Parental Attachment Questionnaire
3. AffectiveQualtiy/Emotional Support 126.19 22.70 52-161
4. Fostering of Autonomy 51.87 9.90 I7-70
Eating Disorder Inventory-2(EDI-2)
5. Drive for Thinness 6.86 5.99 0-20
6. Bulimia 2.40 3.44 0-22
7. Body Dissatisfaction 13.81 8.39 0-27
8. Ineffectiveness 2.71 3.87 0-20
9. Perfectionism 6.65 4.33 0-18
10. Interpersonal Distrust 2.80 3.75 0-19
11. Interoceptive Awareness 3.74 4.25 0-26
12. Maturity fears 2.98 2.92 0-15
13. Impulse Regulation 2.82 3.38 0-17
14. Social Insecurity 3.43 3.14 0-14

Components of the Superwoman Construct and Eating Disorder Symptoms

To observe the overall interrelationship among variables, we first com-

puted simple correlation coefficients (see Table II). Age was included in
the correlation matrix to determine whether student age was associated
with perceptions of parental attachment. The finding that age was not sig-
nificantly related to parental attachment is consistent with previous college
student and young adult research (Kenny, 1987; Kenny & Hart, 1992,
Lapsely, Rice, & FitzGerald, 1990) and with attachment theory expecta-
tions. Attachment is conceptualized as an enduring affective bond. Al-
though actual utilization of parents as a source of support is likely to
decline with age, attachment security (i.e., affective quality of the relation-
ship, perception of the attachment figure as available to offer support if
needed and to encourage independence) is stable and enduring. Because
age was unrelated to attachment, we decided that it was not necessary to
include age in subsequent analyses. According to Tabachnick and Fidell
(1989), variables with correlations of .70 or higher contain redundant in-
formation and should not be entered as separate variables in multivariate
analyses. Since correlations among the independent variables did not ex-
ceed the .70 criteria, they were retained as separate variables.
We used canonical analysis, which provides a means of assessing the
association between two sets of variables, to evaluate the relationship be-
tween the components of the Super Woman construct, as measured by the
47O Hart and Kenny

°
I"

~ .
!

0
I" I" I" I" I" I" I" I" I" I" ""

0
~J " ~" ~" ~'," I" ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

~ 0 0 . ~ , ~ . , ~ . ~ . .
!

So
._ ~ m o

vv
Super Woman Ideal 471

Superwoman Scale, the Importance of Appearance Scale, the PAQ Affec-

tive Quality of Attachment/Emotional Support subscale and the PAQ Pa-
rental Fostering of Autonomy subscale, and the level of eating disorder
symptoms, as measured by ten scales of the EDI-2. In canonical analysis,
weighted linear composites, or canonical variates, are calculated for each
set of variables. The canonical root represents correlations between each
pair of canonical variates. Each root is interpreted by considering the struc-
ture coefficients or patterns of correlations between the canonical variates
and the original variables. Coefficients that are less than .3 are not con-
sidered in interpretation of the root (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1989). The
strength of the coefficients are evaluated in terms of guidelines for coeffi-
cient interpretation presented by Glasnapp and Poggio (1985), where co-
efficients from .30 to .40 are low to moderate, .40 to .60 are moderate, .60
to .80 are moderate to high, and greater than .80 are high.
The results of the canonical analysis were significant, Pillai's V = .96,
F (40, 548) = 4.31, p < .001, power = 1.00, indicating a significant overall
relationship between the components of the Super Woman ideal and the
EDI scales. Three significant roots were obtained, accounting respectively
for 44%, 27% and 17% of the variance between the canonical composites.
Each root describes a different pattern of relationships between the two
sets of variables. According to the structure coefficients, presented in Table

