COUNCIL FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING

Korea Nepal Institute of Technology

Butwal -12,Tamnagar
VARIABLE COMPRESSION RATIO ENGINE

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted By

Ganga nath Kawar Yogi (13AU73)

Arjun Bashyal (05AU73)
Krishna Chaudhary (19AU73)
Bishnu Gupta (09AU73)
Anjana Devkota (04AU73)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of

DIPLOMA OF ENGINEERING
In
AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

KOREA NEPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Butwal-12 Tamnagar

Council for Technical Educational and Vocational Training

BHAISHAKHA, 2076
 Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training

KOREA NEPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Butwal-12, Tamnagar

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that the paper based project report “VARIABLE COMPRESSION
RATIO ENGINE” is the bonafide work of “GANGANATH KAWAR
YOGI, BISNU GUPTA, KRISHNA CHAUDHARY, ARJUN BASYAL,
ANJANA DEPKOTA” who carried out the project under my supervision.

………………... …………………

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Er . Bikram Baidhwar Chhetri Er. Anisha Agrahari

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Automobile Department Automobile Department

K.N.I.T Butwal-12, Tamnagar K.N.I.T Butwal-12 Tamnagar

Concept of the paper based viva voce held on 2076-2-1.

..……………………………………… ……………………………………..

Signature of the internal examiner Signature of external examiner

ACKNOWLEDEDGEMENT

This report has been prepared accordance with the partial education programme under
CTEVT for the examination of automobile 3rd year 2nd part.

We would like to express our gratitude and thanks to our respected teacher Er. Bikram
Baidawar Chhetri, Head of the automobile department for granting permission, helping,
encouraging, providing required equipment and extending all facilities for us to carry out
our project report.

Especially, we are also thankful to Er. Anisha Agrahari, Instructor of Automobile

Department and Assistant …….

We had done many different jobs on our project. We had learn individually as well as a
group while doing different jobs in the project work. However it won’t be possible
without the support of respected teachers, friends, instructor, and all member of KNIT.

Also, we would like to thank our institute ‘KNIT’.

 Abstract

The variable compression ratio engine presents several advantages to efficiency and
power density. At low power output, the engine can be made to operate as a high
compression ratio naturally aspirated engine. When high power output is demanded, the
engine can be made to operate as a low compression ratio heavily boosted engine. The
tremendous power density potential also presents the engine designer with a large
opportunity for displacement downsizing while still meeting power requirements for the
application.

The variable compression ratio engine presents several advantages to efficiency and
power density. At low power output, the engine can be made to operate as a high
compression ratio naturally aspirated engine. When high power output is demanded, the
engine can be made to operate as a low compression ratio heavily boosted engine. The
tremendous power density potential also presents the engine designer with a large
opportunity for displacement downsizing while still meeting power requirements for the
application.
CONTENTS

S.N TITTLE PAGE No

1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I

2 ABSTRACT II

3 LIST OF FIGURES III

TABLE OF FIGURE
Introduction of VC Turbo Engine

Variable compression ratio is a technology to adjust a compression ratio of an internal

combustion engine while the engine is in operation. This is done to increase the fuel
efficiency while under varying loads.

Variable compression engine allow the volume above the piston at the top dead centre to
be charged.

Higher loads require lower ratios to increase power while loads need higher ratios to
increase efficiency, i.e. to lower fuel consumption. for automotive use this needs to be
done as the engine is running in response to the load and driving demands. Worldwide
pressure to reduce automotive fuel consumption and CO2 emissions is leading to the
introduction of various new technologies for the automobile engine. The concept of
variable compression ratio (VCR) promises improved engine performances, efficiency,
and reduced emissions.

VCR is identified as the key enabling technology of downsized engines. The search for a
feasible VCR engine has been driven by comprise between WOT( wide open Throttle)
and part-throttle which exists on any fixed CR engine. At low power levels, the VCR
engine operates at higher compression ratio to capture high fuel efficiency benefits while
at high power level the engine operates at low compression ratio to prevent knock. The
optimum compressions ratio is determined as a function of one or more vehicle operating
parameters such as inlet air temperature, engine coolant temperature, exhaust gas
temperature, engine knock, fuel type, octane rating temperature, exhaust gas
temperature, engine knock, fuel type, octane rating of fuel, etc.

