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BRI LL A",biti/ 57 (2010) 4j74j4

Piow Mwlim. in the Making:

A Closer Look at Narratives of Ascetic Conversion·

Mun'l.m Siny
Divinity School, Un;~it)' ofChiago

""'-,
lhiJ ankle "amina cOllversion nanlliva of $Orne Sufi aKClics by looking c~ly al their life-
slories as expouno:kd in Sufi biogr3phical traditions. How is dle ascetic convenion lold in me
S.. fi hiognphial """r«S~ What kind of purpost do the UUlic con"",,;on narr;uiva K~? In
what .rose can _ _ the a$«(k pnct'''''' as an intemional langu>gC' of procCSllnd opposition?
and agaillSl whomlwtu.e 1hcsc quaciON form ,he rmjor concern of ,his mick. Oilkmll oar-
r.ui..s of;&SUlic conversion will "" discussN wid! the imention of ,xmonslt;lIinlllh.e larger
conlal of ""n ing me boun<brieo of an Islamic pifty within which the po" n;1 ofiokali...,J piow
Musl ims is framed in the main traditions of Sufi ~nplly. It is, 'MmQrc, hoped ,h;u .his
anick will :shed ligh. on the lrarufornulion of individuals from ordinary proplc 10 idaJiud
piow Muslims.

K..,wonio
hagiography. lsIunic piety. Muslim uonia, m)'SlicimJ,
Asooic ronv=ion, iISa'Iicism, narnlivc:s,
'\Iii biOSnphiallndilionl, f4Hqtlt, uhJ.

Introduction

Most ascelics in all religious traditions are not ascelia because they were born
to the asutic f..mil ies, but Ihere is a moment of what may be called ~a.scetic
conversion." In the Christian mysricalliter.mm::, the nOlion of ascetic or mys-
tical con~rsion has been much discus.sed by scholars. The arly scholars on
conven;ion such as W illiam James focus havily o n Ih is type of conversion.
James provides a psychological explanatio n when he defines conversion as

• I would like (0 ClIprns my dttpoI: gn.lillMk 10 Dr. Martin Ricscbroch (Univnsity of

Chicago) for his a ilial c.ommmu on an carlio:r dnft or mi, artick. My Ihmlu mould aOO go
10 Prof. Michad Sdls (Uniwcniry of C~l who inuoduad me ro (he richncs5 0( 11K Sufi
uadition. I VII indttKtd ro my dar tmoo, Sulcidi Mulyadi (Harvard Univrr$ily), with whom
I dQ.;ussed Ihis article a( its various ~r.aga.
C Kooinldijl« BliP NY, Lridtn. 2010 001 : 10.1 t63Jl ~1005810X5 t9116
438 M. Sirry I ArilbiC4 57 (:10/0) 437-454

Uthc process, gradual or sudden, by which a self hitheno divided, and con-
sciously wrong inferior and unhappy, becomes unified and consciously
right superior and happy, in consequence of its firmer hold upon religious
realities."1 In facr, almosl every biography of "holy man," including Athana-
sius' 7k Lift ofAntony, begins "with a conversion, bur not to Christianity-
rather to the convertibility of one en route to Christian salvation."2 It is also
true of the biographies of early Muslim ascetics (zuhhdti). In sllch biographi-
cal worlu as Tabaqat al-$ufiyya by SuI ami (d. 412/1021) , Ifiiyat al-ow/iyd' by
Abu Nu'arm a1-I~F.hani (d. 430/1038), and others, we can easily fi nd the nar-
ratives of mystical conversion, moslly a sudden, induced by dreams/visions,
voices, or other paranormal experiences. H owever, unlike in Christianity, not
mw;:h anemion has been given to this defining experience that makes asceti-
cism an expression of Islamic piety.
This article examines the conversion narratives of some Sufi ascetics by
looking closely at their life-stories as expounded in Sufi biographical tradi-
tions. Narrative sources on these paragons of piety and commitments are
diverse in tone and contem.Beginning from the early Vth/Xlth century there
emerged a sub-genre of biographical dictionaries, known as .tabaqdt (catego-
ries or classes), that told the life stories and sayings of Muslim ascerics
from generation to generalion.' This study focuses on five biographical books,
namely, Tabaqtit al-$ufiyya by Sulami, f:lifyat al-awliyd' by Abu Nu'aym,
al-Ristila by al-Quiayri (d. 46511072), Kalf Ill-mllhgub by 'Ali l-l;Iugwiri
(d. 46711 074), and Tadkirat al-awliyd' by Farid ai-Din 'A~pir (d. 617/1220).
The reason for selecting these five sources is Simply because they constitute
the main tradition of Sufi hagiography. However, the chief thrust of this arti-
cle is a discussion of the following questions: How is the ascetic conversion

I WiUiam James, 7k ¥drilli", of &/igiOIn Experim~, New Yorle, Routlrog." 2002, 1', 150.
Thi, book i. fi"'l publishro by Longman. in 1902.
, William A. CJebsch, " Prefacc,", in Alhanasiul. 7k Lift ofAnrOlIJ 4nJ tk Lmrr 10 M4rrtlli.
"In, tt:l.llS. Robo:n C. Gregg, N~ J~nq, Pauliil Pras, 1980, p.lfV.
) Wadad Qadi provides a usd"ul accoum for 1m, ~m~rgcnce of Ih~ Sufi biogt:l.phical diction-
aries in the Vth/Xhh cemu!},: ·Th~ biogt:l.phical diaionaries of th~ Sufis ar~ im(J"Qling in whal
m~ ~. Lile~ many O!h~r lub-gcntr:5 of biographical dictionaries, they do nOi begin to
appear until quil( late, al the beginning of Ih~ VlhlXIlh century. Sufism i, a pm,no""'t>On thaI
does not belong 10 the founding <k<:ades of bbm, bUI to a later period. after asceticism had
lale( n root in sociay and had undergone a deep metamorphosis in m~ direction of ,pirilualiry
and social and intellectual <omplcxiry." Afier di.sculSing Sulami"s 'fisblUjdr al-SufiJY4, Quiayri',
a{·Risl/a, and Abu Nu'aym's /fil:Jar aJ.awli]ll·, ,~ men condudc:s that "Sufism, through me
la~r nprrssions of me gcn~ of biographical dictionari ... , w~ giv~n g~al~ validiry, legitimacy,
and <'Yen rOotS, in {~very foundation of Islam." .xc, Wadad Qadi, "Biographical Dictionaries:
Inner Suucture and Culrural Significan~e,· in George N. Ati~h (ro.) 7k Booft in rlH Mamir
World, '*'" York, Stat., University of New York Pr=, 1995, p. I I I.
 M. Sirry I Ambica 57 (2010) -07-454 439
told in the Sufi biographical sources? What kind of purpose do the ascetic
conversion narratives serve? In what sense can we see the ascetic practices as
an intentional language of protest and opposition? and against whom/what?
By discussing these questions I hope to shed light on the transfo rmation of
individuals from ordinary people to idealized pious Muslims.

