AISI

See American Iron and Steel Institute.

Acid Burdening
Once it is assessed that it is not possible to achieve the required desulphurisation of
metal inside the blast furnace to meet the hot metal sulphur specifications of the
steelmaker, the blast furnace is then no longer operated to achieve desulphurisaton as
such inside. The slag basicity is reduced since high basicity is no longer necessary. The
furnace is often operated with basicity less than one i.e. the slag produced is acid and
for which the burden chemistry is adjusted with more acid and less of basic oxides.
Hence the name "acid burdening".

Acid Steel
Steel produced in a furnace with an acid lining, i.e. consisting of a siliceous refractory
and under a siliceous slag. With an acid slag, carbon, silicon and manganese only are
removed so that the pig iron must not contain sulphur and phosphorus in percentages
exceeding those permissible for the specification being made. Most steel manufactured
today is in furnaces with basic linings.

Actual Weight
Also the scale weight. The customer buys by the actual (scale) weight of the steel. The
theoretical weight is used in estimating, however, it may not be used for billing.

Age Hardening
A process of ageing that increases hardness and strength and ordinarily decreases
ductility. Age hardening usually follows rapid cooling or cold working. Takes effect on
all cold rolled sheets in storage except fully aluminium killed.

Ageing
A change in the properties of certain metal and alloys (such as steel) that occurs at
ambient or moderately elevated temperatures after a hot working heat treatment or
cold working operation. Typical properties impacted are: hardness, yield strength,
tensile strength, ductility, impact value, formability, magnetic properties, etc. See also
Non-ageing.
Ageing that takes place at atmospheric temperatures is known as natural ageing and
that which takes place more rapidly at elevated temperatures is called artificial or
accelerated ageing.

Agglomerating Processes
Fine particles of limestone (flux) and iron ore are difficult to handle and transport
because of dusting and decomposition, so the powdery material usually is processed
into larger pieces. The raw material's properties determine the technique that is used
by mills. SINTER Baked particles that stick together in roughly one-inch chunks.
Normally used for iron ore dust collected from the blast furnaces.
PELLETS Iron ore or limestone particles are rolled into little balls in a balling drum and
hardened by heat.
BRIQUETTES Small lumps are formed by pressing material together. Hot Iron Briquette
(HBI) is a concentrated iron ore substitute for scrap for use in electric furnaces.

Air-Hardening Steel
Sometimes referred to as self- hardening steel. A steel that becomes fully hardened
when cooled in air from above its critical point and does not require rapid quenching by
oil or water. The risk of distortion is greatly reduced by air hardening. High Speed Steel
was one of the earliest examples of this type of steel.

Ajax Furnace
See "Ajax Process".

Ajax Process
The difficulty in introducing oxygen lances through the roof of a tilting open hearth
furnace, like in stationary type, led to introducing them through the port ends. The
process is popularly known as Ajax process and the furnace employed, therefore as the
Ajax furnace.

Allotropy
The property possessed by certain elements to exist in two or more distinct forms that
are chemically identical but have different physical properties. In the case of iron the
crystal structure has one form at room temperature and another at high temperature.
When heated above 910oC the atomic structure changes from body centered cubic to
face centered cubic but reverts again when cooled. The allotropy of iron modifies the
solubility of carbon, and it is because of this that steel can be hardened.

Alloy Steel
A steel to which one or more alloying elements other than carbon have been
deliberately added (e.g. chromium, nickel, molybdenum) to achieve a particular
physical property.
Alloy Surcharge
The addition to the producer's selling price included in order to offset raw material cost
increases caused by higher alloy prices.

Alloying Element
Any metallic element added during the making of steel for the purpose of increasing
corrosion resistance, hardness, or strength. The metals used most commonly as
alloying elements include chromium, nickel, and molybdenum.

Alpha Iron
The body centered cubic form of iron which, in pure iron, exists up to 910oC.

Alumina
It is a refractory oxide.

Aluminium Killed Steel (Special Killed)

Steel deoxidised with aluminium in order to reduce the oxygen content to a minimum
so that no reaction occurs between carbon and oxygen during solidification.

American Iron and Steel Institute

An association of North American companies that mine iron ore and produce steel
products. There are 50 member companies and over 100 associate members, which
include customers who distribute, process or consume steel. The Institute has
reorganized into a North American steel trade association, which represents the
interests of Canada, Mexico and the United States. Its mission is to promote steel as
the material of choice and to enhance the competitiveness of its members and the
North American steel industry.

Anneal
A process, consisting of heating to and holding at a suitable temperature followed by
cooling at a suitable rate, used primarily to soften metallic materials, such as steel. The
purpose of annealing may be to remove stresses, to soften the steel, to improve
machinability, to improve cold working properties, to obtain a desired structure. The
annealing process usually involves allowing the steel to cool slowly in the furnace. Also
see Continuous Anneal and Batch Anneal.
Annealing
1. Heating and then cooling metals in a controlled atmosphere to soften them.
2. A process involving heating and cooling usually applied to induce softening. In box
annealing, the material to be annealed is enclosed in a metal container with, or without
packing material to minimize oxidation. The charge is usually heated slowly to a
temperature just below the transformation range, but sometimes just above, or within
it, and cooled slowly.

Anodes
Tin bars that are put in the plater cells and are important to the plating process in the
Tin Mill.

Arc Furnace
A steel melting furnace in which heat is generated by an arc between graphite
electrodes and the metal. Both carbon and alloy steels are produced in electric arc
furnaces and scrap rather than molten metal is used as the base material. Furnaces
with capacities up to 200 tonnes are now in use.

ASEA-SKF furnace
It is a special variety of Ladle Furnace (LF). It is essentially a teeming ladle for which
additional fittings are provided. See "Ladle Furnace".

Ashton Byer process

It is a process developed to make better quality wrought iron. See "Wrought Iron"

ASTM
American Standard of Testing and Materials. A non-profit organisation that provides a
forum for producers, users, ultimate consumers, and those having a general interest
(representatives of government and academia) to meet on common ground and write
standards for materials, products, systems, and services.

ASTM Standards
A series of documents, approved and published by ASTM, that include specifications or
requirements, practices, guides, test methods, etc., covering various materials,
products, systems or services. In the steel industry, the steel related ASTM standards
are used by both the producers and users to ensure that a steel product or service
meets all intended requirements. See American Society for Testing and Materials.
Austempering
Quenching from a temperature above the transformation range to a temperature above
the upper limit of martensite formation, and holding at this temperature until the
austenite is completely transformed to the desired intermediate structure, for the
purpose of conferring certain mechanical properties.

Austenite
The solid solution of carbon in gamma (face centred cubic) iron.

Austenitic Steels
Steels containing high percentages of certain alloying elements such as manganese and
nickel which are austenitic at room temperature and cannot be hardened by normal
heat-treatment but do work harden. They are also non-magnetic. Typical examples of
austenitic steels include the 18/8 stainless steels and 14% manganese steel.

Autogenous Process
Steelmaking processes where energy is consumed only in operating the equipments
and as such is not a substantial factor on the cost of steelmaking. e.g. LD, Bessemer
processes

Auto Stamping Plant

A facility that presses a steel blank into the desired form of a car door or hood, for
example, with a powerful die (pattern). The steel used must be ductile (malleable)
enough to bend into shape without breaking.

Automatic Gauge Control (A.G.C )

Using hydraulic roll force systems, steelmakers have the ability to control precisely
their steel sheet's gauge (thickness) while it is travelling at more than 50 miles per
hour through the cold mill. Using feedback or feed-forward systems, a computer's gap
sensor adjusts the distance between the reduction rolls of the mill 50-60 times per
second. These adjustments prevent the processing of any off-gauge steel sheet.

Available Base
Available Base = [% CaO - (SiO2 X Basicity)]
B
Chemical symbol for Boron.

Bainite
An acicular aggregate of ferrite and carbide particles formed when austenite is
transformed on cooling at temperatures in the intermediate (200-450oC) range, i.e.
above the martensite and below the pearlite range.

Bake Hardenable Steel

A cold-rolled, low-carbon sheet steel used for automotive body panel applications.
Because of the steel's special processing, it has good stamping and strength
characteristics and, after paint is baked on, improved dent resistance.

Balanced Steel
Steels in which the deoxidisation is controlled to produce an intermediate structure
between a rimmed and killed steel. Sometimes referred to as semi- killed steels, they
possess uniform properties throughout the ingot and amongst their applications are
boiler plate and structural sections.

Bars
Long steel products that are rolled from billets. Merchant bar and reinforcing bar
(rebar) are two common categories of bars, where merchants include rounds, flats,
angles, squares, and channels that are used by fabricators to manufacture a wide
variety of products such as furniture, stair railings, and farm equipment. Rebar is used
to strengthen concrete in highways, bridges and buildings (see Sheet Steel).

Base Metal
A metal which oxidises when heated in air, e.g. lead, copper, tin, zinc, as opposed to
noble metals such as gold and platinum.

Basic Burdening
When the alumina is high in the burden, the blast furnace temperature has to be
increased to keep the slag free-flowing since alumina raises the softening point of slag.
The basicity as well as the temperature are raised, to make the slag thin and basic to
effectively desulphurise the metal inside the furnace itself to a level less than 0.06 %.
The high temperature, however, leads to high silicon content in the pig iron since at
high temperature silica reduction is increased.
Basic Open Hearth
See "Open Hearth Furnace"

Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)

A pear-shaped furnace, lined with refractory bricks, that refines molten iron from the
blast furnace and scrap into steel. Up to 30% of the charge into the BOF can be scrap,
with hot metal accounting for the rest.
BOFs, which can refine a heat (batch) of steel in less than 45 minutes, replaced open-
hearth furnaces in the 1950s; the latter required five to six hours to process the metal.
The BOF's rapid operation, lower cost and ease of control give it a distinct advantage
over previous methods.
Scrap is dumped into the furnace vessel, followed by the hot metal from the blast
furnace. A lance is lowered from above, through which blows a high-pressure stream of
oxygen to cause chemical reactions that separate impurities as fumes or slag. Once
refined, the liquid steel and slag are poured into separate containers.

Basic Oxygen Process

See "Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)

Basic Process A steel making process involving the formation of basic slag, carried
out in a furnace or vessel lined with basic refractories. This process is capable of
removing phosphorus from the charge and also sulphur to a certain extent. Steel made
by this process is known as Basic Steel.

Basic Steel
Steel produced in a furnace in which the hearth consists of a basic refractory such as
dolomite or magnesite, as opposed to steel melted in a furnace with an acid lining. The
basic process permits the removal of sulphur and phosphorous and in this respect is
superior. Present day BOS and electric arc furnaces use basic linings.

Be
Chemical symbol for Beryllium.

Bearing Quality Steels

Steels suitable for use in balls, rollers, and races of high quality anti-friction bearings.

Bend Test
Bending tests are carried out to ensure that a metal has sufficient ductility to stand
bending without fracturing. A standard specimen is bent through a specified arc and in
the case of strip, the direction of grain flow is noted and whether the bend is with or
across the grain.
 Single Bend Test - Here the test bar is bent once according to the specified
angle and the radius of bend.
 Close Bend Test - Here the test bar is bent through an angle of 180 degrees
and the two arms are folded flat on each other.
 Reverse Bend Test - Here the test piece is first bent through an angle of 90
degrees and then the bend is opened out so that the piece reverts to its original
position. In some cases, the piece is bent through an angle of 180 degrees and then
brought back to its original straight condition. The bending, opening out in both cases
is then continued, counting the number of times a test piece is bent till it fractures.
(This test is used for sheet, strip and wire).

Bessemer Process
A steel making process in which pig iron is refined in an acid refractory lined converter
by blowing air or a mixture of carbon dioxide and oxygen or steam through the molten
metal. Both acid and basic processes are used. The acid process is known as Bessemer
Process and the steel made by this process is known as Bessemer Steel, while the basic
process is known as Thomas Process.

Bi Chemical symbol for Bismuth.

Billet A semi-finished steel form that is used for "long" products: bars, channels or
other structural shapes. A billet is different from a slab because of its outer dimensions;
billets are normally two to seven inches square, while slabs are 30-80 inches wide and
2-10 inches thick. Both shapes are generally continually cast, but they may differ
greatly in their chemistry.

BIS Bureau of Indian Standards.

Black Plate
Cold-reduced sheet steel, 12-32 inches wide, that serves as the substrate (raw
material) to be coated in the tin mill.

Black Annealing
Annealing without any protective covering or using a controlled atmosphere. Also refers
to annealing not followed by pickling.

Black Softened
Hot or cold rolled sheet and strip softened by black annealing but not yet descaled,
usually refers to the stainless variety.

Blanking
An early step in preparing flat-rolled steel for use by an end user. A blank is a section
of sheet that has the same outer dimensions as a specified part (such as a car door or
hood) but that has not yet been stamped. Steel processors may offer blanking for their
customers to reduce their labour and transportation costs; excess steel can be trimmed
prior to shipment.

Blank Carburizing

The thermal treatment associated with carburizing as applied to a test piece for
determining the case properties, without using any carburizing medium.

Blast Furnace
A towering cylinder lined with heat-resistant (refractory) bricks used by integrated steel
plants for the production of pig iron or hot metal from its ore for direct conversion into
steel. Its name comes from the "blast" of hot air and gases forced up through the iron
ore, coke and limestone that load the furnace. Under extreme heat, chemical reactions
among the ingredients release the liquid iron from the ore. The blast of air burns the
coke, and limestone reacts with the impurities in the ore to form a molten slag. The hot
metal collects in the bottom of the furnace. Once fired up, the blast furnace operates
continuously until it needs to be relined seven to ten years later.

Blister
A local separation of a layer of steel due to accumulated gas causing a protuberance on
the surface underneath which, is a cavity.

Bloom
A semi-finished steel form whose rectangular cross-section is more than eight inches.
This large cast steel shape is broken down in the mill to produce the familiar I-beams,
H-beams and sheet piling. Blooms are also part of the high-quality bar manufacturing
process: Reduction of a bloom to a much smaller cross-section can improve the quality
of the metal. It also refers to a large square section of steel intermediate in the rolling
process between an ingot and a billet. Blooms are now also being produced by the
continuous casting process eliminating the necessity of first producing an ingot.

Blow
Refers to one complete cycle of operations in a converter.

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Blow Holes
The entrapment of gas evolved during solidification of steel produces cavities known as
blow holes in all except killed steels. The blow holes are of two types. The primary blow
holes are elongated or like honeycomb and are located next to the ingot skin. The
secondary blow holes are more spherical and are located further in.

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Blue Annealing
Sub-critical annealing of steel, during which the surface is oxidised to a blue colour by
controlled amount of air / steam permitted into the annealing chamber.

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Blueing
Heating in a suitable atmosphere for imparting a blue colour to bright steel.

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Boron Steels
The addition of boron in the range 0.0005- 0.005% to certain steels increases the
hardenability. A range of boron steels is now listed in the current BS 970 and are
widely used for the production of cold headed fastenings.

