In physics, a force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object.

[1]
A force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (which includes to begin moving
from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate. Force can also be described intuitively as a push or a pull.
A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. It is measured in the SI
unit of newtons and represented by the symbol F.
The original form of Newton's second law states that the net force acting upon an object is equal
to the rate at which its momentum changes with time. If the mass of the object is constant, this
law implies that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on the
object, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
Concepts related to force include: thrust, which increases the velocity of an object; drag, which
decreases the velocity of an object; and torque, which produces changes in rotational speed of
an object. In an extended body, each part usually applies forces on the adjacent parts; the
distribution of such forces through the body is the internal mechanical stress. Such internal
mechanical stresses cause no acceleration of that body as the forces balance one
another. Pressure, the distribution of many small forces applied over an area of a body, is a
simple type of stress that if unbalanced can cause the body to accelerate. Stress usually
causes deformation of solid materials, or flow in fluids.

Contents

 1Development of the concept

 2Pre-Newtonian concepts

 3Newtonian mechanics
o 3.1First law

o 3.2Second law

o 3.3Third law

 4Special theory of relativity

 5Descriptions
o 5.1Equilibrium

 5.1.1Static
 5.1.2Dynamic
o 5.2Forces in quantum mechanics

o 5.3Feynman diagrams

 6Fundamental forces
o 6.1Gravitational

o 6.2Electromagnetic

o 6.3Strong nuclear

o 6.4Weak nuclear

 7Non-fundamental forces
o 7.1Normal force

o 7.2Friction
 o 7.3Tension

o 7.4Elastic force

o 7.5Continuum mechanics

o 7.6Fictitious forces

 8Rotations and torque

o 8.1Centripetal force

 9Kinematic integrals

 10Potential energy
o 10.1Conservative forces

o 10.2Nonconservative forces

 11Units of measurement

 12Force measurement

 13See also

 14Notes

 15References

 16Further reading

 17External links

Development of the concept

Philosophers in antiquity used the concept of force in the study of stationary and moving objects
and simple machines, but thinkers such as Aristotle and Archimedes retained fundamental errors
in understanding force. In part this was due to an incomplete understanding of the sometimes
non-obvious force of friction, and a consequently inadequate view of the nature of natural motion.
[2]
A fundamental error was the belief that a force is required to maintain motion, even at a
constant velocity. Most of the previous misunderstandings about motion and force were
eventually corrected by Galileo Galilei and Sir Isaac Newton. With his mathematical insight, Sir
Isaac Newton formulated laws of motion that were not improved for nearly three hundred years.
[3]
By the early 20th century, Einstein developed a theory of relativity that correctly predicted the
action of forces on objects with increasing momenta near the speed of light, and also provided
insight into the forces produced by gravitation and inertia.
With modern insights into quantum mechanics and technology that can accelerate particles close
to the speed of light, particle physics has devised a Standard Model to describe forces between
particles smaller than atoms. The Standard Model predicts that exchanged particles called gauge
bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed. Only four main
interactions are known: in order of decreasing strength, they are: strong, electromagnetic, weak,
and gravitational.[4]:2–10[5]:79 High-energy particle physics observations made during the 1970s and
1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more
fundamental electroweak interaction.[6]

Pre-Newtonian concepts
See also: Aristotelian physics and Theory of impetus
Aristotle famously described a force as anything that causes an object to undergo "unnatural motion"

Since antiquity the concept of force has been recognized as integral to the functioning of each of
the simple machines. The mechanical advantage given by a simple machine allowed for less
force to be used in exchange for that force acting over a greater distance for the same amount
of work. Analysis of the characteristics of forces ultimately culminated in the work
of Archimedes who was especially famous for formulating a treatment of buoyant forces inherent
in fluids.[2]
Aristotle provided a philosophical discussion of the concept of a force as an integral part
of Aristotelian cosmology. In Aristotle's view, the terrestrial sphere contained four elements that
come to rest at different "natural places" therein. Aristotle believed that motionless objects on
Earth, those composed mostly of the elements earth and water, to be in their natural place on the
ground and that they will stay that way if left alone. He distinguished between the innate tendency
of objects to find their "natural place" (e.g., for heavy bodies to fall), which led to "natural motion",
and unnatural or forced motion, which required continued application of a force. [7] This theory,
based on the everyday experience of how objects move, such as the constant application of a
force needed to keep a cart moving, had conceptual trouble accounting for the behavior
of projectiles, such as the flight of arrows. The place where the archer moves the projectile was at
the start of the flight, and while the projectile sailed through the air, no discernible efficient cause
acts on it. Aristotle was aware of this problem and proposed that the air displaced through the
projectile's path carries the projectile to its target. This explanation demands a continuum like air
for change of place in general. [8]
Aristotelian physics began facing criticism in medieval science, first by John Philoponus in the 6th
century.
The shortcomings of Aristotelian physics would not be fully corrected until the 17th century work
of Galileo Galilei, who was influenced by the late medieval idea that objects in forced motion
carried an innate force of impetus. Galileo constructed an experiment in which stones and
cannonballs were both rolled down an incline to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion. He
showed that the bodies were accelerated by gravity to an extent that was independent of their
mass and argued that objects retain their velocity unless acted on by a force, for example friction.
[9]

Newtonian mechanics
Main article: Newton's laws of motion
Sir Isaac Newton described the motion of all objects using the concepts of inertia and force, and
in doing so he found they obey certain conservation laws. In 1687, Newton published his
thesis Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica.[3][10] In this work Newton set out three laws of
motion that to this day are the way forces are described in physics.[10]