Table IlL Structure Coefficients for Canonical of Importance of Appearance,

Superwoman Scale, Parental Attachment Questionnaire, and the EDI-2
Measure Root 1 Root 2 Root 3
1. Importance of Appearance Scale .599 -.018 .795
2. Superwoman Scale .805 .585 -.042
Parental Attachment Questionnaire
3. Affective Qualtiy/Emotional Support -.342 .719 .317
4. Fostering of Autonomy -.664 .608 .297
Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2)
5. Drive for Thinness .671 .156 .408
6. Bulimia .556 -.312 .328
7. Body Dissatisfaction .304 -.368 -.222
8. Ineffectiveness .433 -.591 .148
9. Perfectionism .736 .292 -.495
10. Interpersonal Distrust .481 -.473 -.014
11. Interoceptive Awareness .584 -.425 -.006
12. Maturity fears .261 -.248 -.181
13. Impulse Regulation .649 -.276 -.068
14. Social Insecurity .532 -.785 -.037
.665 .521 .409
472 Hart and Kenny

III, the predictor variables of the first root are characterized by a low to
moderate negative loading on the PAQ Affective Quality/Emotional Sup-
port subscale, a moderate to high negative loading on the PAQ Fostering
of Autonomy subscale, a moderate positive loading on the Importance of
Appearance Scale and a high positive loading on the SWS. The criterion
variables for the first root are characterized by moderate to high loadings
on all EDI-2 subscales, with the exception of Body Dissatisfaction and Ma-
turity Fears. This root suggests that college women who strive to be suc-
cessful in multiple roles, who place importance on being physically
attractive, and who view their parental relationships as somewhat negative
and as discouraging of independence are likely to express a wide range of
psychological characteristics associated with eating disorders.
The second root is characterized in the set of predictor variables by
moderate to high positive loadings on the PAO subscales and a moderate
positive loading on the SWS. In the set of criterion variables, the root is
characterized by a moderate to high negative loading on Social Insecurity,
moderate negative loadings on Ineffectiveness, Interpersonal Distrust, and
Interoceptive Awareness, and low negative loadings on Bulimia and Body
Dissatisfaction. In other words, college women who experience their pa-
rental relationships as affectively positive, emotionally supportive, and fa-
cilitative of independent strivings, and are striving to be successful in a
variety of roles, are likely to view their social relationships as rewarding,
to view themselves as adequate and effective, to be willing to form close
relationships, and to express confidence in accurately identifying their own
emotions and internal states. They are also somewhat unlikely to report
body dissatisfaction and bulimic behavior. The third root is characterized
in the set of predictor variables by a moderate to high positive loading on
Importance of Appearance and a low positive loading on the PAQ Affective
Quality/Emotional Support subscale and in the criterion variables by a
moderate positive loading on Drive for Thinness, a moderate negative load-
ing for Perfectionism, and a low positive rating on Bulimia. In other words,
valuing physical appearance, while also experiencing a somewhat positive
parental relationship, may be negatively associated with perfectionism, yet
positively associated with a drive for thinness and some tendency toward
bulimic behavior.

DISCUSSION

Our findings lend empirical support for the hypothesized relationship

between the Super Woman (Steiner-Adair, 1986) ideal of femininity and
the presence of eating disorder symptoms. More significantly, we believe,
Super Woman Ideal 473

