FRACTIONS IN HIGHER EDUCATION

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A) Finding the Inverse Laplace transforms of Fractions
In higher education, the knowledge of partial fraction expansion is applied to find the inverse
Laplace transform of signals. Laplace transformation aids in transforming continuous time
variable domain to the frequency realm. Inverse Laplace transformation involves conversion
of a signal from the frequency domain to the time-domain. Laplace transforms find
applications in the field of engineering analysis; telecommunications, control systems
analysis and design (Kellaway and Kreyszig, 1969). As shown in the example below:

Example 1.1

Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following function:

Solution
To evaluate the above function’s inverse transform the subsequent procedures below are
followed:
i. Using a partial fraction expansion method learnt in Key Stage 5, the given fraction is
split into two partial fractions i.e.

Add LHS of the above equation using the earlier discussed method of addition of
fractions,

Compare the LHS and RHS numerators of the above fractions,

Let s=-3 to find constant A i.e. A = -1

Let s=-4 to find constant B i.e. B= 2

Substitute the values of A and B back into the fraction i.e.

ii. Using Laplace transform tables, find the inverse of the partially expanded fraction i.e.

The inverse Laplace transform of is

B) Finding inverse z-transforms of fractions.
Z-transform is analogous to Laplace transform with the only difference that the former one
transforms only of discrete-time signals from time realm to z-domain while the latter one
deals with the transformation of only continuous-time signals from time domain to s-domain.
Fourier transform can also be used as a substitute for z-transform but it is marred with the
limitation that it doesn’t converge for some signals (Stroud and Booth, 2011). Thus, z-
transform remains the most suitable.
Z-transform establishes a correspondence between sequence x[k] and function X(z).
Mathematically, it is defined by:

This function is defined for all values of z, real or complex, for which the series converges
(Stroud and Booth, 2011).

Inverse z-transformation is defined by the transformation of X(z) back to x[n] sequence.

Several methods of determining inverse z-transform exist, including long division, series
expansion, Cauchy’s theory of residues, rational functions and tables (Stroud and Booth,
2011). Some methods are discussed below:
i. Series Expansion method
This involves expansion of a given fractional polynomial X(z) into a series. Then
the unknown sequence x[k] can then be obtained from the expanded series, as
shown in the example below:
Example 1.2

Evaluate the inverse z-transform of the function: X(z)=

Solution

 Expand X(z) = into X(z) = =

 The term can be expanded into

 Substituting for m=n+6, to get x[n] =

ii. Long Division method

The long division method taught in Key Stage 5 is utilized to factorize the rational
fraction whose inverse z-transform is to be evaluated, as shown in the example
below (Kellaway and Kreyszig, 1969):
Example 1.3

Evaluate the z-transform of the given rational this function:

 Solution
 By use of the long division method learnt in Key Stage 5, the given
function is decomposed into,

 The inverse of X(z) is then read from the tables to be given as,

C) Series and sequence of fractions

To investigate whether a particular series converges to a definite limit, different types of tests
must be carried out. These include the Comparison test, D’Alembert’s ratio test, Ratio
comparison test, Preliminary test, Quotient test, Integral test (Grigorieva, 2016). Some of the
tests are as discussed below:

i). Comparison Test

Of all the tests for convergence, this is the most basic one. It involves comparison between
two series while assuming that the convergence of one of the series is known while the
convergence of the other is unknown. For example, given two series ,

assuming that the convergence of the former is known then, if each term in the second

series is greater than or equal to the term in the first series, for all k greater than K (where
K is a constant number for a particular series) then the original series is also convergent
(Grigorieva, 2016) i.e.

If is convergent & for k>K then the series also converges. The contrary
holds for the case of divergence.

This theory is as demonstrated in the subsequent example:

Example 1.4
Test the convergence of the following fractional series:

Solution

 Choose an arbitrary standard series i.e.

  Add the first two terms of the chosen arbitrary series i.e.

This series is akin to that of

This series is convergent as it is composed of only positive terms with a finite sum.

Since, each term in is less than the corresponding

term in , it is concluded by
Comparison test that the series in question is also convergent (Grigorieva, 2016).

ii). D’Alembert’s Ratio test

In this test, the convergence of a series is determined by making a comparison between the
relative magnitudes of its successive terms i.e.

Given a series , let . The series is convergent if r < 1, else whenever r > 1

then the series is divergent. For the case of r = 1 then the convergence/divergence of the
series remains unknown (Grigorieva, 2016).

This test as procedurally illustrated below:

Example 1.5

Test the convergence of the following series:

Solution

 Determine the value of r by applying the relation

Let then

Then,

 Draw a conclusion from the obtained value of r i.e. since r < 1, the series converges.
iii). Ratio Comparison Test
This test involves a combination of the comparison test and the ratio test. It states that if

, where and are terms of two series with the convergence of the latter series

known (Grigorieva, 2016).

For k>K, then is also convergent.

In a similar way, if for all k then if is divergent then is also divergent

(Grigorieva, 2016).

Further illustrations of this type of test are as shown below:

Example 1.6
Determine if the following series comprising of fractions diverges:

Solution

As the value of k tends to ,

Since the value of r is less than unity, the series converges.

Overall the knowledge of fractions can be used to find the inverse laplace transforms, find
inverse z-transforms and to investigate whether a particular series converges to a definite
limit. These are all the topics within higher education at a degree level.

References

Grigorieva, E. (201)6. Introduction to Sequences and Series. Methods of Solving Sequence

and Series Problems, p. 1-63.

Kellaway, F. W., and Kreyszig, E. (1969). Advanced Engineering Mathematics. The

Mathematical Gazette, vol. 53, no. 386, p. 444.

Stroud, K.A., and Booth, D. (2011). Complex analysis 3. Advanced Engineering

Mathematics, p. 983-1013.