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Bottom Casting
Simultaneously casting of a number of ingots by pouring the metal into a central
refracting-lined tube or trumpet, from where it flows through refractory runners into
the bottom of the moulds.

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Bottom Plate
Rimming and semi-killed steeps are cast in moulds open at the bottom also. The Top
and bottom of these moulds must be smooth and level machined to sit squarely on a
level plate called bottom plate or stool. The bottom plates are made of cast iron.

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Bottom Purging
Introducing inert gas from bottom in an otherwise classical vessel.

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Bottom Teeming
This is also known as uphill or indirect teeming. Steel is also teemed into a vertical
runner which is connected at the bottom to a horizontal through runner, the end of
which with an elbow shape, opens up in the bottom of the mould.

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Box Annealing
Annealing carried out in a box container with a cover to minimise oxidation.

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Brazing
Brazing is a method of joining metal parts together by fusing a layer of brass between
the adjoining surfaces. A red heat is necessary and a flux is used to protect the metal
from oxidation.

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Breakout
An accident caused by the failure of the walls of the hearth of the blast furnace,
resulting in liquid iron or slag (or both) flowing uncontrolled out of the blast furnace.

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Bright Annealing
An annealing process that is carried out in a controlled atmosphere furnace or vacuum
in order that oxidation is reduced to a minimum and the surface remains relatively
bright.

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Bright Drawing
The process of drawing hot rolled steel through a die to impart close dimensional
tolerances, a bright, scale free surface, and improved mechanical properties. The
product is termed bright steel.

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Brinell Hardness Test

The Brinell hardness test for steel, involves impressing a ball 10 mm diameter, of hard
steel or tungsten carbide, with a loading of 3000 kilograms into the steel surface. The
hardness of the steel is then determined by measurement of the indentation. For steels
with a hardness over 500 BHN the Vickers test is more reliable.

Brinell Hardness Number = Load in kg/Spherical area of the impression in mm.

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BS
British Standard Specification.
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Burr
The very subtle ridge on the edge of strip steel left by cutting operations such as
slitting, trimming, shearing, or blanking. For example, as a steel processor trims the
sides of the sheet steel parallel or cuts a sheet of steel into strips, its edges will bend
with the direction of the cut (see Edge Rolling).

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Busheling
Steel scrap consisting of sheet clips and stampings from metal production. This term
arose from the practice of collecting the material in bushel baskets through World War
II.

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Butt-Weld Pipe
The standard pipe used in plumbing. Heated skelp is passed continuously through
welding rolls, which form the tube and squeeze the hot edges together to make a solid
weld.

C - Chemical symbol for Carbon.

CALORIZING
A process of converting the surface of steel articles into a corrosion-resistant alloy layer
of aluminum and iron. (See Cementation.)

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CARBIDES
As found in steel, carbides are compounds of carbon and one or more of the metallic
elements, such as iron, chromium, tungsten, etc.

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CARBON FREE
Metals and alloys which are practically free from carbon.

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CARBO-NITRIDING
A process of case hardening an iron-base alloy by the simultaneous absorption of
carbon and nitrogen through heat' in a gaseous atmosphere of suitable composition,
followed by either quenching or cooling slowly, as required.

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CARBON RANGE
In steel specifications, the carbon range is the difference between the minimum and
maximum amount of carbon acceptable.

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CARBON STEEL
Steel whose major properties depend on its carbon content and ' which other alloying
elements are negligible.

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CARBURIZING
Adding carbon to iron base alloys by absorption through heating the metal at a
temperature below its melting point ' contact with carbonaceous materials. The oldest
method of case hardening. (See Cementation.)

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CARBURIZING COMPOUND
Mixtures containing carbonaceous solids which will give up carbon to steel in the
presence of heat. Gas rich in carbon is sometimes used in the carburizing process.

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CASE
The surface layer of an iron-base alloy which has been made substantially harder than
the interior by the process of case hardening.

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CASE HARDENING
Carburizing and subsequent hardening, by heat treatment of surface areas whose
carbon content has been increased by carburizing.

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CAST STEEL
Any object made by pouring molten steel into molds.
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CASTING STRAINS
Strains produced by internal stresses set up by non-uniform cooling.

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CEMENTATION
This process consists of converting the surface of a metal into an alloy layer by heating
it while surrounded by another metal or non-metal which is generally in a powdered
form. Carburizing, sherardizing, calorizing, chromizing, and nitriding are included
among the cementation processes.

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CHARPY TEST
A test made to determine the notched toughness, or impact strength, of a material.
The test gives the energy required to break a standard notched specimen supported at
the two ends.

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CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Qualitative analysis consists of separating a substance into its component elements and
identifying them. In quantitative analysis the proportion of all component elements are
determined.

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CHILL CAST
PIG-Pig iron cast into metal molds or chills. If a machine is used the product is known
as machine cast pig.

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CHIPPING
One method of removing surface defects such as small fissures or seams from partially
worked metal. If not eliminated, the defects might carry through to the finished
materials. If the defects are removed by means of a gas torch the term "deseaming" or
"scarfing" is used.

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CHROMIUM
A hard, grayish white and corrosion resistant metal widely used as an alloying element
in steel and for plating steel products.

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CLEAVAGE PLANE
Crystals possess the property of breaking more readily in one or more directions than
in others. The planes of easy rupture are called cleavage planes.

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COLD DRAWING -See "Cold Finishing."

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COLD FINISHING-Changing the shape of, or reducing the cross section of steel while
cold-usually accomplished by rolling, drawing through a die or turning.

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COLD ROLLING
See "Cold Finishing."

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COLD SHUT
An area in metal where two portions of the metal in either a molten or plastic condition
have come together but have failed to unite into an integral mass.

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COLD WORKING
Permanent deformation of a metal below its recrystallization temperature, which
hardens the metal.

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COMBINED CARBON
All of the carbon in iron or steel which is combined with iron or other elements to form
carbide.

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CORE
The center portion of a piece of steel which may be of different chemical composition
than the outside as in the case of carburized parts, or which may have different
physical properties than the outside due to the failure of penetration of heat treatment
effect.

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CREEP STRENGTH
The maximum stress which can be applied to steel at a specified temperature without
causing more than a specified percentage increase in length in a specified time.

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CRITICAL POINTS-The various temperatures at which transformations occur in steel

as it passes through its critical range-on either a rising or falling temperature. (See
Transformation Range.)

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CRITICAL RANGE
A temperature range in passing through which steel undergoes transformation. The
preferred term is transformation range (q. v.).

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CRITICAL TEMPERATURES -See "Critical Points."

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CROP
The imperfect ends of a rolled or forged product which are removed and discarded.

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CUP FRACTURE
A type of fracture-which looks like a cup having the exterior portion extended with the
interior slightly depressed-produced in a tensile test specimen. Usually an indication of
ductility.

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CYANIDING
Surface hardening of an iron-base alloy article or portion of it by heating at suitable
temperatures in contact with molten cyanide salt and then quenching.
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Ca
Chemical symbol for Calcium.

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Calcium
In the form of calcium silicide acts as a deoxidizer and degasifier when added to steel.
Recent developments have found that carbon and alloy steels modified with small
amounts of calcium show improved machinability and longer tool life. Transverse
ductility and toughness are also enhanced.

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Camber
The curvature observed in long rolled products caused by differential cooling or faulty
setting of the rolls. It is measured by the maximum deviation of the middle region from
the straight line joining the ends.

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Capacity
Normal ability to produce steel in a given period. This rating should include
maintenance requirements, but because such service is scheduled to match the
machinery's needs (not the calendar's), a mill might run at more than 100% of
capacity one month and then fall well below rated capacity as maintenance is
performed.

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Capped Steel
Semi-killed steel which has characteristics similar to those of rimmed steels but to a
degree intermediate between rimmed and killed steel. The capping operation limits the
time of gas evolution and prevents the formation of an excessive number of gas voids
within the ingot.

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Carbide Precipitation
The phenomenon of carbides (A compound consisting of carbon and other elements)
coming out of a solid solution, occurring in stainless steel when heated into the range
of 800-1600 degrees Fahrenheit.

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Carbon
Carbon is an essential element in steel, it is added in specific amounts to control the
hardness and strength of the material. In general, increased carbon content reduces
ductility but increases tensile strength and the ability of the steel to harden when
cooled rapidly from elevated temperatures.

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Carbon Boil
In the conventional basic open hearth process of steelmaking, refining commences with
the addition of iron ore. Carbon reaction starts and the boil at this stage is known as
carbon boil.

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Carbon Steel
Steel that has properties made up mostly of the element carbon and which relies on
the carbon content for structure. Most of the steel produced in the world is carbon
steel.

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Carbon Steel
A steel whose properties are determined primarily by the amount of carbon present.
Apart from iron and carbon, manganese up to 1.5% may be present as well as residual
amounts of alloying elements such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, etc. It is when
one or more alloying elements are added in sufficient amount that it is classed as an
alloy steel.

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Carbo-Nitriding
A case-hardening process in which steel components are heated in an atmosphere
containing both carbon and nitrogen.

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Carburising
The introduction of carbon into the surface layer of a steel that has a low carbon
content. The process is carried out by heating the components in a solid liquid, or
gaseous carbon containing medium. The depth of penetration of carbon into the surface
is controlled by the time and temperature of the treatment. After carburising it is
necessary to harden the components by heating to a suitable temperature and
quenching.
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Case-Hardening
The process of hardening the surface of steel whilst leaving the interior unchanged.
Both carbon and alloy steels are suitable for case-hardening providing their carbon
content is low, usually up to a maximum of 0.2%. Components subject to this process,
particularly in the case of alloy steels, have a hard, wear-resistant surface with a tough
core.

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Casing
Casing is the structural retainer for the walls of oil and gas wells, and accounts for 75%
(by weight) of OCTG shipments. Casing is used to prevent contamination of both the
surrounding water table and the well itself. Casing lasts the life of a well and is not
usually removed when a well is closed.

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Cast Iron A definition can be applied that Cast Iron is an alloy of iron and carbon in
which the carbon is in excess of the amount that can be retained in solid solution in
austenite at the eutectic temperature. Carbon is usually present in the range of 1.8%
to 4.5%, in addition, silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorus are contained in
varying amounts. Various types of cast iron are covered by a British Standard
classification and includes grey, malleable and white irons. Elements such as nickel,
chromium, molybdenum, vanadium can be added to produce alloy cast irons.

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Cast Steel
A term originally applied to crucible steel and sometimes today used to describe tool
steels. The term is misleading and is falling into misuse. It can also be applied to steel
castings made by pouring molten steel into a mould but which are not subject to
further forging or rolling.

Cb Chemical symbol for Columbium.

Ce Chemical symbol for Cerium.

Cementite
An iron carbide (Fe3C) constituent of steel. It is hard, brittle and crystalline. Steel
which has cooled slowly from a high temperature contains ferrite and pearlite in
relative proportions varying with the chemical composition of the steel. Pearlite is a
lamellar structure of ferrite and cementite.
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Charge
The act of loading material into a vessel. For example, iron ore, coke and limestone are
charged into a Blast Furnace; a Basic Oxygen Furnace is charged with scrap and hot
metal. The charge itself is the amount of material loaded into the furnace.

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Charpy Test
A test to measure the impact properties of steel. A prepared test piece, usually
notched, is broken by a swinging pendulum. The energy consumed in breaking the test
piece is measured in Joules. The more brittle the steel the lower the impact strength.
Izod is a similar and more widely used impact test in this country. Both are quoted in
the current edition of BS 970.

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Check Analysis
An analysis of the metal after it has been rolled or forged into semi-finished or finished
forms. It is not a check on the ladle analysis, but is a check against the chemistry
ordered.

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Chromium (Cr)
An alloying element that is the essential stainless steel raw material for conferring
corrosion resistance. A film that naturally forms on the surface of stainless steel self-
repairs in the presence of oxygen if the steel is damaged mechanically or chemically,
and thus prevents corrosion from occurring.

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Chromium
When used as an alloying element, chromium increases the hardenability of steel and
in association with high carbon gives resistance to wear and abrasion. Chromium has
an important effect on corrosion resistance and is present in stainless steels in amounts
of 12% to 20%. It is also used in heat-resisting steels and high duty cast irons.

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Circored
A gas-based process developed by Lurgi Metallurgie in Germany to produce DRI or HBI
(see Direct Reduced Iron and Hot Briquetted Iron). The two-stage method yields fines
with a 93% iron content. Iron ore fines pass first through a circulating fluidized-bed
reactor, and subsequently through a bubbling bed fluidized-bed reactor.

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Cladding
Method of applying a stainless steel coating to carbon steel or lower-alloy steel (i.e.,
steel with alloying element content below 5%), to increase corrosion resistance at
lower initial cost than exclusive use of stainless steel by (1) welding stainless steel onto
carbon steel, (2) pouring melted stainless steel around a solid carbon steel slab in a
mould, or (3) placing a slab of carbon steel between two plates of stainless steel and
bonding them by rolling at high temperature on a plate mill.

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Clad Steel
A composite material obtained by firmly bonding together a carbon or alloy steel with a
surface layer of another metal or alloy.

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Clean Steel
See "Cleanliness of Steel"

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Cleanliness of Steel The relative freedom of steel from inclusions as a result of

elimination of products of deoxidisation from the melt.

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Co Chemical symbol for Cobalt.

Cobalt
An alloying element used in tool, magnet and heat resisting steels. Together with
tungsten and molybdenum, cobalt is used to form the super high speed steels. It
improves the red hardness value of the steel, that is, it enables the steel to resist
softening at a high temperature or in the case of a cutting tool to hold its edge under
severe conditions.

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Coefficient of Expansion
The ratio of change in length, area, or volume per degree to the corresponding value at
a standard temperature.
Top

Cogging
An intermediate rolling process when a hot ingot is reduced to a bloom or slab in a
cogging mill.

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Coils
Steel sheet that has been wound. A slab, once rolled in a hot-strip mill, is more than
one-quarter mile long; coils are the most efficient way to store and transport sheet
steel.

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Coke
The basic fuel consumed in blast furnaces in the smelting of iron. Coke is a processed
form of coal. About 1,000 pounds of coke are needed to process a ton of pig iron, an
amount which represents more than 50% of an integrated steel mill's total energy use.
Metallurgical coal burns sporadically and reduces into a sticky mass. Processed coke,
however, burns steadily inside and out, and is not crushed by the weight of the iron ore
in the blast furnace. Inside the narrow confines of the coke oven, coal is heated without
oxygen for 18 hours to drive off gases and impurities.

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Coke Oven Battery

A set of ovens that process coal into coke. Coke ovens are constructed in batteries of
10‹100 ovens that are 20 feet tall, 40 feet long, and less than two feet wide. Coke
batteries, because of the exhaust fumes emitted when coke is pushed from the ovens,
often are the dirtiest area of a steel mill complex.

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Cold Drawing
The process of reducing the cross sectional area of wire, bar or tube by drawing the
material through a die without any pre-heating. Cold drawing is used for the production
of bright steel bar in round square, hexagonal and flat section. The process changes
the mechanical properties of the steel and the finished product is accurate to size, free
from scale with a bright surface finish.