they serve to clarify the complex and varied patterns of relationships be-
tween components of the Super Woman ideal and the diverse symptoms
associated with eating disorders, and add to the growing body of research
identifying positive associations between secure parental attachment and
psychological well-being among late adolescents and young adults (Holm-
beck & Wandrei, 1993; Kenny & Donaldson, 1991; Kenny & Hart, 1992;
Lapsley, Rice & FitzGerald, 1990). Consistent with the Super Woman hy-
pothesis, our findings suggest that striving to achieve in multiple roles, while
placing a strong value on physical appearance and experiencing parental
attachments as not facilitative of autonomy and somewhat affectively nega-
tive are associated with self-reports of numerous eating disorder symptoms.
Our findings indicate, however, that striving to achieve is not always harm-
ful. We found that women who report achievement strivings in conjunction
with emotionally supportive and autonomy facilitating parental attachments
describe themselves as socially and interpersonally competent and aware
of their emotional and internal states. There is also a tendency for these
women to report low levels of body dissatisfaction and bulimic behavior.
The predominant pattern of associations emerging from our analyses,
as reflected in the first root, resembles the Super Woman pattern described
by Steiner-Adair (1986). Women who describe themselves as wanting to
excel in multiple, and sometimes contradictory roles, and who express the
belief that it is very important for them to look good, also tend to report
a variety of eating disorder symptoms. These woman also tend to describe
their parents as not fostering their autonomy and tend to report a some-
what negative relationship with their parents.
Relational theorists (Kaplan & Klein, 1985; Steiner-Adair, 1986) claim
that pathological patterns within modern culture and family contribute
jointly to the development of eating disorder symptoms and that the con-
ceptualization of eating disorders as merely a problem in separation-indi-
viduation is limited. Although the finding of an association of eating
disorder symptoms with a view of parents as not supporting age-appropriate
autonomy is consistent with descriptions of enmeshed family systems,
emerging from the clinical family therapy literature (e.g., Minuchin, Ros-
man, & Baker, 1978), and with previous research indicating an association
between separation difficulties and eating disorder symptoms (Friedlander
& Siegel, 1990; Heesacker & Neimeyer, 1990), the associations revealed in
our data are more complex. Relational theorists (Kaplan & Klein, 1985;
Steiner-Adair, 1986) argue that cultural pressures concerning physical ap-
pearance and achievement in multiple roles negatively impact the psycho-
logical well-being of women and that the autonomy strivings of young
women need to be accomplished within the context of supportive emotional
relationships, with the goal of attaining interdependence rather than inde-
474 Hart and Kenny

pendence. Those views are consistent with the pattern of associations re-
vealed in our findings and are consistent with attachment theory expecta-
tions (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Bowlby, 1969, 1988). Based upon a study of
women involved in inpatient treatment for eating disorders, Armstrong &
Roth (1989) reported, similarly, that the separation difficulties associated
with eating disorders appear to be better explained by insecure attachments
than by failures in separation-individuation alone.
The second root supports the adaptive value of secure parental at-
tachments, suggesting that eating disorder symptoms cannot be simply ex-
plained as a function of high achievement strivings. We found that
characteristics of secure attachment coupled with achievement strivings
were positively associated with self-perceptions of social confidence, feel-
ings of personal effectiveness, interpersonal trust and interoceptive aware-
ness, as well as somewhat negatively associated with body dissatisfaction
and bulimic behavior This pattern of associations is consistent with
Bowlby's (1973) hypothesis that models of self that are developed in the
context of secure attachment contribute to feelings of positive self-worth,
confidence, enhanced self-awareness, and perceptions of others as respon-
sive and trustworthy. The findings are also consistent with the position of
relational theorists (Kaplan & Klein, 1985; Steiner-Adair, 1986, 1989) that
encouragement of autonomy within a context of emotional support and
connection is facilitative of psychological well-being. In contrast with the
first root, which revealed the maladaptive potential of high achievement
strivings among college women, this root suggests that high achievement
strivings are adaptive, when associated with a context of secure attachment
relationships and feelings of social confidence and personal effectiveness.
The third root highlights the contribution of an emphasis on physical
appearance to a concern with weight and dieting. College women who value
physical appearance tend to report concerns about weight and dieting and
may report some bulimic behavior. In comparison with the previous roots,
they tend to report low levels of perfectionism. When viewed in conjunction
with our other findings, the psychological and sociocultural determinants
of eating disorders appear complex. An emphasis on personal appearance'
is associated with concerns about weight and dieting and perhaps bulimic
behavior, but may not explain other traits (i.e., ineffectiveness, perfection-
ism, interpersonal distrust) that have been considered clinically relevant to
eating disorders (Garner, 1991).
The components of the Super Woman model assessed in this study
contribute to the empirical explanation for a variety of characteristics as-
sociated with eating disorders. Some eating disorder characteristics, how-
ever, seem to be explained more fully than others. Body Dissatisfaction
and Maturity Fears, for example, did not contribute strongly to any of the
Super Woman Ideal 475