Conwnion and AKdicum

By conversion I mean ~intensification~ within a single religious tradition. The

Arabic term is tawba (act of repentance).' The concept of tawba is so impor-
tant in ascetic life that it is best described as "a spiritual conversion.ns The
primary meaning of the word taba (from which tawba is derived) is ~to go
back, to return.~ In the Qur'an it is applied to either non-believers who con-
vert to Islam (Kor 25, 70; 28, 67) or to believers who regret an evil act they
have committed (Kor S, 39). The concept of tawba in the Qur'an seems to
have both an orientative and an anitudinal dimension. The orientative
dimension is not only limited £0 simple spadal mecaphor in terms of right
dirtttions, turning about, ways £0 follow, and so forth, bUi it also deepens
in£O subtle, interior concerns of religious experience and emotion. The attitu-
dinal dimension includes such issues as awe in the presence of the holy,
awareness of sin, and the desire to change one's ways.6 In other words, the
tawba does not mean simply "£0 repent ~, but also connotes the idea of
~returning (£0 a beneT state from a worse),W hence, "to convert." As William
James points out, there is something which may be called "a sense of sin" that
predisposes people to religious conversion.? At any tate, the tawba is a central
feuure of Islamic piery. Margaret Smith puts nicely the meaning of tawba in
Islamic mysticism as follows: "It means the abandonment of all that had
hitherto attracted the soul, all worldly pleasures, all sensual joys, all human
ties, and turning to God .. ..".' It is in this context that tawba, according to
Smith, corresponds £0 "conversion" in Christian theology. Through conver-
sion, people turn to GOO.

• Scr: Michael Coo~rson, Classiclt.! Amb;e Bi"f"lPhy, Cambridge, Cambridge Univcrsil)'

Press, 2000, p. 166.
, Chawkar Moucarry, TlNSurrh for Fcrgivmm, L.c:i=ter, lnr~·Var.;il}' Press, 2004, p. 200.
• For a brid" discussion of rhe con<Xpl' of tifwba in the Qur'an, >« Frederick M. Denny,
"1bc: Quianic Vocabulary of Re~ntancc: Orientations and Atfiludcs ," founut! 11/"" Amenclt.,.
Arammyll/fMigio,. 4714 (1980), p. 649-64.
, William JaIne$, v.r,imn, p. 157.
• Margam Smidt, Studies i" EArly Mysticism i" I"" Nrlt.' ami MiJJk UsI, Oxford, Oneworld,
1?95 , p. 170.
440 M. Sirry I AMbit" 57 (2010) 437-454

Whether ascetic conversion is dramatic or gradual in biographical stories

the ex~ric:nce is a part of the larger framework oflif, that £Ypically embraces
a host of specific practices that symbolize and facilitate the ascetic's reorienta-
tion. Biographical sources characterize the refocused spiritual life generally as
the pursuit of piety, devotion, or obedience ('jbJda). This pursuit includes
religious requiremen ts and spiritual practices wider than one expcccs of ordi-
nary folk. OUf sources describe: these actions and animdes in a variety of
ways, including renunciation, self-discipline:. abstinence, spiritual reticence,
scrupulousness and ethical purity (war,i'), withdrawal from society to a life of
s«:iusion Cuzl4), and the deliberate embrace of a life: of poverty (foqr).9
Although asceticism is viewed as only an demem of blamic piety in later
~orthodox" Sufis, in the early Muslim communiry, especially in the first three
centuries of Islam, the image of piery was mostly expressed in an ascetic form.
One possible explanarion is that asceticism was ~a reaction to the worldliness
of the time, and these ascedcs emphasil:ed those Qur'anic verses and pro-
phetic traditions which are predominantly otherworldly in character."'o
The quesdon now is: Why does asceticism become only a pan of Sufism?
Before answering this question, we will first define what we mean by ~asceti­
cism." Who were the ascetics whose conversion stOries will be examined in this
study? Most scholars such as I. Goldzhiher, R.A. Nicholson and L. Massignon
refer to zuhd as an Arabic term for asceticism. " Leah Kinberg prohlematizes
the general tendency of rendering zuhd as asceticism, because the latter ~does
not explain the attitude the zuhhad (if. bearers of Muslim asceticism or
zuhd) towards [he various componenrs of asceticism, such as self-mortifica-
tion, bodily abstinence, the renouncement of pleasures and temptations, the
abandonment of dear people, etc."'! I don't agree with Kinberg's conclusion
that ~the term asceticism is rather vague and generar compared to zuhd.ll
This is a problem of translation. It is true that one word cannot capture the
whole nuances that another word of differem language may have. However, it
is also true that as the (rrm asceticism could mean diffrrent things to diffrrent

• John Renard, Frirnds qfGod- Iskmi( Im.tgn ofPirfJo C,mmitmtrlt, IIlId Snvallrhood, ~r~
ky, 1o5 Angeles, University of Californi~, 2008, p. -0.
'" Muhamm~d Abul Quascm. "Al-Ghaz:o.li's on Islamic Piety," in Muhamed Tahcr (ed.),
E~".tJi( S...r.ory qf Mllmie Cu/t1lrr, New Delhi, Anmol PubiiCltioll$, 1998, XI (Iskmi(
Tho"tht: G..,,,,rhIlM Dtwlopmmt), p. 237.
" Sec: J. Goldziher, Vorlt,-UlIgtn UM tim /slllm, H~idd~rg, Car! WiOlCT'S Un iversicitbuch·
handlung, 1910, p. 10: R.A. Nidlolson, A Lim-.ry History of"" Amb.-, Cambridg.:, Cambridge
Univer5il)' Press, 1941, p. 161: L. Massignon, Ess4i .u. In orip"n du kxiqut ttthllilJut tie III
...,.tiifllt mu,ut1tlllM, Paris, J. Vrin, 1954, p. 230.
" Lnh Kini>trg, "'What is Meant by ZuhJ,· Studi.t IsfllmiCll. 61 (1985), p. 27.
" Ibid.
 M. Sirryt AmbiCil 57 (2010) 437-454 441