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Cold Reduction Finishing mills roll cold coils of pickled hot-rolled sheet to make the
steel thinner, smoother, and stronger, by applying pressure, rather heat. Stands of
rolls in a cold-reduction mill are set very close together and press a sheet of steel from
one-quarter inch thick into less than an eighth of an inch, while more than doubling its
length.

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Cold-Rolled Strip (Sheet)

Sheet steel that has been pickled and run through a cold-reduction mill. Strip has a
final product width of approximately 12 inches, while sheet may be more than 80
inches wide. Cold-rolled sheet is considerably thinner and stronger than hot-rolled
sheet, so it will sell for a premium (see Sheet Steel).

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Cold-rolling (CR)
Rolling steel without first reheating it. This process reduces thickness of the steel,
produces a smoother surface and makes it easier to machine.

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Cold Shortness
Refers to lack of ductility at atmospheric temperatures.

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Cold Working (Rolling)

Changes in the structure and shape of steel achieved through rolling, hammering, or
stretching the steel at a low temperature (often room temperature). To create a
permanent increase in the hardness and strength of the steel. The application of forces
to the steel causes changes in the composition that enhance certain properties. In
order for these improvements to be sustained, the temperature must be below a
certain range, because the structural changes are eliminated by higher temperatures.

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Cold Working
Altering the shape or size of a metal by plastic deformation. Processes include rolling,
drawing, pressing, spinning, extruding and heading, it is carried out below the
recrystallisation point usually at room temperature. Hardness and tensile strength are
increased with the degree of cold work whilst ductility and impact values are lowered.
The cold rolling and cold drawing of steel significantly improves surface finish.

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Compression Test
A test for determining the maximum compressive load for producing a specified strain
or fracture in metal. Also used for assessing surface quality of steel.

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Conditioning
The removal of surface defects (seams, laps, pits, etc.) from steel. Conditioning is
usually done when the steel is in semi-finished condition (bloom, billet, slab). It may be
accomplished, after an inspection, by chipping, scarfing, grinding, or machining.

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Consumption
Measures the physical use of steel by end users. Steel consumption estimates, unlike
steel demand figures, account for changes in inventories. APPARENT SUPPLY. Derived
demand for steel using AISI reported steel mill shipments plus Census Bureau reported
imports, less Census Bureau reported exports. Domestic market share percentages are
based on this figure, which does not take into account any changes in inventory.

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Contact Corrosion
When two dissimilar metals are in contact without a protective barrier between them
and they are in the presence of liquid, an electrolytic cell is created. The degree of
corrosion is dependent on the area in contact and the electro-potential voltage of the
metals concerned. The less noble of the metals is liable to be attacked, i.e. zinc will act
as a protector of steel in sea water whereas copper or brass will attack the steel in the
same environment.

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Continuous Casting
A method of pouring steel directly from the furnace into a billet, bloom, or slab directly
from its molten form. Continuous casting avoids the need for large, expensive mills for
rolling ingots into slabs. Continuous cast slabs also solidify in a few minutes versus
several hours for an ingot. Because of this, the chemical composition and mechanical
properties are more uniform. Steel from the BOF or electric furnace is poured into a
tundish (a shallow vessel that looks like a bathtub) aTop the continuous caster. As steel
carefully flows from the tundish down into the water-cooled copper mould of the caster,
it solidifies into a ribbon of red-hot steel. At the bottom of the caster, torches cut the
continuously flowing steel to form slabs or blooms.

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Continuous Casting
A method of producing blooms, billets and slabs in long lengths using water cooled
moulds. The castings are continuously withdrawn through the bottom of the caster
whilst the teeming of the metal is proceeding. The need for primary and intermediate
mills and the storage and use of large numbers of ingot moulds is eliminated. The
continuous casting process is also used in the production of cast iron, aluminium and
copper alloys.

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Controlled Atmosphere
A gas or mixture of gases in which steel is heated to produce or maintain a specific
surface condition. Controlled atmosphere furnaces are widely used in the heat
treatment of steel as scaling and decarburisation of components is minimised by this
process.

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Controlled Cooling
Cooling from the final hot-forming or heat treatment operation in a predetermined
pattern to control camber, prevent flaking etc.

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Conversion Cost
Resources spent to process material in a single stage, from one type to another. The
costs of converting iron ore to hot metal or pickling hot-rolled coil can be isolated for
analysis.

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Converter/Processor
Demand from steel customers such as rerollers and tube makers, which process steel
into a more finished state, such as pipe, tubing and cold-rolled strip, before selling it to
end users. Such steel generally is not sold on contract, making the converter segment
of the mills' revenues more price sensitive than their supply contracts to the auto
manufacturers.

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Cooling Rate
The decrease of temperature in time unit on cooling through a certain temperature
range.

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Core
In the case of steel this refers to a component that has been case-hardened where the
centre is softer than the hard surface layer or case. It can also be applied to the central
part of a rolled rimming steel.

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COREX®
COREX is a coal-based smelting process that yields hot metal or pig iron. The output
can be used by integrated mills or EAF mills.

The process gasifies non-coking coal in a smelting reactor, which also produces liquid
iron. The gasified coal is fed into a shaft furnace, where it removes oxygen from iron
ore lumps, pellets or sinter; the reduced iron is then fed to the smelting reactor.

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Corrosion
The gradual degradation or alteration of steel caused by atmosphere, moisture, or
other agents. Galvanic Corrosion- Corrosion associated with the presence of two
dissimilar metals in a solution (electrolyte). In principle, it is similar to bath-type
plating in the sense that the anode surface has lost metal (corroded). Intergranular
Corrosion- Corrosion which occurs preferentially along the grain boundaries of the
alloy. Pitting Corrosion- Non-uniform corrosion usually forming small cavities in the
metal surface.

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Corrosion Fatigue
Fatigue that arises when alternating or repeated stress combines with corrosion. The
severity of the action depends on the range and frequency of the stress, the nature of
the corroding condition and the time under stress.

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Cr
Chemical symbol for Chromium.

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Crack
These are marks on the surface of the steel product resulting from cracks in the surface
of the roll used for hot rolling.

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Creep
The form of plastic deformation that takes place in steel held for long periods at high
temperature. Methods of creep testing involve the determination of strain/time curves
under constant tensile load and at constant temperature.

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Creep Limit
The maximum stress which a metal or alloy can withstand indefinitely without
deforming faster than at a specified strain rate.

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Creep Strength
The constant nominal stress that will cause a specified quantity of creep in a given time
at a constant temperature. It is a measure of a tubes ability to withstand prolonged
stress or load without significant continuous deformation. In steels it is an important
factor only at elevated temperatures.

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Critical Cooling Rate

The slowest rate of cooling from the hardening temperature which will produce the fully
hardened martensitic condition.

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Critical Point
This generally refers to a temperature at which some chemical or physical change takes
place. These transformations cause evolution of heat on cooling or absorption of heat
on heating and appear as discontinuities or arrest points in the heating and cooling
curves. The temperatures vary with the carbon content of the steel and the rate of
cooling.

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Critical Temperature
The temperature at which some phase change occurs in a metal during heating or
cooling, i.e. the temperature at which an arrest or critical point is shown on heating or
cooling curves.

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Crown
Crown, in plates, sheet, or strips, is characterized by a greater thickness in the middle
than at the edges. It may be caused by a deflecting (bending) of the rolls or by worn
rolls.

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Cu
Chemical symbol for Copper.

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Crucible Process
A steel making process in which the charge, generally small (roughly 20-25 kg), is
melted in a crucible for the production of very high quality steel out of contact with
fuel. The product, known as crucible steel, is used for making tool steel.

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Crystalline Fracture
A type of fracture that appears bright and glittering, it having formed along the
cleavage planes of the individual crystals. Normally an indication that brittle fracture
has occurred.

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Culvert Pipe
Heavy gauge, galvanized steel that is spiral-formed or riveted into corrugated pipe,
which is used for highway drainage applications.

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Cupping Test
A ductility test for sheet and strip. The test involves forming a bulge or cup by stretch-
forming the blank (test piece) through a circular die with the aid of a special dome
shaped punch and measuring the depth or the bulge of the cup prior to fracture.

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Cut-to-Length
Process to uncoil sections of flat-rolled steel and cut them into a desired length.
Product that is cut to length is normally shipped flat-stacked.

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Cyanide Hardening
A process of introducing carbon and nitrogen into the surface of steel by heating it to a
suitable temperature in a molten bath of sodium cyanide, or a mixture of sodium and
potassium cyanide, diluted with sodium carbonate and quenching in oil or water. This
process is used where a thin case and high hardness are required.

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Cyaniding
A process in which an iron-base alloy is heated in contact with a cyanide salt so that
the surface absorbs carbon and nitrogen. Cyaniding is followed by quenching and
tempering to produce a case with a desired combination of hardness and toughness.

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Damping Capacity
The ability of a metal or alloy to absorb the energy of mechanical vibrations.

Top

Dead Soft
Steel A very low-carbon steel characterised by high ductility, generally supplied in the
full annealed condition.

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Decalescence
A term used in reference to the absorption of heat without a corresponding increase in
temperature, when steel is heated through the critical points (phase changes).

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DECALESCENCE
The absorption of heat, due to internal changes, which occurs when steel is heated
through the critical temperature range.

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DEOXIDIZER
A substance added to molten steel for the purpose of removing oxygen.

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DEPTH OF PENETRATION
The depth to which appreciable hardening occurs when steel is quenched from its
hardening temperature.

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DIFFERENTIAL HEATING
Heating so that various portions of an article reach different temperatures to produce
different properties upon cooling.

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DISCARD See "Crop."

Top

DISTORTION
A change in shape (usually refers to changes of shapecaused by internal stress).

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DRAWING
Drawing may refer to the pulling of steel through a die,as in drawing wire, or deforming
steel in dies on a press (deepdrawing).

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DRAWING BACK
Reheating after hardening to a temperature below the critical for the purpose of
changing the hardness of the steel.

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DUCTILITY
The ability to permit change of shape without fracture. In steel, ductility is usually
measured by elongation and reduction of area as determined in a tensile test.

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Decarburisation
The loss of carbon from the surface of steel as a result of heating in a carbon weak
atmosphere. During the rolling of steel hot surfaces are exposed to the decarburising
effects of oxygen in the atmosphere and as a result the surface is depleted of carbon.
In steels where the components are to be subsequently heat treated it is necessary to
remove the decarburised surface by machining.
Top

Deep Drawing
Forming cup shaped articles or shells by using a punch to force sheet metal into a die.

Top

Degassing
The gases dissolved in steel, beyond a certain limit, are undesirable because their
presence finally leads to several defects in steel products. The present day degassing
may involve one or more of the following functions:

 To remove hydrogen from steel so that the prolonged annealing treatment is

not required, particularly in forging quality steels.
 To improve cleanliness by removing oxygen in the form of CO gas.
 To produce steels of very low carbon content (below 0.03 %) by transfering
part of the refining from furnace to the degassing unit.
 To bring about desulphurisation of steel by reagents carried along with an
inert gas like argon bubbled through the bath.
 To ensure better control of chemical composition of steel by adding the
requisite amount of additions under vacuum.

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Delta Iron
When pure or practically carbon-free iron is cooled from above its melting point it
solidifies at about 1535oC as delta iron having a body-centred cubic lattice structure,
which persists down to about 1400oC. On further cooling it undergoes an allotropic
change to gamma iron which has a face-centred cubic lattice and is non-magnetic.

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Deoxidation
Elements such as silicon and aluminium when added to molten steel react to form
stable oxides and reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen. The solubility of oxygen in
steel is reduced as temperature is lowered during solidification and the excess oxygen
combines to form carbon monoxide. If the molten metal is not deoxidised the
effervescence produced by the evolution of carbon monoxide during solidification would
result in blow holes and porosity. Steel treated in this way is termed, "Killed Steel".

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Descaling
It is necessary to remove the scale from hot rolled bars or coil before bright drawing.
This is normally carried out by shot blasting or pickling in acid. Other methods of
descaling steel products include sand blasting, flame descaling and tumbling.

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Deseaming
A process of burning out defective areas on the surface of ingots, blooms or billets. The
condition of the surface is such that it can then be rolled or forged into a satisfactory
product.

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Desiliconisation
The inevitable nature of ironmaking results in it containing more than 1% silicon. The
process of removing the excess silicon before the metal enters the steel making
furnace is called desiliconisation.

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Desulphurization
Operation that injects a chemical mixture into a ladle full of hot metal to remove
sulphur prior to its charging into the Basic Oxygen Furnace.

Sulphur enters the steel from the coke in the blast furnace smelting operation, and
there is little the steelmaker can do to reduce its presence. Because excess sulphur in
the steel impedes its welding and forming characteristics, the mill must add this step to
the steelmaking process.

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D-H Degassing Process

In this process a small portion, about 10 - 15 %of the total steel in the ladle, is treated
at a time under vacuum. The process is repeated until required degassing is achieved.
It was developed by Dortmund - Horter - Huttenunion in Germany. It is also known as
a lifter degassing process.

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Diamond Pyramid Hardness Test

This test, more commonly known as the Vickers test, finds greater use in the
laboratory than the workshop. It employs a pyramid shaped diamond with an included
angle of 136 degrees which is impressed into the specimen using loads of 5 to 120 kg
making a small square impression. This test is used for finished or polished
components because the impression can be very small. The diamond pyramid hardness
number is obtained from a calculation based on measuring the diagonals of the
impressions in the steel.
The Diamond Pyramid Hardness Number (HV)
F = Applied load in Kilogram-Force . A Pyramidal area of indentation in mm.

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Die

The term die is most commonly used in tooling, i.e. press tools "punch and die" but
there are many other types of die, e.g. thread cutting dies, forming dies, forging dies,
die-casting dies, etc. The term when applied to steel often refers to drawing dies
through which hot rolled wire and bar are drawn to produce the finish and dimensional
accuracy that is required for bright steel.

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DIN
Deutsche Industrie Norm, the symbol of the German Standards Association (Deutscher
Normenausschuss).

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Direct Reduced Iron (DRI)

Processed iron ore that is iron-rich enough to be used as a scrap substitute in electric
furnace steelmaking.

As mini-mills expand their product abilities to sheet steel, they require much higher
grades of scrap to approach integrated mill quality. Enabling the mini-mills to use iron
ore without the blast furnace, DRI can serve as a low residual raw material and
alleviate the mini-mills' dependence on cleaner, higher-priced scrap.

The impurities in the crushed iron ore are driven off through the use of massive
amounts of natural gas. While the result is 97% pure iron (compared with blast furnace
hot metal, which, because it is saturated with carbon, is only 93% iron), DRI is only
economically feasible in regions where natural gas is attractively priced.

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Dislocation
A discontinuity in the crystal lattice of a metal. The movement of dislocations under
stress may be used to explain slip, creep, plastic yielding, etc.

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Distortion
Any deviation from the desired size or shape, as occurring in heat treatment.