three roots. It is likely, therefore, that those symptoms are associated with
factors not included in our analyses. Previous research (Kenny & Hart,
1992) found no significant association between attachment security and
Body Dissatisfaction and Maturity Fears. Those authors speculated that
Body Dissatisfaction may be influenced more by sociocultural than family
factors. The current study suggests, however, that internalizing sociocultural
values for physical appearance does not necessarily result in higher levels
of body dissatisfaction. Body dissatisfaction appears to be pervasive among
college women (Hesse-Biber, 1989; Klemchuck, Hutchinson & Frank,
1990). Consistent with that view, the scale mean for Body Dissatisfaction
in this study exceeded other scales, yet the percentile ranking for that scale
as derived from college norms was generally consistent with percentiles for
other scales. Perhaps, in order to more fully explain individual differences
in body dissatisfaction levels, some actual reporting of body type and weight
would be useful.
Our findings contribute to the understanding of sociocultural corre-
lates of eating disorder symptoms, but must be interpreted with an aware-
ness of methodological limitations. As a correlational and cross-sectional
study, causal implications are not warranted. Although theoretical models
guided the development of our hypotheses and interpretations, alternate
explanations for our findings are possible. For example, it is possible that
students' current affective states affect their evaluation of parental rela-
tionships (Lewinsohn & Rosenbaum, 1987). Perfectionistic characteristics
associated with eating disorders, rather than sociocultural pressures for
achievement, may lead young women to strive for perfection in multiple
roles. Concern for appearance may be as much a symptom of eating dis-
orders as a cause. Longitudinal studies may be helpful in distinguishing
between correlates and determinants of eating disorder symptoms. Our
findings are limited further by the use of self-report methods. Social de-
sirability and common method variance may account for at least part of
the variance shared by our measures. Observational methods, third person
reports and behavioral interviews may be useful in future research for ob-
taining more objective data. Sample characteristics are another limiting fac-
tor. Findings obtained from this predominantly white, upper-middle class
sample attending a private, Jesuit university, may not be generalizable to
women of other ages, races, religions or social classes. Our findings also
cannot be generalized to women clinically diagnosed as eating disordered.
The factors associated with varied levels of eating disordered symptoms
among college women may differ from those associated with clinical mani-
festations of the disorder. Steiner-Adair (1986) suggested, however, that a
continuum from normal female development to eating disorders may be
defined by degree of susceptibility to sociocultural pressures for thinness,
476 Hart and Kenny

autonomous career achievement and devaluing close relationships. The re-

lationships among those sociocultural pressures and the clinical diagnosis
of eating disorders remains to be explored in future research.
With these limitations in mind, our irmdings suggest that sociocultural
pressures and family patterns are associated in a complex way with eating
disorder symptomotology. These findings have implications for enhancing
the psychological well-being of college women and, perhaps, for decreasing
levels of eating disorder symptoms. Cultural messages emphasizing the im-
portance of physical beauty and thinness may be unhealthy for women,
especially when coupled with internalized pressures to achieve in multiple
domains and family environments that lack a supportive context for the
attainment of autonomy. Our findings suggest that a context of parental
emotional support and promotion of autonomy may be facilitative of
achievement strivings and feelings of social competence. We need to con-
sider ways for young women to cope with the possible adverse impact of
beauty ideals, while not forfeiting achievement strivings in other domains.