people, zuhd has bC"cn defined differendy by the zuhhdd. What I found inter-
esting is that Muslim ascetics themselves onen differ on what is meant by zuhd
to each of them.
The early zuhhdd offered different meanings of zuhd. Some emphasilCd the
contentment with, and trUSt in, God; others emphasized the attitude of zuhd
toward this world. There are also zuhhdd who defined the zuhd in term of its
goal. To mention but a few examples, Fu(,iayl b. 'Iya(,i (d. 187/803) is cited as
saying: "The origin for renouncing this world is contentment with God."1' In
the word of al-5ibli (d. 334/945): "zuhdis to renounce anything which is not
God.~ 1s ·Abd Allah b. Mubarak (d. 1811808) is also reported as saying: "zuhd
is trust in God alongside love of poverty.~16 Some zuhhdd viewed the zuhd
not only as a deep feeling expressed as either contentment o r trUSt in God or
both, but also a demonstration of ascetic behavior. Abu Sulayman al-Darini
(d. 215/829) is reported as saying: "The zahid is not the one who discarded
the anxieties of this world and relaxed from them; this is merely a rest. The
zJhid is the one who renounced this world and wore himself Out for the
world to come."17 AI-Oarani also alluded to the different opinions among
Iraqi aSCC'tics re~rding the meaning of zuhd, and commented, "their scare-
ments are dose 10 each other. But in my view, zuhd is renouncing whatever
makes you turn away from God."11 Sari b. al-Mugallis al-Saqari (d. 253/867)
talked about the goal of J:,uhd as follows: "ascetics leave nothing but for their
own sake. They give up a temporal benefit for an eternal one.n1 ?
Although the term zuhd encompasses a wide range of ascc:tic ways of life,
modern studies dealing with J:,uhd do not regard it as a term with implica-
tions on Islamic society as a whole, but rather as a part of Sufism. In later
Sufi literature. it is only an element oflslamic piety. In his article "The Tran-
sition from Asceticism to Mysticism at the Middle of the Ninth Century
C.E.,~ Christopher Melchert traces when and where the transition took place.
It appears, according to Melchert, that "a transition from asceticism to mysti-
cism took place at about the middle of the ninth century CE.~lQ However,
Melchert found himself in a difficult position to make a precise historical

" Abu 'Abd al-Ral)man al-Sulami, 14baqdt 4l-$i<fiYJll, ikirur, Dar al-kutub al.'ilmiyya, 19')8,
p. 24.
" A1-Qu!.:lyri, 1Il{-RiJJItt, trails. Rabia Harris, Chic:ogo, KAZI Publicollio1lS, 2002, p. 56.
" AJ·Quu.yri, jf{-Riulla, p. 56.
" Abu Nu'arm, /fi{ylft jf{-lIlwliyti' wa+iIIllhutdJ jf{-"ifiyd', Beirut, Dar al-kulub al-'ilmiyya,
1?88, IX, p, 286.
" tbili., IX, p. 271.
,. Al-Qu.iayri, jf{-Ri/dla, p. 14S.
'" Ouulophcr Mdchen. -The Transition from Asceticism to M)1'ticism altho: Middle of lhe
Ninth Ccmury C.E.: SNiJia {s/amira, 83 (1??6), p. 60.
442 M. Sirry I Arabicil 57 (2010) ·137454

transition because even after the middle of the IIIrdlIXth century there were:
people who appeared to be closer (0 the ascerical pole than lO that of mystics;
and these people often called themselves "ascetics" (zuhhaJ). I would argue
that in the first three centuries of Islam the word zuhd was understood in a
broader sense. However, with the development of Sufism iT acquires a more:
technical meaning as a part of Sufi doctrines. By IVth /Xth cemury it Sttms
that the term "Sufi" got more currency than %dhid to the extent that zuhd
was considered :IS only a pan of Sufi tea,hings. Abu. Bake al-Kalaba~i
(d. 385/995), in his Kitiib Ill-Ta'arruf li-madIJab ahlai-ttq4wwuf, discusses
zuhd as only one among many doctrines of the Suns. As Arberry rightly notes,
Kalabagi was able to set the path of scholarship "which was subsequently fol-
lowed by the Sufi who was the greatest theologian of all, Ga:clli (d. 505/1111),
whose 1J;yd' finally reconciled scholastic and mystic."l l In this anicle I confine
my study only to those pious Muslims of the first three: cc:ncuries of Islam
whose conversion stories are told in the five biographical sources.

Narratives of A,c.:etic.: Conwrsion

Conversion accountS playa crucial role in the life stories of dozens of major
figures and in a variety ofhagiographical genre, particularly in anchologies of
holy lives. How should we deal with the conversion narratives? First of all,
not all ascetics' biographies include me StOry of conversion. Nor does each
biographical source mention the conversion Story with the same intensity.
The earlier sources such as Sulami's Tab4qdt 41-$ufi»4 mentions a very few
conversion stories and seem not to pay much attention to it. There is a ten-
dency that the later sources were more elaborate in their description of con-
version narratives. Of the five biographical sources, three: books are written
in Arabic. namely: Tabaqdt 4i-$ufiyya by Sulami, lfiiy4t 4/-4Wiiyd' by Abu
Nu'aym, and 41-Risdia by Qwayri. The other two are written in Persian,
namely: Kaif 4i-mahj;Ub by l;iugw-iri and Tatlkirar 41-4wliyd' by 'Anar. The
Arabic sources use a chain of nansmission (imdri), while the Persian works
do not usc: this type of transmission, but simply mention the story of each
ascetic life.
It is hard (and beyond the scope: of this article:) [0 ascertain whe:ther or not
the: sources with a chain of transmission are historically more accurate:. What
is cc:nain is that the: five: works examined he:re make: explicit cTOss-reference: to

" 5= A.J. ArM!}" "imrooucrion" in Abu Bur a1·Kalabidhi, 1M D<xtri"~"ftMSOlfo, trans.

A.J . Arber!}" Cambridg~. Cambrid~ Uni~rsity Press, 1935, p. IV.
 M. 5irry I A1'Ilbica 57 (2010) 437-454 443

each other, The Ifi/yat al-awliyd' includes a specific reference to Sulami's

Tabaqtit a~$ufiyya, which implies that this ten-volumes work reached its final
form after the completion of the relatively shorter counterpart. Both the form
and content of the Risdltt are similar to that of, and it seems to be based closely
on, Sulami's work. l;Iugwiri's Kaif a/-mahjiib also includes a specific cross-
reference to the arrangement of biographies in both Sulami's Tabaqtit and
QUSayri's Risdltt. ll 'Anar's Ta¢lrirat al-awliyd' makes use of all the aforemen-
tioned works.'} We should keep in mind that we are dealing with hagiograph-
ical works whose primary purpose is not to verifY the historical accuracy of
STories, but rather to retell the stories of paradigmatic figures; works that
include elements of such STories as part of a larger historical or cultural frame-
wo rk. A recent study of the Islamic sainthood describes hagiography as "an
active process of identity formation in conceptual space somewhere bc:cwun
memory and history. That is, hagiography retains origins as diffuse as mem-
ory, yet it is as purposeful and politically driven as history."2~ No matter how
one defines hagiography, one has to appreciate the range of characters that
make up its subject mauer.21
Toward the beginning of many of their major biographical sketches, our
five authors (S ulami, Abu Nu'aym, Quiayri, i:lugwiri, and 'Anilr) insert a
statement such as the following: "His conversion came about in the following
wayn or "the occasion of his conversion is related as follows. n In most of the
cases, they use the third-person narrative, However, there arc: also cases where
the ascetics themselves tell the stories of their conversion especially after being
asked by somebody about how their career had bc:gun. fu Out sources make a
cross-reference to each other, we may expect that they would agree on the fig-
ures whose conversion would be: to ld. But that is nOt the case. They differ not
only on whose ascetic conversion they would mention, but also the intensity
of the narratives. With the exception of Qusayri's RisiLz, the cwo Arabic