The 2019 Infiniti QX50 is the first commercially available car that uses a variable
compression ratio engine.
Introduction:

The mass utilization of hydrocarbon fuels throughout the 20th century has been followed
by a rapid increase in both local and global pollution of the living environments. Moving
into the 21st Century, internal combustion engines will remain a dominant source of
transportation. Therefore, engineers are challenged to continual improve both power
output efficiency as well as reduce emissions.

Originating as early as 1890s, (Asthana, Bansal, Jaggi & Kumar 2016) engine
researchers (Freudenstein & Maki 1983, Sobotowski, Porter & Pilley 1991, Schwader-
lapp, Habermann & Yapici 2002, Nilsson 2007) have been trying to free themselves from
the restriction of a constant Compression Ratio (CR) through the technology of Variable
Compression Ratio (VCR). Only in recent years, has the concept of VCR been found to
be su ciently economical to transition into mass production. Yang et. all records
"Researchers keep a higher emphasis on VCR. According to the survey of (Hoeltgebaum,
Simoni & Martins 2016) more than 120 different kinds of VCR mechanisms have
appeared since 2000. Nearly all famous engine manufactures have invented their own
VCR mechanisms as a technology reserve." (Yang & Lin 2018)

For spark ignited engines the focus has been on greater amounts of downsizing to meet
increasingly stringent fuel economy regulations. Yang et. al summarizes: "In re-cent
years, downsizing with turbocharging has been considered as an e ective way to reduce
fuel consumption. Clenci et al. found that downsizing engines would su er less on
pumping loss and mechanical loss ((Clenci, Descombes, Podevin & Hara 2007)).
Meanwhile, the power is supplied by turbocharging in heavy load conditions. But the
problem is, knock appears once the boost pressure is increased to a certain value in spark
ignited engines. So the degree of downsizing is limited. Simultaneously, the relative low
compression ratio leads to a poor efficiency in common low load conditions, too.
However, VCR could meet the optimizing requirement of the compression ratio in both
heavy load and low load conditions, and thus has become a proper way to further
strengthen downsizing engines with turbocharging." (Yang & Lin 2018)
The use of VCR in diesel engines varies slightly from SI engines. Peic et.
al concludes "In diesel engines, variable compression ratio provides control of peak
cylinder pressure, improves cold start ability and low load operation, enabling the multi-
fuel capability, an increase of fuel economy and reduction of emissions." (PesIc,
Milojevic & Veinovic 2010)
In both cases, the added exibility o ered by variable compression ratios
al-lows for the freedom to in uence the combustion process to achieve more desirable
power/emissions. However, the added mechanical complexity required to vary the
compression ratio adds additional manufacturing cost and losses.
Compression ratio and Engine Performance:
In this section, effects of varying compression ratio on the performance will be discussed.
Performance will be broken down into power output, fuel economy, and emissions.

 Effects of VCR on BMEP

Brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) is demanded as the average pressure that needs to
be applied to the piston from TBD to the BDC to produce the rated brake power. Figure
9.1 shows how brake mean effective pressure is affected by change in compression ratio
in SI engines. Generally the higher the CR the more BMEP can be

Fig. 3.1. BMEP VS Ignition with different CR.

achieved, however it can be seen that for values of CR above 11 the effect seems to be
counter-productive. This is due to the fact that spark is advanced and therefore the
compression ratio at spark is lower than intended. The reason spark is advanced more for
higher compression ratios is due to the fact that self ignition (knock) occurs more readily
at higher compression ratios. Nevertheless, changing the CR from 9, which is a common
value for SI engines, to 11 increases the BMEP by a fair amount (Asthana et al. 2016)?

Effects of VCR on specific fuel consumption:

Brake specific fuel consumption is directly related to thermal efficiency (eq. 2.2) which is
governed by the change in CR. This relation can be expressed as follows:

As CR increases the efficiency also increases, reducing the fuel consumption. However,
the value of CR is limited due to spark advance in SI engines. Based on the work done by
Hariram and Vagesh, reduction in BSFC of about 30% was observed when CR was
increased from 16 to 18 and BTE improved by 13% at full load on increasing the CR for
their VCR CI engine (Hariram & Vagesh Shangar 2015).