REFERENCES

Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waiters, E., & Wally, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment:
A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Earlbaum.
Armstrong, J. G., & Roth, D. M. (1989). Attachment and separation difficulties in eating
disorders: A preliminary investigation. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 141-155.
Batgos, J. & Leadbeater, B. J. (1994). Parental attachment, peer relations, and dysphoria in
adolescence. In M. Sperling & W. H. Berman (Eds)., Attachment in adults: Clinical and
developmental perspectives (pp. 155-178). New York: Guilford Press.
Bl0s, P. (1967). The second individuation process of adolescence. Psychoana(Ftic Study of the
Child, 72, 162-186.
Boskind-White, M., & White, W C. (1983). Bulimarexia: The binge purge cycle. New York:
Norton.
Bowlby, J. (1969).Attachment and loss: Vol. I: Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1973).Attachment and loss, VoL 11."Separation. New York: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. New
York: Basic.
Bruch, H. (1978). The golden cage: The enigma of anorexia nervosa. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Cantrell, P. J., & Jon, E. B. (1991). Gender role and risk patterns for eating disorders in men
and women. Journal of Clinical psychology, 47, 53-57.
Dunn, P., & Ondercin, P. (1981). Personality variables related to compulsive eating in college
women. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37, 43-49.
Freud, A. (1969). Adolescence as a developmental disturbance. In Kaplan, G., & Lebovici, S.
(Eds.), Adolescence: Psychosocial Perspectives. New York: Basic Books.
Friedlander, M., & Siegel, S. (1990). S e p a r a t i o n - i n d i v i d u a t i o n difficulties and
cognitive-behavioral indicators of eating disorders among college women. Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 37, 74-78.
Garner, D. (1991). Eating Disorder Inventory-2. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment
Resources.
Super Woman Ideal 477

Garner, D. M., & Olmsted, M. P. (1984). Eating Disorder Inventory. Odessa, FL: Psychological
Assessment Resources.
Garner, D. M., & Olmsted, M. P., Bohr, Y., & Garfinkel, P E. (1982). The eating attitudes
test: Psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychological Medicine, 12, 871-878.
Garner, D. M., Olmsted, M. P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a
multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia. International
Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 15-34.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Glasnapp & Poggio. (1985). Essentials of statistical analysis for the behavioral sciences.
Columbus, OH: Merril.
Gordon, R. A. (1990). Anorexia and bulimia: Anatomy of a social epidemic. Cambridge, MA:
Basil Blackwell.
Hatsukami, D., Owen, P., Pyle, R., & Mitchell, J. (1982). Similarities and differences on the
MMPI between women with bulimia and alcohol or drug abuse problems. Addictive
Behaviors, 7, 435-439.
Heesacker, R. S., & Neimeyer, G. J. (1990). Assessing object relations and social cognitive
correlate of eating disorders. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 37, 419-426.
Hesse-Biber, S. (1989). Eating patterns and disorders in a college population: Are college
woman's eating problems a new phenomenon? Sex Roles, 20, 71-89.
Hollingshead, A. B. (1957). Two factor index of social position. Unpublsihed manuscript, Yale
Station. New Haven, C'E
Holmbeck, G. N., & Wandrei, M. L (1993). Individual and relational predictors of adjustment
in first-year college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 40, 73-78.
Hsu, G. L. K. (1990). Eating disorders. New York: The Guilford Press.
Kaplan, A. G., .& Klein, R. (1985). The relational self in late adolescent women. Works in
Progress. (Rep. No. 17). Wellesley, MA: Wellesley College, Stone Center for
Developmental Services and Studies.
Katsman, M. A., & Wolchik, S. A. (1984). Bulimia and binge eating in college women: A
comparison of personality and behavioral characteristics. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology, 52, 423-428.
Kenny, M. (1987). The extent and function of parental attachment among first-year college
students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16, 17-27.
Kenny, M. E. (1990). College seniors' perceptions of parental attachments: The value and
stability of family ties. Journal of College Student Development, 31, 39-46.
Kenny, M., & Donaldson, G. (1991). Contributions of parental attachment and family
structure to the social and psychological functioning of first year college students. Journal
of Counseling Psychology, 38, 479-486.
Kenny, M., & Hart, K. (1992). Relationship between parental attachment and eating disorders
in an inpatient and a college sample. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39, 521-526.
Klemchuck, H. P., Hutchinson, C. P., & Frank, R. I. (1990). Body dissatisfaction and
eating-related problems on the college campus: Usefulness of the Eating Disorders
Inventory with a nonclinical population. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 37, 297-305.
Lapsley, D. K., Rice, K. G., & FitzGerald, D. (1990). Adolescent attachment, identity, and
adjustment to college: Implications for the continuity of adaptation hypothesis. Journal
of Counseling and Development, 68, 561-565.
Lewis, L D., & Johnson, C. (1985). A comparison of sex role orientation between women
with bulimia and normal controls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 4, 247-257.
"Lewinsohn, P. M., & Rosenbaum, M. (1987). Recall of parental behavior by acute depressives,
remitted depressives, and nondepressives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52,
611-619.
Linville, P. W. (1985). Self-complexity and affective extremity: Don't put all of your eggs in
one cognitive basket. Social Cognition, 3, 94-120.
Miller, J. B. (1976). Toward a new psychology of women. Boston: Beacon Press.
Mintz, L. B., & Betz, N. E. (1988). Prevalence and correlates of eating disordered behaviors
among undergraduate women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35, 463-471.
478 Hart and Kenny