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Dolomite
A natural carbonate of calcium and magnesium generally used as a flux in blast
furnaces.

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Double Slag Practice

It means refining under oxidising as well as reducing slags made separately. The first
slag is oxidising and it eliminates all impurities like P, Si, C, Mn, etc. This slag is
removed and a reducing slag is made by fresh additions of lime, coke and spar to
desulphurise the metal and to carry out alloying very effectively. The practice is a must
if effective desulphurising and the large alloying additions are to be made. It is costly
but the yield of the alloying additions is very high and the quality of the product is
much better.

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Drawing
The process of pulling metal wire, rods, or bars through a die with the effect of altering
the size, finish and mechanical properties. In the USA, it is a term used for tempering.

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Drawn-Over-Mandrel
A procedure for producing specialty tubing using a drawbench to pull tubing through a
die and over a mandrel, giving excellent control over the inside diameter and wall
thickness. Advantages of this technique are its inside and outside surface quality and
gauge tolerance. Major markets include automotive applications and hydraulic
cylinders.

Top

DRI
See "Direct Reduced Iron"

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Drift Test
Also known as Pin Expansion Test, this is a test for plate, carried out by boring a hole
in a given diameter near the edge of the test piece and enlarging it by a conical tool
having a specified taper until either a specified increase in diameter takes place or
cracking occurs.

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Drill Pipe
Pipe used in the drilling of an oil or gas well. Drill pipe is the conduit between the
wellhead motor and the drill bit. Drilling mud is pumped down the centre of the pipe
during drilling, to lubricate the drill bit and transmit the drilled core to the surface.
Because of the high stress, torque and temperature associated with well drilling, drill
pipe is a seamless product.

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Drop Forging
An operation in which a metal shape is formed by forcing hot metal into impressions
formed in solid blocks of hardened alloy steel, the forging dies. The dies are made in
halves, one attached to the rising and falling block of the drop forge and the other to
the stationary anvil. Drop forgings are widely used in the automotive industry for
crankshafts, stub-axles, gears, etc.

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Drop Test
This is a test carried out on a material to determine its resistance to fracture or
breakage under specific conditions. The usual form of this test is to drop the finished
article from a predetermined height.

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Ductility
The property of metal which permits it to be reduced in cross sectional area without
fracture. In a tensile test, ductile metals show considerable elongation eventually failing
by necking, with consequent rapid increase in local stresses.

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Dump Test
A test to detect surface in materials intended for hot or cold forging, this test is carried
out by upsetting a test piece of suitable length either cold or after heating to the
forging temperature, as the case may be, till a specified reduction is obtained.

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Duplexing
The name itself is indicative of the use of two different steelmaking processes for
carrying out the required amount of refining. Here it will mean combination of an acid
Bessemer and BOH (Basic Open Hearth) processes.

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Dye Penetrant Inspection

A method for detecting surface porosity or cracks in metal. The part to be inspected is
cleaned and coated with a dye which penetrates any flaws that may be present. The
surface is wiped clean and coated with a white powder. The powder absorbs the dye
held in the defects indicating their location.

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Dynamic Strength
Refers to the strength of a material when subjected to suddenly applied or changing
loads.

EAF
See "Electric Arc Furnace"

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Edge Conditioning
See "Edge Rolling"

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Edge Rolling
Rolling a strip of steel to smooth the edges. By removing the burr off the coil, it is safer
for customers to manipulate.

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ELASTIC LIMIT
The maximum load per unit of area (usually stated as pounds per square inch) that
may be applied without producing permanent deformation. It is common practice to
apply the load at a constant rate of increase and also measure the increase of length of
the specimen at uniform load increments. The point at which the increase in length of
the specimen ceases to bear a constant ratio to the increase in load, is called the
proportional limit. The elastic limit will usually be qualto or slightly higher than the
proportional limit.
Top

ELONGATION
The increase in length of a test specimen after rupture in a tensile test, expressed as a
percentage of the original length.

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ENDURANCE LIMIT
Maximum dynamic stress to which material may be submitted for an indefinite number
of times without causing fatigue failure.

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ERICHSEN VALUES
These are widely used is conjuction with other measures as an indication of the deep
drawing properties of steel sheets and strip. They are determined in a cupping test in
which a conical punch with a round end is advanced into a test specimen held by a
blank-holder until the test specimen fractures. The depth of the cup is measured in
millimeters on a scale and becomes the Erichen value.

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EUTECTOID STEEL
Carbon steel with a 100 % pearlitic structure, which is the structure normal conditions
of hot working and cooling when the proportion of carbon is about .80 per cent. Hyper-
eutectoid steel has a greater percentage of carbon, and hypo-eutectoid steel has less
carbon.

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Elastic Limit
The maximum stress that can be applied to a metal without producing permanent
deformation. When external forces act upon a material they tend to form internal
stresses within it which cause deformation. If the stresses are not too great the
material will return to its original shape and dimension when the external stress is
removed.

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Elasticity
The property which enables a material to return to its original shape and dimension.

Top
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)
Steelmaking furnace where scrap is generally 100% of the charge. Heat is supplied
from electricity that arcs from the graphite electrodes to the metal bath. Furnaces may
be either an alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC). DC units consume less
energy and fewer electrodes, but they are more expensive.

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Electric Process
Also known as the Arc Process, this is a process of steel making wherein the source of
fuel is electrical energy, i.e. heat from the electric arc or induced eddy currents. Called
the Electric Arc process or Induction Process depending on the type of process used.

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Electric Resistance Welded (ERW) Pipe

Pipe made from strips of hot-rolled steel which are passed through forming rolls and
welded. While seamless pipe is traditionally stronger and more expensive than
comparable ERW pipe, ERW technology is improving and the technique now accounts
for approximately 48% of OCTG shipments by tonnage.

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Electrical Steels
Steels which are characterised by their magnetic properties and are intended for the
manufacture of electrical circuits. They are supplied in the form of cold rolled sheet or
strip, generally less than 2mm thick and up to 1500mm wide. Grain orientated steels
have preferential magnetic properties in the direction of rolling and non- grain
orientated steels have similar magnetic properties both transversely and in the
direction of rolling.

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Electro-Galvanising
The process of Zinc coating by electrodeposition.

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Electroslag Refining (ESR process)

A specialised steel making process in which a rolled or a cast ingot in the form of an
electrode is remelted in a water cooled copper mould. The melting is activated by
resistive heat generated in a conductive slag. The resulting product has a similar basic
chemical composition to the original ingot, but is characterised by high purity and low
inclusion content. Typical applications include high integrity components for the
aerospace industry.
Top

Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)

It cleans the gas in dry or wet condition

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Elevated Temperature Drawing

A process of drawing steel bars at elevated temperatures (normally 250-300oC) which
under optimum conditions produce steels that have higher tensile and yield strengths
than those cold drawn with the same degree of reduction. The process is little used in
the United Kingdom.

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Elongation
A test to measure the ductility of steel. When a material is tested for tensile strength it
elongates a certain amount before fracture takes place. The two pieces are placed
together and the amount of extension is measured against marks made before starting
the test and is expressed as a percentage of the original gauge length.

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Elongation Percentage
Refers to the extension of the gauge length of a tensile test piece expressed as a
percentage of the original gauge length.

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End Quench Test

More commonly referred to as Jominy Test it is used to determine the hardening ability
of steel. In this test the test piece is heated to a suitable temperature above the
transformation range and then quenched at one end. The gradation of hardness along
the length is then determined.

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Endurance Limit
The maximum stress below which a material can presumably endure an infinite number
of stress cycles.

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Energy Optimizing Furnace

The EOF is essentially a batch oxygen steelmaking process with high post-combustion,
with coal additions and extensive scrap preheating. The process theoretically can
charge upto 100 % scrap, but typically 40 - 60 % scrap is used. Hot metal is charged
into the vessel followed by scrap from the lower preheating chamber. In some cases, a
second scrap charge is added about five minutes into the blow. The scrap is preheated
in a series of preheat chambers to about 800-1200 deg.C. For a 50 / 50 scrap to hot
metal mix about 70 cu.m / ton of oxygen, with about one third into the metal and two
thirds above the bath for post-combustion, and about 20 kg / ton of coal is used. The
post-combustion gas is used to preheat the scrap and, therefore, the energy from post-
combustion does not have to be completely transferred to the bath. The blowing time is
about 27 - 32 minutes and tap-to-tap is less than one hour. Refractory consumption
increases with scrap usage and is approximately 2.5 kg / ton for a 50 / 50 mix.

Top

EOF
See "Energy Optimizing Furnace"

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Equiaxed Crystals
Crystals, each of which has axes approximately equal in length. These are normally
present in the centre of a steel ingot.

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Equilibrium
A diagram constructed from thermal and other data showing the limits of composition
and temperature within which the various constituents or phases of alloys are stable.

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Erichsen Test
This is a test for Sheets in which the depth of the impression at fracture, obtained by
forcing a cone shaped plunger with a spherical end into the test piece, is measured in
mm and used as an index of ductility.

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Etching
Treatment of a prepared metal surface with acid or other chemical reagent which, by
differential attack, reveals the structure.

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Eutectic
A mixture of two or more constituents which solidify simultaneously out of the liquid at
a minimum freezing point.

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Eutectoid
A mixture of two or more constituents which forms on cooling from a solid solution and
transforms on heating at a constant minimum temperature. A eutectoid steel contains
approximately 0.83% carbon.

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Extrusion
The production of a section by forcing a billet to flow through a die. Often used for
producing complex sections, the process is used with both hot and cold metal.
Seamless tubes are produced by forcing a hot billet to flow through a die over a
mandrel positioned centrally in the die.

F Chemical symbol for Fluorine.

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FATIGUE
See comments under spring steel and endurance strength of steels.

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FATIGUE LIMIT
See "Endurance Limit."

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FERRO ALLOYS
Iron alloyed with some element manganese, chrome, or silicon, etc., used in adding the
element to molten steel.

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FIBER
A characteristic of wrought metal manifested by a fibrous or woody appearance of
fractures and indicating directional properties. Fiber is due chiefly to the direction of
working of the constituents of the metal both, metallic and non-metallic.
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FIBER STRESS
Unit stress at a certain point when on section stress is not uniform.

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FIN
Protuberances resulting from the improper squeezing of steel during rolling. Also see
"Flash."

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FINISHED STEEL
Steel which is ready for the market with any further work or treatment such as wire,
bars, sheets rails, plates, etc.. Blooms, billets, slabs, and wire rods semi-nished.

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FINISHING TEMPERATURE
Temperature at which hot working is completed.

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FLAKES
Crystalline areas of a steel fracture with a bright scaly appearance.

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FLAME ANNEALING
The direct application of a high temperature flame to a steel surface for the purpose of
removing stresses and softening the metal. Commonly used to remove the stresses
from welds.

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FLAME HARDENING
In this method of hardening, the surface layers of a medium or high carbon steel is
heated by a high temperature torch and then quenched.

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FLASH
A thin fin of metal formed at the sides of a die forging or sometimes a rolledbar where
a small portion of the metal is forced out between the edges of the forging dies or the
rolls.

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FLASH POINT - Ingnition point-usually applied to oils. FORGING-A piece of metal

which has been shaped or formed, while hot by forging with a hammer (hand or
power), in a press, or by a drop hammer.

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FORGING STRESSES
Stresses resulting from forging or from coolingfrom the forging temperature.

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FRACTURE
The surface of a break in metal.

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FRACTURE TEST
Breaking metal to determine structure or physical condition by examining the fracture.

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FREE MACHINING
A term used to describe a metal which may be machined at relatively high speed
without the development of excessive heat and from which the chips will break off
easily leaving a smooth surface.

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FULL ANNEALING
Heating to above the critical temperature range followed by slow cooling through the
range , producing maximum softness.

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FULL HARDNESS
Ususally the hardness of heat treated steel afterquenching and before tempering.

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Fabricator
A producer of intermediate products that does not also produce primary metal. For
example, a rebar (see Reinforcing Bar) fabricator purchases rebar and processes the
material to the specifications of a particular construction project.

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Face Centred Cubic Lattice

An arrangement of atoms in crystals in which the atomic centres are disposed in space
in such a way that one atom is located at each of the corners of the cube and one at
the centre of each face. Steel in the face-centred cubic arrangement is termed
austenite.

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Falling Test Method

Here a specified weight is dropped from a definite height on to the material to be
tested. This test is normally applied to axles, rails etc. where a specified deflection
without fracture is required.

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Fastmet
A process to directly reduce iron ore to metallic iron pellets that can be fed into an
electric arc furnace with an equal amount of scrap. This process is designed to bypass
the coke oven-blast furnace route to produce hot metal from iron ore. It is also one of
several methods that mini-mills might use to reduce their dependence on high-quality
scrap inputs (see Direct Reduced Iron and Hot Briquetted Iron).

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Fatigue
The effect on metal of repeated cycles of stress. The insidious feature of fatigue failure
is that there is no obvious warning, a crack forms without appreciable deformation of
structure making it difficult to detect the presence of growing cracks. Fractures usually
start from small nicks or scratches or fillets which cause a localised concentration of
stress. Failure can be influenced by a number of factors including size, shape and
design of the component, condition of the surface or operating environment.

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Fatigue Limit
The maximum value of the applied alternating stress which a test piece can stand
indefinitely.
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Fatigue Testing
Fatigue tests are made with the object of determining the relationship between the
stress range and the number of times it can be applied before causing failure. Testing
machines are used for applying cyclically varying stresses and cover tension,
compression, torsion and bending or a combination of these stresses.

Fe Chemical symbol for Iron.

Feedstock
Any raw material.

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Ferrite
The solid solution of carbon in body-centred cubic iron, a constituent of carbon steels.

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Ferrochrome
An alloy of iron and chromium with up to 72% chromium. Ferrochrome is commonly
used as a raw material in the making of stainless steel.

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Ferro alloy
A metal product commonly used as a raw material feed in steelmaking, usually
containing iron and other metals (chromium, manganese, silicon, tungsten,
molybdenum, vanadium) to aid various stages of the steelmaking process such as
deoxidation, desulphurization, and adding strength. Examples: ferrochrome,
ferromanganese, and ferrosilicon.

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Ferrochrome
An alloy of iron and chromium with up to 72% chromium. Ferrochrome is commonly
used as a raw material in the making of stainless steel.

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Ferrous
Metals that consist primarily of iron.

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Ferrous Alloy
See "Alloy Steel"

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Fettling
The removal of sand adhering to castings by hammering, tumbling or shot blasting.

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Fin
In rolling mill practice a fin is a projection extending from the side of rolled sections. It
causes considerable trouble and is the result of overfill. The fin, formed when the bar or
shape is fed through one pass, is likely to be rolled back into the bar at the next pass.
It is rarely encountered in modern rolling mills.

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Finmet
The process reduces iron ore fines with gas in a descending series of fluidized bed
reactors. The reduced iron is hot briquetted.

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Finish
The surface appearance of steel after final treatment.