Effects of VCR on emissions:

Singh and Shukla (Singh & Shukla 2016) have simulated a single cylinder diesel engine
using Diesel-RK software to investigate the performance, emission and combustion
characteristics of the engine using palm biodiesel and petro-diesel. The simulation has
been carried out for three compression ratios of 16, 17 and 18 at constant speed of 1500
rpm. The analysis of simulation results show that brake thermal efficiency decreases and
brake specific fuel consumption increases with the use of palm biodiesel instead of diesel.
The thermal efficiency increases and the brake specific fuel consumption decreases with
the increase of compression ratio. The higher compression ratio results in higher in-
cylinder pressure and higher heat release rate as well as lower ignition delay. The NOx
and CO2 emissions increase at higher compression ratio due to the higher pressure and
temperature. On the other hand, the specific PM emission and smoke opacity are less at
higher compression ratio. For Diesel engines using biodiesel as fuel, due to higher in
cylinder temperatures, amount of NOx and CO2 increases. The increase in temperature
stems from higher heat release rate for higher CR, based on figure 9.2. On the other hand
the amount of PM and smoke opacity are reduced as CR is increased from 16 to 18 (
Singh & shukla 2016)

Fig. 3.2. Net HRR (left) and Cumulative HR (right)

vs CAD for different CRs (Hariram & Vagesh Shangar 2015
 VCR MECHANISMS
Varying the compression ratio has been considered and researched for over a
hun-dreds years and only now in 2019 was the Nissan In niti QX50 the rst to
come to market. Over the past 100+ years of research and design, hundreds of
patents have been led by most major car brands including; Ford (Rosenthal
1991, James Ryland Clarke & Tabaczynski 2000), Mercedes Benz, Nissan
(Moteki, Fujimoto & Aoyama 2003), Peugeot (Bero 2001), and Gomecsys
(GOmecsys n.d.). The details of the Cr varying concept plays a large role in the
performance of the VCR engine. Asthana (Asthana et al. 2016) compared the
VCR engines to their original designs ( xed CR) on the basis of 8 parameters
namely:- Combustion Chamber Integrity, Crankshaft -piston assembly
kinematics, Mechanical Losses, Engine overall rigidity, e ect of varying CR on
engine displacement, CR control accuracy, Capability to con- trol CR cylinder
by cylinder and Suitability for converting a stock engine into a VCR engine.
As part of his Master's work, Andrew Mitchell completed a patent search in
2012 which found 216 Variable Compression Ratio (VCR) engine designs
(Mitchell 2017).

Several researchers have organized the many di erent patents into conceptual
groups. Modern examples include Roberts in six groups (Roberts 2002) and
Mitchell in four groups (Mitchell 2017). Shikhar Asthana et. al made the most
recent organi-zation of designs using six categories of design concepts (Asthana
et al. 2016):
1. Moving cylinder head

2. Changing the crankshaft axis Changing

3. Changing the geometry of the connecting rod

4. Moving the piston crown relative to the piston-pin axis

5. Dual piston mechanism

6. Gear Based Mechanism

Asthana Et. al notes "Historically, every mechanical element in the power

con-version system has been considered as a means to achieve variable
compression. No attempt is made here to present an exhaustive
listing...."(Asthana et al. 2016).

The Table 4.1 summarizes the six design concepts. In many cases, the
deviation from conventional production engine structure or layout represents a
signi cant com-mercial barrier to widespread adoption of the technology.
However, as governmental regulations and global fuel prices both increase, the
economical factors will become more favorable for VCR engines.

1. Moving cylinder head

The moving head concept (Saab Automobile AB) combines a cylinder head with cylinder
liners into a monohead construction, which pivots with respect to the remainder of the
engine. The lower half of the block includes the crankcase and engine mounts, and carries
the crankshaft, gear box, oil cooler, and auxiliaries. The upper half includes the cylinders,
their liners, camshafts, and an integrally cast cylinder head. This part is referred to as the
monohead. Saab has enabled a tilting motion to adjust the effective height of the piston
crown at TDC. The linkage serves to tilt the monohead relative to the crankcase in order to
vary the TDC position of the piston. By means of actuator and linkage mechanism the
compression ratio can be varied from 8 to 14. A screw type supercharger provides a 2:1
boost pressure when wide open throttle conditions occur [5]. This system gives wide fuel
flexibility, with reduced CO2 emissions proportional to fuel consumption. Saab recognized
that the fuel efficiency of the VCR engine would be low without high-pressure supercharging