Minuchin, S., Rosman, B. L., & Baker, L. (1978). Psychosomatic families: Anorexia nervosa in
context. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Moos, R. (1985). Family environment scale manual Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists
Press.
Murnen, S. K., Smolak, L., & Levine, M. P. (1994). Development of a scale to measure adherence
to the "Superwoman" construct. Unpublished manuscript, Kenyon College.
Norman D. K., & Herzog, D. B. (1983). Bulimia, anorexia nervosa and anorexia nervosa with
bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2, 43-52.
Orleans, C. "1:, & Barnett, L. R. (1984). Bulimarexia: Guidelines for behavioral assessment
and "lIreatment. In R. C. Hawkins, W. J. Fremouw, & P. E Clement (Eds.), The Binge-Purge
Syndrome (pp. 144-182). New York: Springer.
Raciti, M. C., & Norcross, J. C. (1987). The EAT and EDI: Screening, interrelationship and
psychometrics. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 6, 579-586.
Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1978). Masculinity and Femininity: Their psychological
dimensions, correlates, and antecedents. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Steiner-Adair, C. (1986). The body politic: Normal female adolescent development and the
development of eating disorders. Journal of The American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 14,
95-114.
Steiner-Adair, C. (1989). Developing the voice of the wise woman: College students and
bulimia. Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 3, 151-165.
Striegel-Moore, R. H., McAvay, G., & Rodin, J. (1986). Psychological and behavioral
eorrelates of feeling fat in women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 5, 935-947.
Striegel-Moore, R. H., Silberstein, L. R., & Rodin, J. (I986). Toward an understanding of risk
factors for bulimia. American Psychologist, 42, 247-263.
Surrey, J. L. (1984). Eating patterns as a reflection of women's development. In Works in
progress~ (Rep. No. 9). Wellesley, MA: Wellesley College, Stone Center for Developmental
Services and Studies.
"Ihbachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1989). Using multivariate statistics. New York: Harper &
Row.
Thorton, B., Leo, R., & Alberg, K. (1991). Gender role typing and the superwoman ideal,
and the potential for eating disorders. Sex Roles, 25, 469-484.
Timko, C., Striegel-Moore, R. H., Silberstein, L. R, & Rodin, J. (1987). Femininity/masculinity
and disordered eating in women: How are they related? International Journal of Eating
Disorders, 6, 701-712.
Van Thorpe, M., & Vogel, E (1985). The presence of bulimia in high school females.
Adolescence, 20, 45-51.
Williamson, D. A., Kelley, M. L., Davis, C. T., Ruggiero, L., & Blouin, D. C. (1985).
Psychopathology of eating disorders: A controlled comparison of bulimie, obese, and
normal subjects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 161-263.