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Finishing Facilities
The portion of the steelmaking complex that processes semi-finished steel (slabs or
billets) into forms that can be used by others. Finishing operations can include rolling
mills, pickle lines, tandem mills, annealing facilities, and temper mills.

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Fire Cracking
Moulds generally fail in service primarily due to fire-cracking of the mould chamber
walls. It affects the surface quality of ingots and if deep enough also obstructs smooth
stripping of the mould.

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Flame Hardening
A surface hardening process in which heat is applied by a high temperature flame
followed by quenching jets of water. It is usually applied to medium to large size
components such as large gears, sprockets, slide ways of machine tools, bearing
surfaces of shafts and axles, etc. Steels most suited have a carbon content within the
range 0.40-0.55%.

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Flanging Test
This is a test for tubes in which the end of a tube is turned back to form a flange at
right angles to the axis of the tube.

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Flash
A fin that arises from metal in excess of that required to fill the final impression in a
forging die and is exuded from the parting line between the dies; similarly it can arise
at the mould joint in a casting.

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Flat-rolled steel
Steel processed on rolls with flat faces as opposed to grooved or cut faces. Flat-rolled
products include sheet, strip and tin plate, among others.

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Flats
A finished product generally of rectangular cross section with edges of controlled
contour and of thickness of 3mm and above and width 400 mm and below supplied in
straight lengths.

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Flattening Test
This is a test for tubes where a short length of tube is flattened diametrically by a
specified amount.

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Flush Slag practice

In this practice the slag is not allowed to accumulate in the open hearth furnace
beyond a certain safe limit at any time during refining so that the heat transfer across
the slag layer is not affected adversely. The slag is allowed to flush-off either through
an opening in the back wall or over the central door sill which is deliberately kept at a
lower level than that of the rest.
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Flux
An iron cleaning agent. Limestone and lime react with impurities within the metallic
pool to form a slag that floats to the Top of the relatively heavier (and now more pure)
liquid iron.

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FOB Pricing
FREIGHT ON BOARD PRICING. Phrase that explains whether the transportation costs of
the steel are included. "FOB Mill" is the price of steel at the mill, not including shipping.

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Forging
A process of working metal to a finished shape by hammering or pressing and is
primarily a "hot" operation. It is applied to the production of shapes either impossible
or too costly to make by other methods or needing properties not obtainable by
casting. Categories of forgings include Hammer, Press, Drop or Stamping.

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Fracture
Fractures are often described by the appearance of the surface of the break in a piece
of steel. Crystalline is bright and glittering, failure having developed along the cleavage
planes of individual crystals and can be typical of brittle material. A silky fracture has a
smooth dull grain indicative of ductile material such as a mild steel. In tensile testing
fractures are described by shape, e.g. cup and cone.

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Freecutting Steels
Steels which have had additions made to improve machinability. The most common
additives are sulphur and lead, other elements used include tellurium, selenium and
bismuth.

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Freight Equalization
A common industry practice when a mill sells steel outside its geographic area; it will
assume any extra shipping costs (relative to the competition) to quote the customer an
equivalent price to get the business.

G
Ga Chemical symbol for Gallium.

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Grain Growth
The increase in the size of grains making up the microstructure of steel such as may
occur during heat treatmens.

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Grain Refinement
Reducing the crystalline structure as observedby eye or under the microscope.

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Graphitizing
Annealing grey cast iron so that most of the carbonis transformed to the graphitic
condition. COntrolled by increasingsilicon and by thermal treatment.

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Galvalume®
Steel sheet with a unique coating of 55% aluminum and 45% zinc that resists
corrosion. The coating is applied in a continuous hot-dipped process, which improves
the steel's weather resistance. Galvalume® is a trademark of BHP Steel, and the
product is popular in the metal building market.

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Galvanic Action
When iron and steel are subject to conditions of aqueous corrosion the incidence and
rate at which the corrosion takes place will alter if the steel is coupled with other
metals or alloys that are also exposed to the electrolyte. Copper, brass, bronze, lead
and nickel are more "noble" and act as auxiliary cathodes to the steel and accelerate its
anodic dissolution, that is, its corrosion. Magnesium, zinc and zinc-base alloy are nearly
always less noble and tend to divert the attack from the steel to themselves. The
galvanic relationship of various metals is an important factor affecting corrosion.

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Galvanized Steel
Steel coated with a thin layer of zinc to provide corrosion resistance in underbody auto
parts, garbage cans, storage tanks, or fencing wire. Sheet steel normally must be cold-
rolled prior to the galvanizing stage.
HOT-DIPPED. Steel is run through a molten zinc coating bath, followed by an air stream
"wipe" that controls the thickness of the zinc finish.
ELECTROGALVANIZED. Zinc plating process whereby the molecules on the positively
charged zinc anode attach to the negatively charged sheet steel. The thickness of the
zinc coating is readily controlled. By increasing the electric charge or slowing the speed
of the steel through the plating area, the coating will thicken.
DIFFERENCES. Electrogalvanizing equipment is more expensive to build and to operate
than hot dipped, but it gives the steelmaker more precise control over the weight of the
zinc coating. The automotive manufacturers, because they need the superior welding,
forming and painting ability of electrogalvanized steel, purchase 90% of all tonnage
produced.

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Gamma Iron
The allotropic form of iron existing between the temperature 910oC and 1400oC is
known as Gamma Iron. It has a face centred cubic lattice and is non-magnetic. Gamma
iron containing carbon or other elements in solution is known as austenite.

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Gas Carburising
A heat treatment method used in the case- hardening of steel. Carbon is absorbed into
the outer layers of the components by heating in a current of gas, rich in carbon
compounds. The process is more versatile than some other methods as the depth of
the case and the limiting carbon content of the case can be controlled by the
composition of the atmosphere, the dew point and the temperature.

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Gauge
The thickness of sheet steel. Better-quality steel has a consistent gauge to prevent
weak spots or deformation.

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Gauge Length
Used in the mechanical testing of steel, it is the length marked on the parallel portion
of a tensile test piece from which the elongation is measured.

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Gauge Plate
An alloy tool steel supplied in flat and square section with the surfaces ground to close
limits. It is also known as Ground Flat Stock and is used for the manufacturing of
gauges, punches, dies, jigs, templates etc.

Ge Chemical symbol for Germanium.

Gothics
Rolled free stock for seamless tube -making of square cross section with rounded
corners.

Grain Refining
This is the process of heating appropriately through the transformation range followed
by cooling suitably from above that range, for obtaining desired refinement of grains.
This may also be obtained by controlling the finishing temperature of hot worked
material or by suitable cold work followed by annealing.

Grain Size
A measure of the size of individual metallic crystals usually expressed as an average.
Grain size is reported as a number in accordance with procedures described in ASTM
Grain size specifications. Apparent Ferrite Grain Size is average of the size of the ferrite
grains as microscopically viewed in the normalized or annealed condition. Austenitic
Grain Size, which is usually measurement by the McQuaid-Ehn method, represents the
austenitic grain size of a material at a prescribed temperature above the upper critical,
frequeintly 1700F. For austenitic stainless steels the grain size does not change upon
cooling and is that observed microscopically at room temperature.

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Grain Size Control

When a steel is austenitised by heating to above the critical range, time is required for
the production of a homogeneous structure during which there is a tendency towards
grain growth. Although subsequent hot and cold working affect the grain size, it is
originally controlled at the steel making stage by the addition of aluminum.

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Grain Size Cracks

These are internal ruptures in steel caused by stresses which may arise from the
combination of several factors, like volume changes due to transformation, brittleness
due to the presence of hydrogen and the arrangement of the microstructure, resulting
from hot working. The size of such ruptures may vary considerably but are usually
comparatively short in length when viewed on a surface cut at right angles to the plane
of the defect, and are generally so fine that they can not be discerned except after
etching or by magnetic crack detection.
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Grain Size Measurement

Grain size is normally quantified by a numbering system. Coarse 1-5 and fine 5-8. The
number is derived from the formula N=2n-1 where n is the number of grains per
square inch at a magnification of 100 diameters. Grain size has an important effect on
physical properties. For service at ordinary temperatures it is generally considered that
fine grained steels give a better combination of strength and toughness, whereas
coarse grained steels have better machinability.

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Graphitising
An annealing process applied to cast iron and steels with a high carbon and high silicon
content by which the combined carbon is wholly or in part transformed to graphitic or
free carbon.

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Greenfield Steel Mill

New mill that is built "from scratch," presumably on a green field.

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Grey Iron
Also known as flake iron on account of all or part of the carbon content being in the
form of graphite distributed through the metal as flakes.

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Grinding
A machining process:- (a) to shape components that are too hard to be machined by
conventional methods such as hardened tool steels and case or induction hardened
components. (b) to obtain a high degree of dimensional accuracy and surface finish on
a component.

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Grinding Cracks
Cracks can arise from incorrect grinding and appear in the form of a network. They are
caused by the generation of high heat and rapid cooling in the area of contact and they
mostly occur when grinding fully hardened material such as tool steel.

H
H Chemical symbol for Hydrogen.

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Haematite Iron
If the iron produced from blast furnace (to be used subsequently for steel making)
contains less than 0.05 % phosphorus, it is called acid, or haematite or swedish Iron.

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Hard Metal Facing

A method of increasing the wear resistance of a metal by the deposition of a hard
protective coating. Alloys such as Stellite or a metallic carbide are most often used for
the coating.

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Hard Metals
A group of materials more commonly known as cemented carbides. They consist of
mixtures of one or more of the finely divided carbides of tungsten, titanium, tantalum
and vanadium embedded in a matrix of cobalt or nickel by sintering. Widely used for
cutting tools where for many applications they have replaced conventional high speed
steels.

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Hardenability
The property that determines the depth and distribution of hardness when steel is
heated to a given temperature and then quenched (more precisely it may be defined as
an inverse measure of the severity of cooling conditions necessary to produce on
continuous cooling a martensitic structure in a previously austenitized steel i.e. to avoid
transformations in the pearlitic and bainitic ranges). The lower the cooling rate to avoid
these transformations, the greater the hardenability. The critical cooling rate is largely
a function of the composition of the steel. In general the higher the carbon content, the
greater the hardenability, whilst alloying elements such as nickel, chromium,
manganese and molybdenum increase the depth of hardening for a given ruling
section.

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HAIR LINE SEAM See "Seam."

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HARDENABILITY
(Of Steel)The ability of a steel to harden when cooled from its hardening temperature,
as measured below the surface.

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HARDENING
(As applied to heat treatment of steel.) Heating and quenching to produce increased
hardness.

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HEAT OD STEEL
The steel produced from one charge in the furnace, and consewuently practically
identical in its characteristics.

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HEAT RESISTING STEEL

Those steels which are used for service at relatively high temperatures because they
retain much of their strength and resist oxidation under such condition.

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HEAT TINTING
Heating a polished specimen in air for the purpose of obtaining an oxidized properties.

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HIGH DRAW
A drawing temperature not very much below the Ac1 point of the steel-used to develop
high ductility wheen tempering steel after the quench.

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HOT SHORTNESS
Britleness in metal-at an elevated temperature.

HOT TOP sEE "Sinkhead."

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HOT WORKING
The mechanical working of metal above the recrystillization temperature.
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Hardening
Increasing the hardness of steel by heat treatment. This normally implies heating the
steel to a required temperature and quenching in a suitable medium, e.g. oil or water.
Hardening Process that increases the hardness of steel, i.e., the degree to which steel
will resist cutting, abrasion, penetration, bending, and stretching. The increased
endurance provided by hardening makes steel suitable for additional applications.
Hardening can be achieved through various methods, including (1) heat treatment,
where the properties of steel are altered by subjecting the steel to a series of
temperature changes; and (2) cold working, in which changes in the structure and
shape of steel are achieved through rolling, hammering, or stretching the steel at a
relatively low temperature.

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Hardness
The hardness of steel is generally determined by testing its resistance to deformation.
A number of methods are employed including Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell. The steel to
be tested is indented by a hardened steel ball or diamond under a given load and the
size of the impression is then measured. For steel there is an empirical relationship
between hardness and tensile strength and the hardness number is often used as a
guide to the tensile strength, e.g. 229 Brinell = 772N/mm2 (50 tons/sq.in).

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Hardness Test
These are tests to determine the hardness and are measures of resistance of material
to deformation under standard condition. There are several forms of these tests using
different instruments for measuring indentation. (e.g. Vickers, Rockwell, Brinell etc.)

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Heat
In steel making terms this is often used to define the batch or cast produced from a
single melting operation.

Heat (of steel)

A batch of refined steel. A basic oxygen or electric furnace full of steel. One heat of
steel will be used to cast several slabs, blooms or billets.

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Heat Treatment
Altering the properties of steel by subjecting it to a series of temperature changes. To
increase the hardness, strength, or ductility of steel so that it is suitable for additional
applications. The steel is heated and then cooled as necessary to provide changes in
the structural form that will impart the desired characteristics. The time spent at each
temperature and the rates of cooling have significant impact on the effect of the
treatment.

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Heat Treatment
A combination of heating and cooling operations applied to a metal or alloy in the solid
state to obtain desired conditions or properties. Heating for the sole purpose of hot
working is excluded from the meaning of this definition. See various types below.

Age Hardening- Hardening by aging, usually after rapid cooling or cold working.
Hardening is a result of a precipitation process, often submicroscopic, which occurs
when a supersaturated solid solution is naturally aged at atmospheric temperature or
artificially aged in some specific range of elevated temperature.
Aging occurs more rapidly at higher temperatures. (Synonymous with precipitation
hardening)
Air Hardening- Heating a suitable grade of steel with high hardenability above the
critical temperature range and then cooling in air for the purpose of hardening.
Annealing- Annealing is a heat treatment process which usually involves a relatively
slow cooling after holding the material for some time at the annealing temperature. The
purpose of the annealing treatment may include the following: (a) to induce softness;
(b) to remove internal stresses; (c) to refine the grain size; (d) to modify physical
and/or mechanical properties; (e) to produce a definite microstructure; (f) to improve
machinability. It is generally desirable to use more specific terms in describing the heat
treatment to be used, e.g., finish anneal, full anneal, or medium anneal, as applicable.
Bright Anneal- Carried out in a controlled furnace atmosphere, so that surface oxidation
is reduced to a minimum and the tube surface remains relatively bright.
Dead Soft- A heat treatment applied to achieve maximum softness and ductility
Drawing- Synonymous with TEMPERING, which is preferable.
Finish Anneal- Heating of cold-worked tubing to a temperature below the lower critical,
usually 950F. Generally this treatment will relieve peak stresses without altering
hardness to any extent.
Full Anneal- Heating to a temperature above the upper critical and slow cooling below
the lower critical.
Isothermal Anneal- Austenitizing a heat treatable alloy and cooling to and holding
within the range of temperature at which austenite transforms to a relatively soft
ferrite-carbide aggregate.
Medium Anneal- Subjecting tubing to a subcritical temperature to obtain specific
mechanical properties.
Normalize- Normalizing is a process which consists of heating to a temperature
approximately 100F above the upper critical temperature and cooling in still air.
Quenching- A process of rapid cooling from an elevated temperature, by contact with
liquids or gases.
Soft Anneal- A high temperature stress relieving anneal usually preformed in the
temperature range of 1250 to 1350F. This anneal reduces hardness and strength of a
cold worked steel to achieve near maximum softness.
Solution Anneal- Heating steel into a temperature range wherein certain elements or
compounds dissolve, followed by cooling at a rate sufficient to maintain these elements
in solution at room temperature. The expression is normally applied to stainless and
other special steels.
Spheroidizing Anneal- A general term which refers to heat treatments that promote
spheroidal or globular forms of carbide in carbon or alloy steels.
Stabilizing Anneal- A treatment applied to austenitic stainless steels wherein carbides
of various forms are deliberately precipitated. Sufficient additional time is provided at
the elevated temperature to diffuse chromium into the areas adjacent to the carbides
(usually grain boundaries). This treatment is intended to lessen the chance of
intergranular corrosion.
Stress Relieving- A heat treatment which reduces internal residual stresses that have
been induced in metals by casting, quenching, welding, cold working, etc. The metal is
soaked at a suitable temperature for a sufficient time to allow readjustment of stresses.
The temperature of stress relieving is always below the transformation range. Finish
anneal, medium anneal, and soft anneal (sub-critical) describe specific types of stress
relief anneals.
Tempering- Reheating quenched or normalized steel to a temperature below the
transformation range (lower critical) followed by any desired rate of cooling.