Fig.3.3.1. The Saab VCR Engine

2. Changing the crankshaft axis:

FEV, Germany has chosen to alter the position of the crankshaft. In their engine,
crankshaft bearings are carried in an eccentrically mounted carrier that can rotate
to raise or lower the top dead centre (TDC) positions of the pistons in the cylinders
The compression ratio is adjustable by varying the rotation of the eccentric carrier.
Mounting the crankshaft on eccentric bearings is simple in that the reciprocating
assembly itself is unchanged. In fact, the engine requires an offset fixed-position
output shaft; a coupling is required between the movable crankshaft end and the
fixed output shaft. The compression ratio is adaptable from 8 to 14 approximately
by varying the rotation of the eccentric carriers through 55° [4].
3. Changing the geometry of the connecting rod:

The Nissan project uses a multi-link system to achieve VCR by inserting a control linkage
system between the connecting rod and the crankshaft, and connecting this to an actuator
shaft, so that the compression ratio can be varied. This project was incorporated in a four-
cylinder engine without major modification of the engine block. The shorter crank throw
allowed room for the link system, which was anchored by an eccentric rotary actuator.
Compression was varied from 10 to 15 approximately by a 70° rotation of the actuator, while
at TDC, the piston position was changed by 3.1 mm Examining the details of multi-link
system operation reveals some advantages. The most striking advantage is that of
maximum piston accelerations. Tension forces acting through the connecting rod
and piston at TDC represent one of the factors limiting piston speed, so a geometry
that reduces the peak piston acceleration would allow either an increase in
sustainable engine speed or an increasing stroke, either of which is useful in terms
of increasing power output [5]
Fig.3.2.1 Nissan VCR Engine Fig.3.2.2. Mayflower e3 VCR Engine

5. Duel piston mechanism

Ford has patented a means to vary combustion chamber volume by using a

secondary piston or valve. The piston could be maintained at an intermediate
position, corresponding to the optimum compression ratio for a particular condition.
The volume of the combustion chamber is increased to reduce the compression
ratio by moving a small secondary piston which communicates with the chamber
[5], however, this would require a finite length bore in which the piston could travel,
which raises questions of sealing, packaging, and durability.
 Fig.3.4.1 Ford VCR Engine

Varying combustion chamber geometry compromises the area available for intake
and exhaust valves, while moving the cylinder head and barrel is feasible in a
research engine but harder to accomplish in a production vehicle. The cylinder head
cooling needs to be improved by an efficient cooling system and the auxiliary piston
needs proper lubrication for efficient functioning of the VCR engine.
5. Variation of piston deck height

The Daimler-Benz VCR piston design shows variation in compression height

of the piston and offers potentially the most attractive route to a production
VCR engine, since it requires relatively minor changes to the base engine
architecture when compared to other options . Unfortunately, it requires a
significant increase in reciprocating mass and, more importantly, a means to
activate the height variation within a high-speed reciprocating assembly.

Fig.3.5.1 Daimler Benz VCR Piston

This is typically proposed by means of hydraulics using the engine lubricating oil; however,
reliable control of the necessary oil flow represents a major challenge. This is claimed to
reduce the peak firing loads so that the compression ratio variation becomes self-acting
rather than externally controlled. A side-effect would be the momentary variation in
clearance volume during the combustion event, which would, in turn, increase, then reduce
the volume available to the expanding gases.

The University of Michigan developed a pressure-reactive piston for SI

engines. The pressure-reactive piston assembly consists of a piston crown
and a separate piston skirt, with a set of springs contained between them
 Fig.3.5.2. Pressure Reactive Piston Cross Section

This piston configuration allows the piston crown to deflect in response to the
cylinder pressure. As a piston crown deflects, the cylinder clearance volume
increases, lowering the effective compression ratio and reducing peak cylinder
pressure. This mechanism effectively limits the peak pressures at high loads
without an additional control device, while allowing the engine to operate at high
compression ratio during low load conditions [8], It can be easily adapted to the
conventional engine with only changes to piston and connecting rod design. Brake
specific fuel consumption improvements of the pressure-reactive piston engine over
baseline engine at light loads ranges from 8 to 18 per cent. The pressure-reactive
piston shows higher heat transfer losses because of higher surface-to-volume ratio
and produces higher hydrocarbon emission at part load owing to higher
compression ratio and more crevice volume (piston crown design).
6. Moving the crankpins

Gomecsys has proposed to move the crankpins eccentrically to effect a stroke

change at TDC. Figure 3.6.1 shows the Gomecsys VCR engine in which moveable
crankpins form an eccentric sleeve around the conventional crankpins and are
driven by a large gear.