" For a d~ail discussion on d,~ four work.., see: Jaw;d Ahmad MojaddMi. the Bi"f"lphi-
,41 TuJilion in S"fism, Britain, Curron P,=. 2001.
" In addilion 10 Ih~ four sources ju.sl "...,nrionffl. A.J. Arb~HY rr.leu twO OrMr sour<:d used
by 'AIlir, na"...,ly /fift4J41 af-m4/Jlib of Abu Mu]:.ammad Ga'far b. Mu]:.ammad Ijuldi
(d. 3481959) and Kitdb 41-Luma' of Abu Nilfr 'Abd Allah b. 'Ali S,urag (d. 378/988). Stt:
A.J. Arlxrry, "Introduction' in Fatid aI-Dio ·AI,!:ir. T.u#imr 41-awliJlf, (r.lOS. Arlxrry : MUJlim
Sain" arlJ Myftits, Chiago, 1M Chicago Uni~rsity~. 1966. p. 1}-4.
" Allen Robe":;. Mary NO<Ker RobertS, Cassia Arm~nian and Ousman~ Gu~. A SAin, in
1M City: Sufi Am DiUrban :w.tgal, Los Angd<:l, Uni~rs.ity "fCalifornia ~,2003, p. 38.
" For a brief (oml"'riwn on the subjecr martcrs of these biograph ical worlc.., Ih~ TabtUfJt
af-$tlfiTP (onrain, 103 biograph id of Sufa: rh~ /filldl af-awliyd' (oma;"" 650 biogr.lphiCS; the
Ri1dl4 comains 83 biographid : rh ~ /Wi 41-mabgrlb contains 78 biogr.lphid: and rhe T4jXh'al
af-ilwliJif coora;"" 97 biogr.lphics.
444 M. Sjrry IAMbic" 57 (2010) 437-454

H
sources are less explicit and "dramaric in depicdng [he ascetic conversion.
Among the first-three-centuries ascetics. only Ibrahim h. Adham (d. 161/777)
whose: conversion is mentioned in all the nve sources, although with some
variations. Bisr b. al-Harit
. - ai-Han
. (d. 227/841)'5 conversion is mentioned in
four sources with the exception of the 7izbllqdt al-$ufiyya. In fact, the TablUJdf
Il~$ufiyya mentions only one ascetic conversion, that is, of Ibrahim h.
Adham. The ljilyllt Ili-Ilwliyti' mentions five stories of conversion, the Ill-Risdla
nine, the K4J! al-maJiiUb eight. and the Taf}kirat a/-aw/iya' cwdve. In what
follows I classify the narratives of conversion according to the driving forces
for pursuing asceticism.

COllVUlion through God's GrllCi

By "God's grace" I mean that the ascedcs did nOt endeavor any physical exer-
cise or self-discipline: before they became ascetics. The eonversion took place
suddenly either by way of hearing a voice or having dream/vision that
prompted such a spiritual transformation. The ascetics believe that it was
God's guidance that led them to such a status. The best example of the hear~
ing of a voice is the case" of IbrahIm b. Adham. All the live sources mention
this story with a significant variation. Quiayri begins the HOry as follows:

He was a king's son. He weill OUi hunting one day and came cross me tracks of
an animal, a fox or a rabbit. While he Wall follOWing ir, a voice from the unseen
called to him, "0 Ibrihim! Is it for this that you were created? Is it to this that
you were commandc(W Then it called "-gain, from the pommel of his saddle,
" By God, it is not for mis mat you were created, and it is nOt to this that you
were commanded!" He got off his hoI'$( and, meeting with one of his father's
shepherds, took the man's woolen garment, put it on, ,,-nd g;lve him in exchange
his horse and all he had wim him. Then he went 10 the desc rt.~ l«

Both Sulami and Abu Nu'aym mention a similar version, however, they
repOrt that Ibrahim was first asked by a person about how his ascetic life had
begun. Who was that person? They differ. Sulami says that it was Abu 'Abd
Allah al-Sabawi; for Abu Nu'aym it was Ibrahim b. BassarY It is worth men-
tioning that l;Iugwiri was able to identify ~the unseen~ from which Ibrahim
heard the voice. It was a deer. l;Iugwiri writes: ~God causN the deer to
address him in elegant language and say: ' Were you created for this or were
you commanded to do this?' He repented, abandoned everything, and

,. A1-Qubyri. A{.Risd14. p. 17·8.

" Submi, "/iIIMqdf af·$UjilJll, p. 37; Abil Nu'aym, /filyat aJ-aw/iyd', VII, p. 368.
 M. S;"1 ' A,.,J,;at " (1010) 437454 ..,
entered on the p:uh of asceticism and arutinence."21 The mOSt clabonate story
o f Ibrahim's conversion is p rovided by 'Anar. For him, Ibrahim was kin g of
Balk ~and a whole wo rld was under his command,".19 not prince as other
sources suggest. h began with a voice he heard at midnight from the roof of
his apartment. At the morni ng, o n his way of hunting, he encountered with a
deer who spoke to him. He IUrned his f.ace from the deer. However, he heard
the same words issuing from the pommel o f his saddle. The story d id nOI end
Ihere. The selfsame voice proceeded from the collar of his cloak. 'Anar then
concludes, ~The revelation was thus consummated, and the heavens were
opened untO him ... .lO
Malik b. Dinar's conversion also falls under this category. If is cited only in
the Persian sources. According to l:iugwiri. one evening Malik was enjoying a
parry of his &iends. When they were asleep a voice came from a lute which
Ihey had been playing: '0 Malik! Why do you not repent?' Malik abandoned
his evil ways and went to J:lasan of Basna, and showed himself Steadfast in
repentance." 'Anar provides the contcxl of this Story as follows. First of all,
according to 'Anar, Malik was a wealthy man. He was very eager to be
appointed in charge o f a mosque built by the Caliph Mu'awiya (d. 60/680)
in Damascus. For the whole year he attended Ihe mosque regu larly. hoping
Ihat whoever saw him wou ld find him at pnayer. " Whal a hypocrite for you!"
he would say to himself. He then left the mosque and took his amuscmen t.
One nighl he was enjoying music. and all his friends had f.tI len in asleep. Sud-
denly a voice came from Ihe lure he was playing: " Malik! What prevenlS you
not to repent?" H earing these words, Miilik dropped the instrumen t and nan
to the mosque in great confusion. That night he worshipped with a rruthful
heart. Ncxt day people asscmbkd and appointed him. However. he nan out
o f the mosque and applied himself to the Lord', work, taking up the life of
ausleriry and discipli ne.n
Most conversion Sto ries in this category arc in the form of dream . Accord-
ing to Abu Nu'aym . Biir b. al-J:lari! al-};Uf'i {the barcfoocl was asked how his
career had begun, he replied :