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Heavy Structural Shapes

A general term given to rolled flanged sections that have at least one dimension of
their cross sections three inches or greater. The category includes beams, channels,
tees and zees if the depth dimension is three inches or greater, and angles if the length
of the leg is three inches or greater.

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High Carbon Steel

Steel with more than 0.3% carbon. The more carbon that is dissolved in the iron, the
less formable and the tougher the steel becomes. High-carbon steel's hardness makes
it suitable for plow blades, shovels, bedsprings, cutting edges, or other high-wear
applications.

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High Speed Steel
The term `high speed steel' was derived from the fact that it is capable of cutting metal
at a much higher rate than carbon tool steel and continues to cut and retain its
hardness even when the point of the tool is heated to a low red temperature. Tungsten
is the major alloying element but it is also combined with molybdenum, vanadium and
cobalt in varying amounts. Although replaced by cemented carbides for many
applications it is still widely used for the manufacture of taps, dies, twist drills,
reamers, saw blades and other cutting tools.

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Homogenising
Refers to holding at a high temperature to eliminate or decrease segregation diffusion.

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Hooke's Law
This states that "within the limits of elasticity the strain produced by a stress of any
one kind is proportional to the stress". The stress at which a material ceases to obey
Hooke's Law is known as the limit of proportionality.

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Hot Band (Hot-Rolled Steel)

A coil of steel rolled on a hot-strip mill (hot-rolled steel). It can be sold in this form to
customers or further processed into other finished products.

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Hot Briquetted Iron (HBI)

Direct reduced iron that has been processed into briquettes. Instead of using a blast
furnace, the oxygen is removed from the ore using natural gas and results in a
substance that is 90%-92% iron. Because DRI may spontaneously combust during
transportation, HBI is preferred when the metallic material must be stored or moved.

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Hot Dip Galvanising

This is process for coating a product with zinc by immersion in a hot bath of molten
zinc.

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Hot End
The section of a steelmaking complex from the furnace up to, but not including, the
hot-strip mill.

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Hot Metal
The name for the molten iron produced in a blast furnace. It proceeds to the basic
oxygen furnace in molten form or is cast as pig iron.

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Hot Quenching
Cooling in a medium, the temperature of which is substantially higher than room
temperature.

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Hot-rolling, hot-rolled steel (HR)

Rolling steel slabs into flat-rolled steel after it has been reheated.

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Hot Shortness
Refers to tendency to crack during hot working.

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Hot-Strip Mill
A rolling mill of several stands of rolls that converts slabs into hot-rolled coils. The hot-
strip mill squeezes slabs, which can range in thickness from 2-10 inches, depending on
the type of continuous caster, between horizontal rolls with a progressively smaller
space between them (while vertical rolls govern the width) to produce a coil of flat-
rolled steel about a quarter-inch in thickness and a quarter mile in length.

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Hot Top
Fully deoxidised or killed steels such as those used for high quality forgings shrink
deeply on solidification and may lead to the formation of a pipe. The use of hot Top
acts as a reservoir to feed metal to the main part of the ingot and avoid the formation
of such a pipe which otherwise leads to excessive loss of ingot yield during working.
Hot Top is also called a feeder head.

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Hot Work
The rolling, forging or extruding of a metal at a temperature above its recrystallisation
point.

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HYL I, HYL III

Processes for producing DRI and HBI developed by Hylsa. The processes reduce iron
ore lump or pellets with reformed natural gas in a vertical shaft furnace. The HYL I
process uses four fixed-bed reactors; HYL III uses a single-shaft furnace.

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Hydroforming
A forming process in which a tube is placed into a forming die. The tube is then formed
to the shape of the die through the application of internal water pressure.

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Hydroforming
A forming process in which a tube is placed into a forming die. The tube is then formed
to the shape of the die through the application of internal water pressure. The
hydroforming process allows for severe shape deformation, making it ideal for
automotive structural parts such as engine cradles, radiator supports and body rails.
Various shaped and sized holes can be punched in the tube almost anywhere during the
process.

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Hydrogen
An undesirable impurity if present in steel and a cause of fine hairline cracks especially
in alloy steels. Modern vacuum treatment eliminates this problem. The hydroforming
process allows for severe shape deformation, making it ideal for automotive structural
parts such as engine cradles, radiator supports and body rails. Various shaped and
sized holes can be punched in the tube almost anywhere during the process.

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Hydrogen Embrittlement
This refers to loss in ductility due to the absorption of hydrogen.

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Hyper-Eutectoid Steel
A steel that contains more than 0.83% carbon which with appropriate heat treatment
consists of pearlite and cementite.

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Hypo-Eutectoid Steel
A steel that contains less than 0.83% carbon and which in annealed condition has a
structure of ferrite and pearlite.

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IMPACT VALUES
Resistance to shock and ability to distribute localized stress as measured by impact
test-usually expressed in foot pounds.

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INCLUSIONS
Particles of slag, dirt or ohter non-metallic substances in molten metal that are retained
during solidification.

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INGOT
A casting intended for subsequent rolling or forging. Usually case in metallic molds.

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IZOD TEST
A test made to determinee the notched toughness of a material. The test gives the
enegy required to break a standard notched specimen supported as a cantilever.

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I
Chemical symbol for Iodine.

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I-Beams
Structural sections on which the flanges are tapered and are typically not as long as
the flanges on wide-flange beams. The flanges are thicker at the cross sections and
thinner at the toes of the flanges. They are produced with depths of 3-24 inches.

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Impact Test
A test designed to give information on how a specimen of a known material will
respond to a suddenly applied stress, e.g. shock. The test ascertains whether the
material is tough or brittle. A notched test piece is normally employed and the two
methods in general use are either the Izod or Charpy test. The result is usually
reported as the energy in ft.lbs. or KJ. required to fracture the test piece.

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In
Chemical symbol for Indium.

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Inclusions
Usually non-metallic particles contained in metal. In steel they may consist of simple or
complex oxides, sulphides, silicates and sometimes nitrides of iron, manganese, silicon,
aluminium and other elements. In general they are detrimental to mechanical
properties but much depends on the number, their size, shape and distribution.

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Inclusion Count
A method of assessing the number and size of non-metallic inclusions present in metal.

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Induction Hardening
A widely used process for the surface hardening of steel. The components are heated
by means of an alternating magnetic field to a temperature within or above the
transformation range followed by immediate quenching. The core of the component
remains unaffected by the treatment and its physical properties are those of the bar
from which it was machined, whilst the hardness of the case can be within the range
37/58 Rc. Carbon and alloy steels with a carbon content in the range 0.40/0.45% are
most suitable for this process.

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Ingot
A form of semi-finished steel. Liquid steel is teemed (poured) into molds, where it
slowly solidifies. Once the steel is solid, the mold is stripped, and the 25- to 30-ton
ingots are then ready for subsequent rolling or forging.

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Ingot
The mass of metal that results from casting molten steel into a mould. An ingot is
usually rectangular in shape and is subsequently rolled into blooms and billets for rods,
bars and sections and slabs for plates, sheet and strip. With the increasing use of the
continuous casting process the ingot route is less used as the molten steel is now
directly cast into a bloom or billet.

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Ingot Mould
The receptacle into which molten steel is poured to form an ingot. After solidification
the steel is suitable for subsequent working, i.e. rolling or forging.

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Inmetco
Inmetco is a coal-based process similar to FASTMET that uses iron oxide fines and
pulverized coal to produce a scrap substitute. Mill scale and flue dust, inexpensive
byproducts of steelmaking, can be mixed with the iron oxide fines. Inmetco, unlike
other direct reduction products, is intended to be hot charged into an EAF, with
attendant energy savings.

The process includes three steps. First, iron oxide fines, pulverized coal and a binder
are formed into pellets. Second, the pellets, two to three layers deep, are heated in a
gas-fired rotary hearth furnace for 15-20 minutes to produce sponge iron.
Subsequently, the iron must be desulfurized. The coal in the pellets provides much of
the energy required in the second phase.

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Integrated Mills
These facilities make steel by processing iron ore and other raw materials in blast
furnaces. Technically, only the hot end differentiates integrated mills from mini-mills.
However, the differing technological approaches to molten steel imply different scale
efficiencies and, therefore, separate management styles, labor relations and product
markets. Nearly all domestic integrated mills specialize in flat-rolled steel or plate.

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Intercrystalline Corrosion
Chromium-nickel austenitic stainless steels are prone to this form of corrosion when
they are welded and subsequently in contact with certain types of corrosive media.
When heated within a temperature range of 450-800oC precipitation of the chromium
carbides takes place at the grain boundaries in the area of the weld and these areas no
longer have the protection of the chromium on the peripheries of the grains. This type
of corrosion is also known as Weld Decay and Intergranular Corrosion. The most
common way to avoid the problem is to select a grade of steel that is very low in
carbon i.e. 0.03% or less, or one that is stabilised with niobium or titanium.

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Interrupted Quenching
Rapid cooling to a selected temperature by quenching in a suitable medium, usually
molten salt, holding at the temperature for an appropriate time and then cooling to
room temperature. This process is used to minimise the risk of distortion.

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Interstitial Free Steel

A recently developed sheet steel product with very low carbon levels that is used
primarily in automotive deep-drawing applications. Interstitial Free Steel's improved
ductility (drawing ability) is made possible by vacuum degassing.

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Iron
The term iron, as used in the chemical or scientific sense of the word, refers to the
chemical element iron or pure iron and is the chief constituent of all commercial iron
and steel.

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Iron Carbide
One of several substitutes for high-quality, low-residual scrap for use in electric furnace
steelmaking. Iron carbide producers use natural gas to reduce iron ore to iron carbide.

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Iron Ore
Mineral containing enough iron to be a commercially viable source of the element for
use in steelmaking. Except for fragments of meteorites found on Earth, iron is not a
free element; instead, it is trapped in the earth's crust in its oxidized form.

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IS
Indian Standards Specification.

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ISO
International Organisation for Standardisation

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Isothermal Annealing
Heating to and holding at a temperature above the transformation range, then cooling
to and holding at a suitable temperature until the austenite to pearlite change is
complete.

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Isothermal Transformation Curve

Also known as the Time Temperature Transformation Curve. If a small piece of steel is
heated sufficiently slowly for it to become austenitic and then plunged into a salt bath
and held at a constant temperature below the upper critical point for a definite time
followed by rapid quenching, it is possible by examination to determine the extent to
which the transformation of the austenite has occurred. By taking a number of
specimens of the same steel and treating them in the same way, but varying the
holding temperature and time the behaviour of the steel with time and temperature can
be studied. The information obtained can be plotted as time- temperature
transformation curves which is useful in heat treatment practice, particularly for
martempering and austempering.

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Izod Impact Test

A test specimen, usually of square crossed section is notched and held between a pair
of jaws, to be broken by a swinging or falling weight. When the pendulum of the Izod
testing machine is released it swings with a downward movement and when it reaches
the vertical the hammer makes contact with the specimen which is broken by the force
of the blow. The hammer continues its upward motion but the energy absorbed in
breaking the test piece reduces its momentum. A graduated scale enables a reading to
be taken of the energy used to fracture the test piece. To obtain a representative result
the average of three tests is used and to ensure that the results conform to those of
the steel specification the test specimens should meet the standard dimensions laid
down in BS 131.

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J

Jet Force Number (JFN)

In a LD steel making vessel, oxygen is injected into the vessel using a lance with an
appropriately shaped nozzle. For efficient refining (decarburisation as well as
dephosphorisation), the supersonic jet issuing from the nozzle of the lance should
penetrate the bath adequately. The depth of penetration of a jet in a bath can be
assessed in terms of the Jet Force Number (JFN) as :

JFN = (Gas pressure x Nozzle throat dia) / Height of nozzle

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JOMININ END-QUENCH TEST (Cont.)

method which provides a very rapid rate of cooling all the way up to the other end.

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JIS
Japanese International Specification

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Junghan's principle
During continuous casting of molten steel, the principle of moving the mould is known
as Junghan's principle, so named after the investigator. In this the mould is moved up
and down variously, through a stroke of 12 to 40 mm. The ratio of speeds of downward
to upward strokes is nearly 1:3.

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Jominy Test
A method for determining the hardenability of steel. The Jominy test is covered by BS
4437:1987. A standard test piece 25mm x 100mm is heated to a pre- determined
temperature and quenched by a jet of water sprayed onto one end. When the specimen
is cold, hardness measurements are made at intervals along the test piece from the
quenched end and the results are plotted on a standard chart from which is derived the
hardenability curve. BS 970 contains hardenability curves for many of the steels in the
Standard. Properly carried out, this test will illustrate the effect of mass upon a chosen
steel when heat treated and indicate if the steel is of a shallow, medium or deep
hardening type.

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Joule
A unit of energy. One joule is equal to the energy expended in one second by one
ampere against the resistance of one ohm. In the mechanical testing of steel it is the
unit used in the Charpy V notch impact test.

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K
Chemical symbol for potassium.

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KILLED STEEL
Steel to which sufficient deoxidizing agents have been added to prevent gas evolution
during solidification. LAP-A surface defect appearing as a seam caused from folding
over hot metal, fins, or sharp corners and then rolling or forging, without welding them
into the surface.

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Kaldo Process
A method of producing steel from molten iron, using an inclined rotating converter and
a water cooled oxygen lance inserted through the converter mouth. This process
originated in Sweden.

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Killed Steel
The term indicates that the steel has been completely deoxidised by the addition of an
agent such as silicon or aluminium, before casting, so that there is practically no
evolution of gas during solidification so that no harmful reaction occurs between carbon
and oxygen during solidification. Killed steels are characterised by a high degree of
chemical homogeneity and freedom from porosity.