Fig 3.6.1. Gomecsys VCR Engine

Differences in the TDC position may vary up to 10 mm with a rotation of the ring-gear of only 40°. By
rotating the ring-gear slightly to the right or to the left, while the crankshaft is at the TDC position at the
end of the compression stroke, the position of the eccentric can be lifted or lowered. Note that lifting
the eccentric at one TDC automatically causes the other TDC to be lowered accordingly. In order to
effectively downsize the engine, a two-cylinder inline engine is a perfect solution for small cars; the
two-cylinder Go Engine concept is small and lightweight, and total power train costs are comparable
with a small four-cylinder engine. Applications involving staggered crankpin geometry would be less
elegant, requiring multiple gear drives.
 Effects of VCR on specific fuel consumption
Brake speci c fuel consumption is directly related to thermal efficiency (eq. 2.2) which is
governed by the change in CR. This relation can be expressed as follows:
 1
f = BSF C QHV
(3.1)
As CR increases the e ciency also increases, reducing
the fuel consumption. How-ever, the value of CR is limited due to spark advance in SI
engines. Based on the work done by Hariram and Vagesh, reduction in BSFC of about
30% was observed when CR was increased from 16 to 18 and BTE improved by 13% at
full load on

increasing the CR for their VCR CI engine (Hariram & Vagesh Shangar 2015).

3.3 E ects of VCR on emissions

Singh and Shukla (Singh & Shukla 2016) have simulated a single cylinder diesel
engine using Diesel-RK software to investigate the performance, emission and com-
bustion characteristics of the engine using palm biodiesel and petro-diesel. The sim-
ulation has been carried out for three compression ratios of 16, 17 and 18 at constant
speed of 1500 rpm. The analysis of simulation results show that brake thermal e - ciency
decreases and brake speci c fuel consumption increases with the use of palm biodiesel
instead of diesel. The thermal e ciency increases and the brake speci c fuel consumption
decreases with the increase of compression ratio. The higher compres-sion ratio results in
higher in-cylinder pressure and higher heat release rate as well as lower ignition delay.
The NOx and CO2 emissions increase at higher compression ratio due to the higher
pressure and temperature. On the other hand, the speci c PM emission and smoke opacity
are less at higher compression ratio.
 For Diesel engines using biodiesel as fuel, due to higher in cylinder temperatures,
amount of NOx and CO2 increases. The increase in temperature stems from higher heat
release rate for higher CR, based on gure 9.2. On the other hand the amount
 6

Fig. 3.2. Net HRR (left) and Cumulative HR (right) vs CAD for di erent
CRs (Hariram & Vagesh Shangar 2015)

of PM and smoke opacity are reduced as CR is increased from 16 to 18 (Singh & Shukla
2016).
CONTROL STRATEGY FOR VCR:
Fig 4.1 presents a 3-D representation of the Prodrive strategy for boost and CR response
to variations in load (driver demand).

Points 1, 2, 4, 5 lie on the plane of low compression. Point 3 lies on the plane of high
compression. The engine is started at low CR and zero boosts (point 1). When the driver
accelerates, load and boost increase to point 2.When the driver throttles back into a light
load cruise (point 3), load and boost reduce and CR increases. When the throttle is re-
opened from this condition, CR reduces as boost and load increase, reaching point 4 and,
ultimately, point 5 (WOT).For simplicity, the figure assumes only 2 available CR values
(high and low). The same logic can be applied to intermediate values of CR by
considering the transition between intermediate planes of CR.
Benefit:

Hence the important benefits of the VCR engine can be summarized as follows:
—
 Optimum combustion efficiency in the whole load and speed range.
 Low fuel consumption and low exhaust emissions.