It was by tht grace of God. What un I ttll you~ I w;u a hooligan ('AJ'J'fr) and the
had of a gang. I was el'OSliing (the it~J orae d~y and noticed ~ piece of p~pcr in

.. t;lugwiri, 1M /V,<hj.I-M.hjilb: t~ OUk1t Pm".n T.,.rilt ~n St-fom , tnn$. R.A. Nkholson,

Kanchi, Darullmul, p. 103.
'" 'AHar, M",lim S4"ntl .nd Ml'Nn, p. 63.
Jo Ibid.• p. 63-5.
,. t;lugwiri, 111<" lWhf.1.M.hjilb, p. 89.
>J 'Anar, MwJim s";'It!.,,J Mptin. p. 26-8.
446 M. 5irry I Arabica 57 (2010) 437-454

the: road. I picked it up and found there 'In the: Name: of God, the: Merciful and
Compassionate GxL' I wiped h off and PUt it in my pocket. I had twO dirhams
with me, which were all I owned, and I went to the perfumers and spent [the
dirhams] on a bottle: of scent, which I rubbed on the: paper. Thai night I fdl aslcq>
and dream.ro that someone W;I.S saying to me: ' BiSr b. a1. I:UriI! You have lifted
Our Name: from the ground and perfumed it, and We shall exalt your name: in
this world and the: nat.' Then everything (hat happened happened."

Quhyri mentions a somewhat similar version. The only differenCe: is (hat he

does not tell us about the: background ofBiSr as "a hooligan and the head of
a g1Ing." Quiayri begins the: story, saying: «He: (Urned to God in the: following
way.~~ l;Iugwiri and 'Agir lell us thaI Sisr was drunk at the: time: he: found
that piece: of paper. Unlike in the: Olher three sources, in l:Iugwiri's narrative,
it was not Bisr who had dream, but "a certain holy man had a dream in
which he was bidden to tell Bik H1S Whoever had dream, certainly that
moment was so intent that he absorbed in contemplation of God to the
extent chat he never put anything on his feet. That is why he was called ~the
barefoot (aJ-l:Iaf'i).~ 'Anar relates that when Bih was asked the reason of rhat,
he said: "The earth is His carpet, and I deem ir's wrong to rread on His carpet
while there is anything between my foot and His carpet.»3/i
The story of Abu I-Sari Man,ur b. 'Ammar (d. 225/839)'5 conversion is also
related to a piece of paper on which basmalll (In the Name of God) was writ-
ten. Quhyri tel ls us that the cause of Abu l-Sari's turning to God was his
finding a scrap of paper in the road on which was written, " In the Name of
God, the Merciful and the Compassionatc." Hc picked it up, and not finding
any place ro PUt it, he ate it. Then someone appeared to him in a dream and
said: "God has opened the door of wisdom for you because of your respect
for the scrap.Hl? Speaking of him, Abu Nu'aym cites a narration in which
someone saw him in a dream after his death, and said: "0 Abu I-Sari! What
has God done with you?» He answered, "He forgave me, and said ro me:
'Abu I-Sari! I forgive you in spite of your misukes. For you always called pe0-
ple to remember Me.mJ! Abu I-Sari is also reponed as transmitting several
Prophetic traditions.

,. Abii Nu'arm, fji{y#t 1I.f-lIw1iyJ'. VlIl, p. 336.

~ Al-QuSayrf, af-RiuJla, p. 24.
" !:Iugwiri, IhdGuhjaJ-Mahjub, p. 81.
'" 'Anar, Muslim Sai"t1I1"J My$h'N, p. 105 _
., Al-Qu!ayrl, al-RiuJla, p. 39.
'" Abii Nu'~ym, fjilyal al-awliyJ·. IX, p. 325-6.
 M. Sirry I Ambica 57 (2010) 437·454 447
Convmion through Starchingfor Asutici!m

Some pious Muslims reached asceticism by personal efforts. They converted

to asceticism after sean:;hing either through becoming the disciple of famous
ascetics or exercising self-discipline. aUf soun:;es cite a handful of biographies
of ascetics who stayed with and accompanied well-known pious Muslims.
For instan~, Abu 'Abd al-Ra~man f:latim b. 'Unwan (d. 237/85l), whom
Quiayri calIs ~one of the greatest Iayb of Ijurasan," was "the srudem of Saqiq
b. IbrahIm ai-Balbi (d.194/S10);"l9 'Abd Allah 'Amr b. 'Ulman al-Makki
(d. 2911903) was the srudem of Abu Sa'Id al-Ijarraz, (d. 277/890) and so
forth. However, among Muslim ascetics of this category only a few of them
whose conversion narratives are explicitly cited in our sources. One of them
is I)u I-Nun al-Mi~ri, of whom the Caliph al-Mutawakkil (d. 247/861) said:
"When the pious remembered, haste to Oul-Nun al-Mi~ri."40
'Allar narrates a long Story of his conversion, speaking in the first person.
"I was informed that in a cenain place an ascetic was living," tOld al - Mi~rI.
"I set forth to visit him, and found him suspending himself from a tree." The
ascelic said, "a body, assist me (0 obey God, else I will keep you hanging like
this until you die of hunger." Al-Mi~ri asked him why he did what he did,
and he answered: "This body of mine gives me no peace to obey God." After
a long conversation, al-M4:ri said: "The thing 1 had secn and the words I had
heard caused a mighty pain to dutch my heart. 1 realized that whoever puts
his truSt in God, God carcs for him and suffers not his anguish to be in vain."
On his way home, he saw a blind liule bird fell from its nest omo the ground.
The ground spit and ou( of it came twO bowls, one gold and one silver. In one
of them was sesame S«d and on the other water, and the bird began ro
cat and drink from Ihis. 'Anar concludes the story by saying, "Utterly dumb-
founded, Ou I-Nun thenceforward pU( his trust in God completely, and was
truly convened."·' A shorter version is cited by Quiayri. In QuSayri's text,
al-Mi~ri is reported as saying, "It is enough. I have rcpenced."il When asked
about repentance, he said: "The repentance of the majority of the people is
from sins; the repentance of the elite is from unconsciousness."4,
The conversion of l;IabIb al-'Agami (d. 1) also F..lls under this category. It is
cited in the Persian sources. l:Iabib (the "non-Arabic speaker/foreigner")
started out as a moneylender and was guilty of exacting usury. On his daily

!. A1_Qubyri • ..1-lWdla, p. 34.