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Knoop Hardness Test

A micro hardness test in which an elongated pyramidical diamond is pressed into the
surface.

La Chemical symbol for Lanthanum

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Ladle
Container for holding hot metal, steel etc. Depending on the use these ladles are put
to, these are called Transfer ladles, Teeming ladles, Degassing Ladles, Desiliconisation
ladles etc.

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Ladle Metallurgy Furnace (LMF)

An intermediate steel processing unit that further refines the chemistry and
temperature of molten steel while it is still in the ladle. The ladle metallurgy step comes
after the steel is melted and refined in the electric arc or basic oxygen furnace, but
before the steel is sent to the continuous caster.

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Ladle Analysis
Chemical analysis obtained form a sample taken during the pouring of the steel.

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LUTE
A fireclay mixture for sealling cracks to make a gas tight joint on annealing box covers,
crucible coverss, etc.

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LAM (LD Alloy-Steel Making) Process

One of the processes of making stainless steel using the LD vessel.

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Lamination
A defect in rolled materials characterised by a tendency to split into layers along the
direction of rolling usually due to the presence of non-metallic inclusions or any other
discontinuity in steel.

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Lap
A defect appearing as a seam on a rolled bar. Laps are rolled over pieces of material
that arise when a bar is given a pass through the rolls after a sharp overfill or fin has
been formed, causing the protrusion to be rolled into the surface of the product. The
presence of oxides usually prevents the lap welding to the original bar surface, so that
in subsequent cold working it is carried through as a longitudinal crack.

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LD Process
An oxygen steel making process named after the towns in Austria, Linz and Donawitz,
where it was first developed. It is a modified Bessemer process, steel is produced in a
solid bottom converter by injection of oxygen into the molten iron bath from a water
cooled lance inserted through the converter mouth. Present day BOS (basic oxygen
steelmaking) plants are developments of the L- D Process.

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Leaded Steels
When added to steel, lead does not go into solution but exists in a very finely divided
state along the grain boundaries. It greatly assists machinability as it acts as a
lubricant between the steel and the tool face. Lead is normally added in amounts
between 0.15-0.35% and when combined with similar amounts of sulphur, optimum
machinability is attained as in such steel as BS 970 230M07 Pb.

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Leveling Line
A process to flatten any shape deficiencies (wavy edges and buckles) in the sheet, prior
to final shipment. Most cold-rolled sheet initially has a crowned cross-section that, if
such a shape is undesirable to the customer, must be flattened in the leveling line.

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Li
Chemical symbol for Lithium.

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Life Cycle Costing

An accounting method of costing where expenses are allocated over the life of the
product. Life cycle costs are often lower for stainless steel than for alternatives despite
a higher initial outlay, because stainless products generally last longer and require little
maintenance.

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Light-Gauge Steel
Very thin steel sheet that has been temper-rolled or passed through a cold-reduction
mill. Light gauge steel normally is plated with tin or chrome for use in food containers.

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Limits of Proportionality
The stress (load divided by original area of cross section of the test piece) at which the
strain (elongation per unit of gauge length) ceases to be proportional to the
corresponding stress. It is usually determined from a load-elongation diagram,
obtained by plotting extensometer readings and is the stress at which the load-
elongation line ceases to be straight.

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Limiting Range of Stress

The greatest range of stress that a metal can withstand for an indefinite number of
cycles without failure. If exceeded, the metal fractures after a certain number of cycles,
which decrease as the range of stress increases.

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Limiting Ruling Section

The maximum diameter of cross section of a bar or component in which certain
specified mechanical properties are achieved after heat treatment.

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Limits
A term used to determine a minimum and maximum. In a mechanism, it should denote
the minimum and maximum sizes for each part, between which the parts will function
properly in conjunction with each other and outside of which they will not. The words
"limits" and "tolerances" are often interchanged, "tolerance" represents the difference
between the minimum and maximum limits.

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Line Pipe
Pipe used in the surface transmission of oil, natural gas and other fluids.

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Liquid Carburising
A widely used method of case-hardening steel that eliminates scaling and the tendency
to decarburisation and results in clean components. Sodium cyanide is the common
media for this process, usually heated within the range of 900-930oC. It is advisable to
pre-heat the components in neutral salts to avoid a temperature drop resulting from
immersing cold components into the cyanide. After carburising, either single quench
hardening or refining and hardening and tempering is carried out.

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LMF
See "Ladle Metallurgy Furnace"

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Long Products
Classification of steel products that includes bar, rod and structural products, that are
"long", rather than "flat".

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Low-Carbon Steel
Steel with less than 0.005% carbon is more ductile (malleable): It is capable of being
drawn out or rolled thin for use in automotive body applications. Carbon is removed
from the steel bath through vacuum degassing.

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M sections (Bantam BeamsTM , Junior BeamsTM)

Light footweight beams primarily used in the construction of pre-engineered housing.
These beams are produced in lighter footweights, usually six to 10 pounds per foot,
than traditional structural products.

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Machinability
Simply defined as a measure of the ease with which a metal can be machined
satisfactorily.

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Macroetch
A testing procedure for locating and identifying porosity, pipes, bursts, unsoundness,
inclusions, segregations, carburization, flow lines from hot working, etc. Surface of the
test piece should be reasonably smooth or even polished. After applying a suitable
etching solution, the structure developed by the action of the reagent may be observed
without a microscope.

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Macrostructure
The general crystalline structure of a metal and the distribution of impurities seen on a
polished or etched surface by either the naked eye or under low magnification of less
than x10.

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Magnaflux Test
This test is conducted by suitably magnetizing the material and applying a prepared
wet or dry magnetic power or fluid which adheres to it along lines of flux leakage. It
shows the existence of surface and slightly subsurface non-uniformities.

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Magnetic Change Point (Magnetic Transformation Point)

Also known as the Surie Point, the temperature at which iron loses its ferro-magnetism
on heating and recovers the same during cooling (temperature corresponding to this
point for pure iron is approx. 77 degrees Centigrade)

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Magnetic Crack Detection

The bar or component to be tested is magnetised by passing a heavy current through it
or by making it the core of a coil through which a heavy current is passed. Cracks or
inclusions cause the magnetic flux to break the surface forming free magnetic poles.
When the component is sprayed with a suspension of finely divided magnetic particles
they collect at the free poles to visibly show the presence of defects.

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MACHINABILITY
The ease of metal removal during machining, the tool life obtained, the surface finish
obtained or any combination of these three.

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MACHINE STRAIGHTENING
Straightening metal bars by rolling in a straightening machine.

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MALLEABILIZING
An annealing operation performed on white cast iron for the purpose of partially or
wholly transforming the combined carbon to temper carbon, and in some cases to
remove completely the carbon from the iron by decarburization.

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MARTENSITE
With most steels, cooling as rapidly as possible from their quenching temperature
develops a distinctive structure called martensite. In this form, the steel is at its
maximum hardness.

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MATRIX
The ground mass or principal substance in which a constituent is embedded.

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MECHANICAL WORKING
Working metal through rolls, presses, hammers, etc., to change its shape, properties or
structures.

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MICROSCOPIC
Extremely small-not large enough to be seen with the naked eye. MICROSTRUCTURE-
The structure of metals as revealed by examination of polished and etched samples
with the microscope.

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MISCIBLE
Capable of being mixed.

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MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
The ratio, within the limit of elasticity, of the stress to the corresponding strain. The
stress in pounds per square inch is divided by the elongation in inches for each inch of
the original gauge length of the specimen.

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Malleability
It can be defined as the property of a metal to be deformed by compression without
cracking or rupturing. The load may be applied slowly or suddenly and will determine
whether the material will be suitable for forging or rolling into thin sheet.

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Malleable Cast Iron

Cast iron that is cast white and made malleable by annealing in an oxidising or neutral
medium. Also known as Malleable Iron.

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Manganese One of the most important constituents of steel in which it fulfils a number
of functions. It acts as a mild de-oxidising agent. It combines with the sulphur present
to form globular inclusions of Manganese Sulphide which are beneficial to machining. It
increases tensile strength and the hardenability of steel.

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Man-Hours Per Ton

This is a measure of labor efficiency‹the ratio of total hours worked by steel employees
to the tons shipped for a given period of time. Changes in the inventory level and work
that is contracted out will affect the reported measurement.

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Maraging
A process of improving the mechanical strength of certain ferrous alloys. The name was
derived from two hardening reactions; martensite and aging. The maraging
strengthening mechanism is based on the age hardening (precipitation hardening) of
extra-low carbon martensite.

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Martempering
A heat treatment involving austenitisation followed by step quenching, at a rate fast
enough to avoid the formation of ferrite, pearlite or bainite to a temperature slightly
above the Ms point. Soaking must be long enough to avoid the formation of bainite.
The advantage of martempering is the reduction of thermal stresses compared to
normal quenching. This prevents cracking and minimises distortion.

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Martensite
The hard constituent produced when steel is cooled from the hardening temperature at
a speed greater than its critical cooling rate. Martensite is an acicular phase when seen
in the microstructure of steel.

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Martensitic
Small category of stainless steel characterized by the use of heat treatment for
hardening and strengthening. Martensitic stainless steels are plain chromium steels
with no significant nickel content. They are utilized in equipment for the chemical and
oil industries and in surgical instruments. The most popular martensitic stainless steel
is type 410 (a grade appropriate for non-severe corrosion environments requiring high
strength).

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Mass Effect
A term used to signify the effect of size and shape during heat treatment, since it is the
rate of cooling of a piece of steel which determines the properties resulting from the
hardening and quenching process.

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Matrix
The mass or principal constituent (e.g. iron in the case of steel) in which other
constituents are embedded.

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Maximum Stress
In the testing of the strength of steel a sample is machined into a standard test piece
and is stretched in a tensile testing machine until it breaks. The results are expressed
in N/mm2 and is the value of the maximum load reached in the test divided by the
original cross sectional area of the specimen.

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McQuaid EHN Grain Size Test

A method of assessing grain size. It consists of a test piece at 927oC for 8 hours by
slow cooling and subsequent microscopical examination. The grain size is measured at
x100 magnification and compared to standard charts, the figures range from No. 1 -
very coarse, to No. 8 - very fine.

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Mechanical Properties
Those properties of a material that reveal the elastic and in-elastic reaction when force
is applied, or that involve the relationship between stress and strain for example, the
modulus of elasticity hardness, tensile strength and fatigue limit. These properties have
often been referred to as "physical properties," but the term "mechanical properties" is
correct.

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Medium Carbon Steel

Carbon steel containing generally minimum of 0.30 % to maximum of 0.60 % of
Carbon.

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Meehanite
A trade name applied to a certain type of cast iron.

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Melting Point
The temperature at which a solid begins to liquefy.

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Merchant Bar
A group of commodity steel shapes that consist of rounds, squares, flats, strips, angles,
and channels, which fabricators, steel service centers and manufacturers cut, bend and
shape into products. Merchant products require more specialized processing than
reinforcing bar.

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Metallography
The science dealing with the constitution, and structure of metals and alloys as
revealed by the unaided eye or by such tools as low powered magnification, optical
microscope, electron microscope and diffraction or X-ray techniques.

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Mg
Chemical symbol for Magnesium.

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Microcleanliness
Refers to the extent or quality of nonmetallic inclusions observed by examination under
a microscope.

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Micron
A unit of length equal to one millionth of a metre (0.001mm).

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Microstructure
The structure that is observed when a polished and etched specimen of metal is viewed
in an optical microscope at magnifications in range of approximately x25 to x1500.

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MIDREX Direct Reduction Process

MIDREX was developed by the Midrex Corporation, which produces about 65% of DRI
globally. The continuous process uses iron ore lumps or pellets as a raw material; the
limit is roughly 70% pellet. Reformed natural gas flows into the bottom of a vertical
shaft furnace as ore is charged into the Top. As gas rises through the ore, which is
falling through the shaft, it removes oxygen from the ore. The DRI is removed from the
bottom of the furnace. It can be discharged as pellets and lumps, or hot briquetted.

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Mild Steel
Carbon Steel containing approximately 0.12 to 0.25 % carbon.

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Mill Scale
It is the oxide of iron produced during hot fabrication of steel and is readily available in
an integrated steel plant.

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Mini Steel plants

Normally defined as steel plants that melt scrap metal in an electric furnace to produce
commodity products. Although the mini steel plants are subject to the same steel
processing requirements after the caster as the integrated steel companies, they differ
greatly in regard to their minimum efficient size, labor relations, product markets, and
management style. Regular (and cheap) electrical power is imperative for such plants
to survive.
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Mixer
The hot metal from blast furnace needs to be stored in a vessel called Mixer because
the blast furnace tap and steelmaking need not necessarily be synchronised with
respect to its time and amount. The mixer acts as a buffer to store whatever metal
comes from blast furnace and to supply metal to the steelmaking furnace as and when
required.

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Mn
Chemical symbol for Manganese

Mo
Chemical symbol for Molybdenum.

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Modulus of Elasticity
When a material is subjected to an external load it becomes distorted or strained. With
metals, provided the loading is not too great, they return to their original dimensions
when the load is removed, i.e. they are elastic. Within the limits of elasticity, the ratio
of the linear stress to the linear strain is termed the modulus of elasticity or more
commonly known as Young's Modulus.

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Modulus of Rigidity
Refers to the ratio of direct stress to strain within the elastic limit, in shear.

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Molybdenum
Its use as an alloying element in steel increases hardenability and in low alloy steels
reduces the risk of temper brittleness. When added to stainless steels it increases their
resistance to corrosion. It is also used in high speed steels.

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Molybdenum (Mo) An alloying element used as a raw material for some classes of
stainless steel. Molybdenum in the presence of chromium enhances the corrosion
resistance of stainless steel.

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Months of Inventory
Ratio of the end-of-period inventory to average monthly level of sales for the period.

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N
Chemical symbol for Nitrogen.

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Na
Chemical symbol for Sodium.

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Nb
Chemical symbol for Niobium.

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Ni
Chemical symbol for Nickel.

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Nickel (Ni)
An alloying element used as a raw material for certain classes of stainless steel. Nickel
provides high degrees of ductility (ability to change shape without fracture) as well as
resistance to corrosion. Approximately 65% of all nickel is used in the making of
stainless steel.

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NETWORK STRUCTURE
A structure in which the crystals of one constituent are partially or entirely surrounded
by envelopes of another constituent, an arrangement that gives a network appearance
to a polished and etched specimen.

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NICKEL STEEL
Alloy steel containing nickel as its principal alloying element.

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NITRIDING
Adding nitrogen to the solid iron-base alloys by heating at a temperature below the
critical in contact with ammonia or some other nitrogeneous material.

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NORMALIZING
Heating to about 100°F. above the critical temperature and cooling to room
temperature in still air. Provision is often made in normalizing for controlled cooling at
a slower rate, but when the cooling is prolonged the term used is annealing.