 The VCR provides better control over pollutant generation and after-
treatment than a conventional fixed compression ratio (FCR) engine, also
extends the life expectancy of a three way catalytic converter.

 As the geometrical volumetric ratio is under control on VCR engines, the

engine always operates below the knock limit, whatever the load.

 The VCR engine provides excellent fuel flexibility, since the

compression ratio can be varied and adjusted to suit the properties of the
fuel, and therefore the engine will always run at the compression ratio
best suited to the fuel being used for bi-fuel (compressed natural gas
(CNG)/gasoline) power-trains, the realization of VCR is of specific
interest. High fuel flexibility, with optimal combustion efficiency.
 Very smooth idle and full load accelerations are achieved.
 It provides better indicated thermal efficiency than that of FCR engines.

 It allows for a significant idle speed reduction because of reduced

misfiring and cyclic irregularities, resulting in low vibration levels.
 Reduction in low-frequency noise because of constant peak pressures.

 Smoother combustion because the rate of heat release is the same (short)
both at low and high compression ratios.

 Cold starting emissions can be reduced greatly by early catalyst warm-up

in the catalytic converter.

 Improvement in the low end torque of a petrol engine without the risk of
detonation.
 Potential technology for future high-boosting super lean burn engines.
 Low CO2 emissions by down-sizing for the same power output.
 Good idling performance at low ambient temperatures.
 Constant frictional losses owing to almost constant peak pressures

Disadvantage:

 New technology results in high research and development and manufacturing

costs.
 Complex design, hence reliability is not proven.
 Consumer reactions are unknown and unpredictable.
 Repairs and maintenance initially may be difficult and costly
Commercial Barrier:

Variable compression ratio engines have not yet reached the market, despite
patents and experiments dating back over decades. Indeed, several prototypes of
VCR engines and vehicles have been tested. In many cases, the deviation from
conventional production engine structure or layout represents a significant
commercial barrier to widespread adoption of the technology. Some of the
commercial barriers are listed below:-

 The available methods require major changes to the base engine

architecture or layout and represent significant commercial barriers to
widespread adoption of the technology.

 Introduction of additional elements within the crowded combustion

chamber environment threatens to compromise ideal geometry and layout
of the valves and ports.

 Engine-out emissions performance is likely to be undermined by

additional crevice volumes which obstruct complete burning, thereby
increasing hydrocarbon emissions.

 There is a significant increase in reciprocating mass in the case of a

variable height piston.

 Some approaches lead to an increase in vibrations owing to intermediate

members in the connecting rod.
 In some cases, reworking of the entire engine structure is necessary.

 Variable compression ratio designs consist of multilink rod-crank

mechanisms, which may also present a near-to-sinusoidal motion
unfavorable to cylinder filling at low speeds and fine-scale turbulence
ECONOMICS OF VCR ENGINE:

Choosing an appropriate VCR technology is a decisive step to determine the cost of VCR
implementation in future vehicle. The different available VCR technologies have to be
compared by focusing on all the positive and negative impacts on engine components and
their operations. The benefits of VCR also include increased power density, reduced number
of cylinders, sophisticated injection technologies, and complex after-treatment Indeed, to be
marketable, the VCR technology has to present indispensable features such as robustness,
durability, easy integration into all vehicles and low noise and vibration levels.
The real potential of VCR engines will be realized when they are
used in combination with down-sizing and supercharging.
Additional Benefits in Infiniti VC turbo engine:

In typical engines, the piston during the expansion stroke generates lot of side forces on to
the cylinder walls. This is because the connecting rod is at a significant angle with respect
to cylinder. In this engine the connecting rod is kept nearly vertical position, thus almost
eliminating the side-forces on to the walls of the cylinder. This helps in reduced friction,
thus improved efficiency and life of the cylinder.
CONCLUSION:
The VCR engine has great potential for improving part-load thermal efficiency, more
efficient operation, ability to down size the engine, multi fuel flexibility and reducing the
harmful emissions. when compared to other competing technologies. The main obstacles to
adoption of VCR are incompatibility with major components in current production and
difficulties of combining VCR and non-VCR manufacturing within existing plant.

The Potential of these technologies needs to be evaluated by a trade -off between cost and
consumption benefit. It is potentially one of the profitable sources to investigate for the
automotive industry.