.., Abu Nu'aym, lfilyat (l.f-Jlw/iytJ·. IX. p. 337.
.. 'Ani., M."lim Sll.i"" and MytriN. p. 88-90.
., A1-Qubyri, ..I-Risdla. p. 20.
•! Ibid
448 M. Sirry I Ambit" 57 (2010) 437-454

ooll«tion rounds, he often charged a fee if the debtor could not make pay-
ment due. One day a wife who had no money to pay offered him some meal.
When l;Iabib returned to his house, his wife informed him that they had no
fuel or bread. The next lime he returned home from his round, a passing beg-
gar hailed him, and Habib rebuffed him callously. At this moment, his wife
reported that the food she was preparing had turned to blood and declared
that they were being punished for his treatment of the beggar. J:labib was
stricken with remorse, and he resolved never again to exact usury. On Friday,
he headed for l;Iasan al-Ba~ri's prayer session and fainted when he heard the
sermon. He then proclaimed an amnesty for all his debwrs and returned
their money. Some years after J:labib resolved to spend more time studying
with l;Iasan, his wife became very ill, and still Habib returned home each
night penniless. After ten days, God sent a succession of visitors to his home
who brought abundant supplies. Stunned at the blessings, Habib dedicated
himself totally to the Generous One. u
On the conversion through spiritual exercise, we may include the Story of
well-known ascetic Abu Yazid al-Bis!amI (d. 261/874). Asked about the
beginning of his asceticism, he said: MI spent thr« days in asceticism, and on
the fourth I left it. nle first day I gave up this world and what is in it. The
second day I gave up the next world and what is in it. The third day I gave up
what is other than God. The fourth day nothing remained to me except God,
so I understood. I heard a voice, '0 Abu Yazid! You wil! not be able to endure
with Me!' I said, 'That is what I desite.' And I heard the One that spoke rep ly,
'You have found it! You have found jt! "'~~ Here we see that al-Bis~ami said
mat he heard a voice. However, it had not happened suddenly but rather after
three days of practicing asceticism.

Convrrsion through Prmma/ Tragrdy

This last category includes a wide range of incidents, from personal frustra-
tion because of failing in love through deep disen chantment over the unpre-
dictability of life. FU9ayl b. 'Iya4's conversion Story can be said as the early
example of this category. The three sources (QuSayri, l:Iugwiri, and 'Agar)
agree that Fu4ayl convened to asceticism after hearing the Qur'anic verse
~ Hasthr timr not comr for thO$( who br/irw, thllt thrir hrarts will hr humb/r for
tlu rtmnnhranu of God?" (57, 16). However, they differ on its context.
QUSayri mentions his version as follows:

... l;Iugwiri, 1m /Guhja/·Ma!tjiib, p. 88·9; Al1ar, Mwlim Saints an. Mptics, p. 32·5•
• j A1-QuJ.yri, af·Ri<Jfll, p. 31.
 M. Sirry' Arabird 57 (:1010) 437-454 449

His conversion came about in the following way. He had developed a pas-
sion for a serving girl. He Won scaling a wall to gel ro her when he heard a
r«iler of (he Qur'an chanes, "Hili !ht timt not comt for thost who btli~, that
thtir htarts wiD bt humble for tht rrmtmbranct of God?' (57, 16). He said,
'a Lord, the time has come.' So he abandoned what he was doing and took
shelter for the night in a ruin. 46

l;Iugwiri and 'Anar tell a totally different account. According ro l;IugwIri, at

fim FuQ.ayl used ro pracdce brigandage between Marw and Seward, but he
was always inclining to piery. He would not auack a caravan in which there
was any woman, or take the properry of anyone whose stock was small. One
day merchants set out from Marw, and they hired a Qur'an reciter. When
they reached the place where FUQayl was lying his ambush, the reciter
happened to be reciting Kor 57, 16. Fuc;layl's heart was softened. He then
repented and went to Mecca where he became acquainced with certain saints
of God!? 'Agar, as usual, provides a longer StOry of FUQayl's conversion. It
seems that 'A!~r combines stories mentioned by both Quiayri and l;Iugwiri.
"At the beginning of his exploits,W says 'Anar, "Fuc;layl was passionately in love
with a certain woman, and he always brought her the proceeds of his brig-
n
andage. One night a caravan was passing, and in the midst of the caravan a
man was chanting the Qur'an (57, 16). 'Anar describes the situation that "it
was as though as arrow pierced his soul."·8
The story of falling in love is more "dram:lt£ in 'Abd Allah b. Mubarak's
conversion. l;Iugwiri and 'Anar mendon the same Story that Ibn Mubarak
was in love with a girl. One night during the winter, he stood beneath the
wall of his beloved's house uncil morning, waiting to catch a glimpse of her.
When the call to prayer sounded, he supposed that it was for pr.lyer before
sleeping. Seeing the daybreak, he realized that he had been absorbed all night
in his longing for his beloved. "Shame on you, a
son of Mubarak,n he cried.
He repented and devoted himself to study, entered upon a life of asceticism."
Another interesting story is of Abii l;Iaq al-l;Iaddad (d. 265/878). "As a young
man," 'Anar begins his conversion Story, "Abu l;Iall fell in love with a girl so
desperately.n On the advice of his friends, he soughl help from a Jew living in
the city of Nisapur. The Jew told him that he must perform no prayer for
forry days, no praise of God in his tongue, and no any good intention. Abu
l;Ia~ complied with these instructions. After forry days he met :I talisman as

.. Ibid. p. 20.
., l:Iugwirl, 7hdwhjllf-MllhjiJJ, p. 97·8.
.. 'Allar, Mlldim Stt"m "nd Mystics, p. 55 .
.. l:lugwiri, tht IWhjlll-MdhjiJJ, p. 95-6; 'Anir, Milium SttintJ dnd Mystics, p. 124-5.
450 M. Sirry I Arabu-4 57 (ZOIO) 437-454

he had p romised, but it proved ineffrxtual. He said, "You have undoubtedly

done: some good thing!" Abu f:la~ replied that the: only good thing of any
sort that he had done: was to remove: a stone': which he: found on the road lest
someone might stumble on it. The Jew said, "Do nor offend that God who
has not let such a small act of yours be wasted though you have neglccted His
commands fo r forty days." 'Anar concludes the SiOry, "these words kindled a
lire: within Abu l;Iaq' heart. $0 strong was ii, that he was converted at the
hands of the Jcw. ft50 Meanwhile:, l;Iugwiri concludes simply by saying, "Abu
I:ta~ repented, and the Jew became a Muslim.fts' Abu f:laq was a blacksmith
before he became an ascetic, hence he was called Haddad (blacksmith) .
According to 'AHar, everyday he earned one dinar from his work, at night he
gave: his earning to the poor, and dropped money into widow's letter-boxes
surreptitiously. Then at the time of the prayer of sleep he would go begging,
and brc:ak his filS( on thaL 52

The Signilicano:: of Con~t.lion Narratives

From the conversion stories discussed above we learn about who they were
before they became asceties. They came from different social backgrounds,
including theft, usurer, drunk, lover, poor, wealthy man, king (or prince) or
person searching for asceticism because of intellectual curiosity. Seen from
this point of view, it seems that the conversion narratives provide us with a
H
strong message thai ascetic life is open to all and that it "ennobles even the
lowly. This feature is also common in other religious tradidons. Speaking
about the early desert fathers, Benedicta Ward says, "ftlhey were neither
scholars nor preachers, neither teachers nor deries, they came from all kinds
of backgrounds.H13 Elizabeth Ann Clark also testifies that "the sources indi-
cate a wide variety of social backgrounds among the early desert falhers.">4
Mu-Chou Poo comes to [he same conclusion after studying the lives of
immortals and eminent monks in early medieval China. "The personal back-
ground,~ Mu-Chou Poo concludes, "was rdatively unimportant for achieving
immortality. This indicales a 'democratic' conception that, given the right

.. 'Ajlir, Must;,,, $aiM and Mptia, p. 192-3.

" l:Iugwiri, Thr KAsh/aJ-Milhj.:.b, p. 124.
.., ·Ani., Muslim Sai"ts Imd Mptia, p. 193.
" ~nedicla Ward, "Forwud", in John Chrisuvgll, I" rI¥ HtIln ~ftk Desm.- rI¥ Spi,itualit:y
II!tk Dtsrrt Fathn. and M~then. BloominglOf], Jd., Wisdom World, 2003, p. xiii.
" EIiUNUt Ann Clark, &ading Rm"~iiltu,,,: Alatidrm ,,,uI
Scripturt in arty Christillnit:y,
N~ ./tnooy. p.inCC1on Univcrsiry J>rtss, 1999, p. 24.
 M . Sirry I Ambia 57 (2010) 437-15.f '51
opportunity. anyone can become immortal.~ )' In fact. some of the driving
forces for immortality seeking are similar to that of Muslim ascetics.
Whatever the reasons for devotion, one can see the difference between the
individual's former and latter states. Some charaClers emerge. whether slowly
or suddenly. from the gloom of erroneous belief into the full light of true
faith by putting side everything but God. The diverse backgrounds of the
ascetics. I would argue. scrve an important purpose in the conversion narra-
lives as they were intended to add ress different types of audience. This point
can be understood properly if we consider the narratives as part of a larger
pattern of "proselytizing" as well as "te:J chi ng~ an ethical model of piety.
Much of the propagandic and pedagogic functions are derived from their
simplicity and ability to appeal to a broad specnum of people. Although
m~t conversio n narratives pay much an ent ion to what one uuins after con-
version. it is also important to look closely at "the religious mentality~ (to usc
Mu-Chou Poo's term) ofindividual prior to conversion. For the conversion is
not only about wh:1.( one attains. but also what one leaves behind. A5 William
James pointS our, "there are two things in the mind of the candidate for con-
version: first, the prescnt incompleteness or wrongness. the 'sin' which he is
eager to C$l;ape from ; and. second, the positive ide:J1 which he lo ngs to
compa.ss.~'16 If the conversion narratives arc understood ro SCI the boundaries
of an Islamic piety. as discussed earlier. then the life experiences prior to con-
version can be seen as " i mpious~ side of life that one is e:Jger to escape from.
Ibn 'Arabi, well-known Sufi of the th irteenth cenmty. used to caU "the pre-
Sufi stage orhis life as the lime of giihiliyya (period of spiritual ignorance), an
expression certainly suggestive of a definite contrast, a life of waywardness sct
back ' in joint' by decision mrn of evems.~"
Many scho lars argue that asceticism lends to challenge. oppose. or reject
Ihe mainstream culture and its practicc:s, and hence it is often seen as "an
intentional language of protest and opposition.~}l l would further argue that
the conversion narratives serve that particular purpose a.s they set the bound-
arics where the ascetics di5tance themselves from all types of impious lives.
Understood in rhis way. asceticism is no t o nly agai nst the mainsttC:<lm cul-
ture. but it also functions as a transformer of culTUre. Ir is worth noting that

" Mu..chou 1'00, "lM Imaga of Immonals and Eminent Monn: Rdigious Mc:mality in
Early Medicv:al China; N..",nt, 42 (1m). p. 186.
.. William Jama. Van'tri... p. ]65.
" ~raId Elmoll', .~ Eviokoc.e on the Conversion of Ibn aI-'Ar:obllo S...!Um." Ambictl,
45 ( ]998). p. 52.
to Waller O. K' ·Iher. · Undasandill8Ascaicism _ Testing a TypoIosy: in Vinane L Wimbush
and RKhatd Vabn~ (cds) . ArmiriI.... ~ Yori<, 0J0<d UnMnity Pre.. 1995. p. 320t
452 M. Sirry I AMbia: 57 (2010) 437-454

the conversion narratives do nOI only ,ell us about diverse backgrounds of

ascetics, but also different accounts of conversion itself. Some stories migrate,
with variations, from one source to another or even recur within the same
source. The different versions of conversion narrative of a single figure are nOt
uncommon in the': hagiographical sources. Even when two o r more sources
allude to [hI': same story, there were always variations. Let us take one exam-
ple of how the name Malik h. Dinar (which means: the possessor/king, the
son of Dinar [money]) was originated. In 'Agar's version, Malik embarks on
a ship. The crew asks him for the fatt':, but he': dO($ nOt have it. The crew
members beat him up and prepare to throw him overboard. Suddenly, all nsh
in the water put up their heads, each one holding two golden dinars in irs
mouth. Malik pays the crew. 'Anar explains that this story shows how the
ascetic acquired the name "Malik of the Dinar. l~ In l;Iugwiri's version, while
on thc ship, Malik was accused of stealing a jewel. He begins to pray and
suddenly all the fish around the ship surface, holding jewels in their mouths.
He takes one of the jewels, givcs it to his shipmatcs. 60 Quiayri USC$ to tell
more than one conversion Story of a single figure. For instance:, he mentions
three different conversion stories of both Abu Sulayman Dawud b. Nu~yr
al- Ta.'i and Abu 'Ali Saqiq b. Ibrahim al-Balhi,61
Looking at the variations of the stOries discussed above is helpful in several
ways. First, it provides concrete examples of the way in which written
accounts of ascetics spread. Some authors are concerned with a chain of
transmission, and others are not. 'A~far, for instance:, acknowledges this by
$3.ying ,hat he has purposely omiued the traditional chains of transmitters
that earlier hagiographers retained in their works, because he believes that the
stories can stand on their own. 6l Second, it suggests that, C'Ven when sources
appear to report stories from earlier souras or merely to insert a differem
H
ascetic's name into a "stock tale, minor changes allow a later author to adapt
the account for his specific purpose. The conversion narratives that Row from
Sulami to 'AHar undergo some modifications and changes in adaptation to
new realities and audiences. Therefore, appreciation of (he dynamic function
of conversion narratives is essential to understanding the larger hagiographic
intent of a work. Finally, the formulaic use of story forms shows how hagio-
graphical sources display models of "exemplary authority" (qudwal;tlSana) in
order to be followed by pious Muslims.

" 'Allar, Muslim sm,,,. "nd Mpti(l, p. 27.

'" l:iugwiri, 7h( KAshfal-Mahjiib. p. 89.
M AI-Quiayr;, al-RiJdJ4, p. 27-28 and 28-30 rcspectivdy.

., See: Renard, Frinu/s, p. 251.

 M. 51"1' Are;a" (2010) 4374>1

The exemplary impulse is prcscnt in all conversion narratives expressed

either directly or indirecdy in the hagiographical works. In his exploration or
conversion and autobiography, Geoffrey G. Harpham argues that ~conver­
sion appears as an exemplary plot-climax."" I would add that the exemplary.
edifying and inSlructive functions or the conversion narratives remind us that
[he act or conversion is not merely personal. it is also a social phenomenon.
For later Sufis. the ways in which the early ascetics' conversion took place.
either through hearing a voice or dream/vision, are models or conversion, Ibn
'Arabi (d. 638/1240)'$ conversion, ror instance, is a somewhat similar to that
or Ibrahim b. Adham. It is related that Ibn 'Arabi was the son or the wazir
(minister) or the Sultan or the West. He and his rather attended a banquet at
the palace. When a cup or wine was presented to him, he heard a voice $:lying:
"0 Mul,ummad, no t ror this were you created!" So he cast rhe cup aside and
went Out in a state of utterly perplexity.64 Here we see that Ibn 'Arabi, like
Ibr:ihim b. Adham. was one of the sons of rulers (flbml flJ-muJi4i), and con-
vened to Sufism afrer having heard a voice calling him to awaken to the spiri-
tual life. For later Suns, Ihe appearance of the Prophet in dreams usually
becomes a source of conversion and autho rity, On the basis of a widely
repeated lJadi! attributed 10 the Prophet, a vision of the Prophet is considered
10 be true o r veridical. lhe Prophet is reported as saying: ~Whoevff has seen
me has seen me lruly, Salan cannot take my form."~' Ibn 'Arabi claims that
some of his books were dictated by the Prophet himself in a dream/vision.'"

., Grolfrq- Harp/wn, ·ConVffSion and the l..vtguaSt' of Au{ooiography,' in Jarms OIrq

(~ ,J, Sn.JiI!f Itt AlltHl.,..,J,y, />kw York, Oxford UnI~Biry Press, !'J88, p, 43 .
""14J!J
.. AI·Qari I-Ibgdldl. ,,/.[),. ... 1Ii·,,,mlm fI mllM'1i. Mllbi '·Ditt, Ikitu{, Mu '...ag(
aI'llIlil a1.'arabl, 1959, p, 22·3, For a dc{ail~ discussion on Ibn 'Arabi's con~r$ion, $«' Elmore.
"Nrw Evidence",
" For a diKussioo on Ih i$ 1MJi! and ito .... ria{Klns, _, Leah Kinbc:rg. "tile,,", Drnrns and
Prop/lClic Hlllith in Cbu;aJ 4lam," Drr bum, 70 (I 993), p, 279·300,
.. In Ihe inuoounion {O hi$ book entid~ ~ ",./p"", (The Back of WISdoms). Ibn
'Arabi wlt){c: '1 saw Iht; Prop/lCl of God in a visionldrHm (mllA.tl1inr) during lhe IUlCI' par! of
Iht; momh of mul;wram in Ihe year 627, in the ciry of Damascus. He had in h ~ Mnd a book
and he Aid {o me, 'This i$ {he book of {he Bc:r.d~ olWisdorns; take i{ and bring It to men {M{
they mig/" bcndi{ from it.' I said, 'All obedience is due ,0 God and Hi$ Prophet: il shall be as we:
all' oommen<kd: ! ,herdoll' carried our the wilh, madt ""re my imcmion and deVOl~ my
pu~ {O Ihe ""b1ishing of Ihi. book, ~n as {he P,ophet" had laid down , wi{holJ{ any addi·
tiM or 5Utxraction: s..e: Ibn 'Anbi, Fllliq lIl·bi""',~, Ab\i I.'Ali' 'Mili. Ikitu" Dir al·khib
a!-'iIl'llbJ, 2002, p, 47.
454 M. Sirry f Artlbi("4 57 (2010) 437-454

Concluding Remarks

Beneath the different versions of conversion narratives, a hon of complex

questions have taken refuge. Similar to whaT William James describes as "a
sense of sin,n Muslim ascetic conversion often prcdpit3ted by a pS}'l;=ho-spiri-
tual "crisisD that leads to a spiritual awakening. 'Whether the conversion took
place gradually or suddenly, the hagiographers depict the conversion as a
turning point separating two sides of one's life journey, the difference beTWeen
the individual's former and latter Slates. Each £Ype of conversion swry encom-
passes a variety of scenarios that suggest the significance of the conversion
narradves both in making the idealized pious Muslims and in creating a sense
of connecdon with the larger community of believers. From the above dis-
cussion it seems dear that the most imponant thing in the hagiographers'
minds is the transformati~ potential of their often-arresting accounts of
extraordinary people. Howe~r, hagiographers' acknowledgmem of such
qualities does not mean that these: writers regard their subjCClS as wonhy of
imitation in cvc:ry detail of their often-eccentric lives. In the hagiographic
works, the ascedc lives also function as symbolic levees against the pcrceived
tide of hedonistic culture. The five works discussed in this study tend to use
every tropc of hagiography and every imaginable religious source of authority
to provide an overwhelming set of credentials for the pious Muslims. In this
process of setting the tone and the boundaries of this particular image of
piety, the hagiographers use conversion accounlS as spiritual turning points
in the lives of their subjects.