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Nickel
One of the most widely used alloying elements in steel. In amounts 0.50% to 5.00% its
use in alloy steels increases the toughness and tensile strength without detrimental
effect on the ductility. Nickel also increases the hardenability, thus permitting the steel
to be oil- hardened instead of water quenched. In larger quantities, 8.00% and
upwards, nickel is the constituent, together with chromium, of many corrosion resistant
and stainless austenitic steels.

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Niobium
Also known as columbium. Niobium is a strong carbide forming element which is added
to certain 18/8% chromium-nickel stainless steels as a stabiliser to prevent inter-
granular corrosion arising from welding.

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Nitriding
A case hardening process that depends on the absorption of nitrogen into the steel. All
machining, stress relieving, as well as hardening and tempering are normally carried
out before nitriding. The parts are heated in a special container through which
ammonia gas is allowed to pass. The ammonia splits into hydrogen and nitrogen and
the nitrogen reacts with the steel penetrating the surface to form nitrides. Nitriding
steels offer many advantages: a much higher surface hardness is obtainable when
compared with case-hardening steels; they are extremely resistant to abrasion and
have a high fatigue strength.

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Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a gas that forms approximately 79% by volume or 77% by weight of the
atmosphere. It can combine with many metals to form nitrides and is thus applied to
the case-hardening of steel, the usual source for this purpose being ammonia.

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Noble Metals Metals such as gold, silver and platinum which are resistant to corrosion
by all but the most powerful acids.

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Non Destructive Testing Those forms of testing that do not result in permanent
damage or deformation to the part being tested. Typical examples are magnetic crack
detection, ultrasonic inspection, X-Ray inspection and gamma radiography.

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Non Magnetic Steels

Austenitic steels such as the 14% manganese steels and the 303 type 18/8%
chromium-nickel stainless steels.

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Normalising
A heat treatment process that has the object of relieving internal stresses, refining the
grain size and improving the mechanical properties. The steel is heated to 800-900oC
according to analysis, held at temperature to allow a full soak and cooled in still air.

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Notch Brittleness
Tendency of a metal to fail by brittle fracture at a notch or stress raised by a suddenly
applied load.

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Notched Bar Test

A test to determine the resistance of a material to a suddenly applied stress, i.e. shock.
A notched test piece is employed in an Izod or Charpy machine and the results are
recorded in ft.lbs. or Joules.

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No. 1 Heavy Melt

Obsolete steel scrap grade, at least one-quarter inch in thickness and in sections no
larger than five feet by two feet. Much of the metal comes from demolished buildings,
truck frames and heavy duty springs. Mini-mills are primary consumers of No. 1 heavy
scrap.

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O
Chemical symbol for Oxygen.

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Occlusion
A term applied, in the case of metals, to the absorption or entrapment of gases.

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OIL QUENCH
A quench from the hardening temperature, in which oil is the cooling medium.

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OLSEN TEST
This is a cupping test made on an Olsen machine as an aid in determining ductility and
deep drawing properties. The test simulates a deep drawing operation. I: is continued
until the cup formed from the steel sample fractures. Ductility and drawing properties
are judged by the depth of the cup, position of the break, condition of the sur- the
break, etc.

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OVERHEATING
Heating to such a temperature that while the properties of the metal are impaired, it
has not been burned and can therefore be restored by heat treatment.

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OCTG
includes casing, drill pipe and oil well tubing, which, depending on their use, may be
formed through welded or seamless processes.

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Oil Country Tubular Goods (OCTG)

Label applied to the pipe products used by petroleum exploration customers.
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Oil Hardening Steel

Used to describe tool or alloy steels where oil is used as the quenching medium in the
hardening process.

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Open Hearth Furnace

Developed in the middle of the last century, the open hearth or Siemens-Martins
process, as it is known, accounted for a major proportion of UK steel production until
the early 1970's. For economic and quality reasons it has been replaced by the Electric
Arc Furnace and the Basic Oxygen Steelmaking process. There are no open hearth
furnaces in use in Britain today but they are still in use in Russia and Eastern Europe.

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Open Hearth Furnace

A broad, shallow hearth to refine pig iron and scrap into steel. Heat is supplied from a
large, luminous flame over the surface, and the refining takes seven to nine hours.
Open Hearths, at one time the most abundant steelmaking furnaces among integrated
companies, have been replaced by the basic oxygen furnace.

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Operating Rates
The ratio of raw steel production to the mill's stated capacity. Each December, steel
companies report to the AISI their estimated capacity (if they could sell all steel they
produced) for the following year, adjusted for any facility downtime.

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Orange Peel Effect

An effect that arises on the surface of steel sheets when they are stretched beyond
their elastic limit.

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Order Rate
The ratio of new orders recorded to the mill's capacity to produce the steel to fill the
orders. Many analysts view trends in the order rate as harbingers of future production
levels.

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Ore
An ore is a material that contains a metal in such quantities that it can be mined and
worked commercially to extract that metal. The metal is usually contained in chemical
combination with some other element in addition to various impurities.

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Os
Chemical symbol for Osmium.

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Oscillating
A method of winding narrow strip steel over a much wider roll. Customers want to have
as much steel on a coil as will fit in their machines, so they can spend less time moving
the material and more time using it. By coiling the strip like fishing line (or thread) over
a spool, a much longer strip can fit onto a coil of proper diameter. Oscillate-wound coils
allow the customer to enjoy longer processing runs.

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Overfill
A cross section that protrudes outward so that it is inaccurate in both dimension and
shape.

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Overheating
Failure of tools and components in heat treatment can arise through overheating. This
may be caused due to quenching from a temperature too high for the type of steel
involved. Overheating is evidenced by cracking, grain-coarseness, erratic surface
hardness and pitting.

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Oxidation
A common form of chemical reaction which is the combining of oxygen with various
elements and compounds. The corrosion of metals is a form of oxidation, rust on iron
for example is iron oxide.

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Oxy-Acetylene Welding
A process for joining two pieces of metal in which the required high temperature is
obtained by the combustion of acetylene gas and oxygen. The gases are thoroughly
mixed in the nozzle or tip of the welding torch to ensure perfect combustion. The weld
may be formed directly between two adjoining surfaces, but usually metal from a
welding rod is fused in between the surfaces of the joint.

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Oxygen
Oxygen is one of the chief constituents of the atmosphere of which it forms
approximately one fifth. It is odourless and invisible. Although oxygen itself does not
burn it is extremely efficient in supporting combustion, nearly all other chemical
elements combine with it under evolution of heat. It has many uses in industry and is
essential to the BOS (Basic Oxygen Steelmaking Process).

P
Chemical symbol for Phosphorus.

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Parkerising
A chemical treatment applied to ferrous metals to improve their corrosion resistance.
The process is based on a manganese phosphate solution which produces a fairly thick
coating. This can subsequently be painted or impregnated with oil.

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Patenting
A heat treatment process often applied to high carbon wire. The steel is heated to a
suitable temperature well above the transformation range, followed by cooling in air or
a bath of molten lead or salt. A structure is produced suitable for subsequent cold
drawing and which will give the desired mechanical properties in the finished state.
Patenting Patenting or Air Patenting refers to heating to an appropriate temperature
above the transformation range and then cooling at a controlled rate in the desired
medium (e.g. air, lead or salt bath) to produce structure desirable for subsequent cold
working. This method is usually adopted in wire drawing.

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PASSIVATION
Generally refers to a process for the surface treatment of stainless steels. Material is
subjected to the action of an oxidizing solution, usually nitric acid, which augments and
strengthens the normal protective oxide film enabling the material to resist corrosive
attack. The passivating process also removes foreign substances from the surface
which might cause local corrosion.
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PATENTING
Heating iron-base alloys above the critical temperature range followed by cooling below
that range in air, or in molten lead or a molten mixture of nitrates or nitrites
maintained at a temperature usually between 800-1050°F., depending on the carbon
content of the steel and the properties required of the finished product. PEARLITE-A
relatively hard constituent of steel made up of alternate layers of ferrite (iron), and
cementite (iron carbide; that is, a compound of iron and carbon). See "Eutectoid Steel"

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PERMANENT MOLD
A metal mold which is used repeatedly for the production of many castings of the same
form.

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PERMANENT SET
Permanent change in shape due to applicationof stress.

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PHOSPHOROUS BANDING
A visible band occurring in metals caused by localized phosphide segregations.

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PICKLING
Immersion of steel in a dilute solution of acid for the purpose of removing the scale.

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PIERCING
Producing a hole in hot metal by forcing a pointed tool through it. Frequently used in
making steel tubes from solid steel bars.

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PIG IRON
So called whether cast in metal molds to form pigs or kept molten awaiting transfer to
the steelmaking furnaces. The term, "hot metal," is also applied to molten pig iron.

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PIPE
cavity formed in metal (especially ingots) during the solidification of the last portion of
liquid metal Contraction of the metal causes this cavity or pipe.

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PIT
A depression in the surface of metal occurring during its manufacture

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POT ANNEALING
See "Box Annealing."

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PRECIPITATION HARDENING
The process of hardening an alloy by heating it for the purpose of allowing a structural
constituent to precipitate from a solid solution.

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PREHEATING
As a general term, preheating means a heating applied preliminary to some further
thermal or mechanical treatment It also has a specific meaning in describing the
process by which tool steel is heated slowly and uniformly to a temperature below the
hardening temperature following which the steel is transferred to a furnace in whioh
the temperature is substantially above the preheating temperature.

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PROCESS ANNEALING
Heating to a temperature below or close to the lower limit of the critical temperature
range and then cooling as desired.

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PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
Stress at which the deformation ceases to be proportional to the load as determined by
straino-meter (also, by a extensometer for tension, compressometer for compression
and deflectometer for transverse tests, value being read from plotted results). See
"Elastic Limit."

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Pb
Chemical symbol for Lead.

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Pd
Chemical symbol for Palladium.

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Pearlite
A lamellar constituent of steel consisting of alternate layers of ferrite (alpha-iron) and
cementite (iron Carbide Fe3C) and is formed on cooling austenite at 723oC. This
produces a tough structure and is responsible for the mechanical properties of
unhardened steel.

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Pellets
See "Agglomerating Processes"

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pH Value
A method of expressing differences in the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. A figure of 7
is regarded as neutral, figures below this indicate the decree of acidity and above
alkalinity.

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Phosphating
Refers to the treatment of descaled surface by immersing in or brushing on a solution
of phosphoric acid or zinc phosphate to produce a rust resisting finish suitable for the
application of paint or other coatings.

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Phosphorus
An element that forms 0.12% of the earth's crust, chiefly in the form of phosphates. Its
presence in steel is usually regarded as an undesirable impurity due to its embrittling
effect, for this reason its content in most steels is limited to a maximum of 0.050%.

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Pickling
A process to chemically remove scale or oxide from steel to obtain a clean surface.
When applied to bars or coils prior to bright drawing, the steel is immersed in a bath of
dilute sulphuric acid heated to a temperature of around 80oC. An inhibitor is added to
prevent attack and pitting of the cleaned metal. After pickling, a washing process takes
place followed by immersion in a lime-water bath to neutralise any remaining acid. For
environmental reasons shot blasting has largely replaced pickling.

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Pickling
Process that cleans a steel coil of its rust, dirt and oil so that further work can be done
to the metal.

When hot-rolled coils cool, rust forms on the unprotected metal; often coils are stored
or transported while exposed to outside air and water.

Through a continuous process, the steel is uncoiled and sent through a series of
hydrochloric acid baths that remove the oxides (rust). The steel sheet is then rinsed
and dried.

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Pig
Ingot or virgin metal to be remelted for use.

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Pig Iron
The name for the melted iron produced in a blast furnace, containing a large quantity
of carbon (above 1.5%). Named long ago when molten iron was poured through a
trench in the ground to flow into shallow earthen holes, the arrangement looked like
newborn pigs suckling. The central channel became known as the "sow," and the molds
were "pigs."

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Pig Iron
The product of the blast furnace. The term was derived from the method of casting the
bars of the pig iron in depressions or moulds formed in the sand floor adjacent to the
furnace. These were connected to a runner (known as a sow) and when filled with
metal the runner and the numerous smaller moulds were supposed to resemble a litter
of suckling pigs, hence the term pig iron. Pig iron today is sold on chemical analysis.

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Piling (Sheet Piling)
A structural steel product with edges designed to interlock; used in the construction of
cofferdams or riverbank reinforcement.

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Pinch Pass
A term applied when, after annealing, sheet or strip is lightly rolled with the object of
preventing stretcher lines or kinks on subsequent cold working.

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Pipe (1)
Technically a tube used to transport fluids or gases. However, pipe and tube are often
used interchangeably in steel lexicon, with a given label applied primarily as a matter
of historical use.

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Pipe (2)
A defect that arises during the solidification of steel in the ingot mould. As steel
contracts on solidification a central cavity forms in the upper portion of the ingot, if this
is not completely removed before rolling into bars a central defect known as "pipe"
results. The risk of piping is considerably reduced on continuously cast steel due to
molten steel being available to fill any shrinkage cavity.

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Pit
A sharp, usually small, depression in the surface of metal.

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Plasticity This is the ability of a metal or alloy to undergo plastic deformation without
rupture.

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Plate
Wide, flat-rolled steel. It is now generally accepted that steel more than 3 mm (1/8
inch) thick is plate and less than 3 mm is sheet (See Sheet).

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PM 2.5
The name for the Environmental Protection Agency's new Particulate Matter standards.
The EPA is revising current PM standards and establishing a new PM 2.5 standard
regarding the release of particulate matter down to 2.5 micrometers in diameter (less
than one-third the width of a human hair).

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Poisson's Ratio
If a square bar is stressed in a testing machine in the direction of its length so that the
length increases, there is a contraction in each opposite direction, which produces a
decrease in the thickness of the bar. The ratio between the contraction at right angles
to a stress and the direct extension is called the Poisson's ratio. Its value in steel is in
the order of 0.28.

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POR
See "Prime Overruns"

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Porosity
Unsoundness caused in cast metals by the presence of blowholes or shrinkage cavities.

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Pot Quenching
Quenching carburised parts directly from the carburising pot or box.

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Powder Metallurgy
A method of producing components by pressing or moulding metal powders which may
be simultaneously or subsequently heated to produce a coherent mass.

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Powder Metals
Fabrication technology in which fine metallic powder is compacted under high pressure
and then heated at a temperature slightly below the melting point to solidify the
material. Primary users of powder metal parts are auto, electronics and aerospace
industries.

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Pre-Heating
Used in the hardening process. Tools are pre- heated before heating to the final
temperature, this is particularly important in tools of complex shape to prevent
distortion or cracking. Pre-heating reduces the time of exposure to the hardening
temperature and helps to minimise scaling and decarburisation.

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Precipitation Hardening (PH)

A small group of stainless steels with high chromium and nickel content, with the most
common types having characteristics close to those of martensitic (plain chromium
stainless class with exceptional strength) steels. Heat treatment provides this class with
its very high strength and hardness. Applications for PH stainless steels include shafts
for pumps and valves as well as aircraft parts.

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Prime Overruns (POR) Steel that does not meet the original customer's specifications
because of a defect in its chemistry, gauge or surface quality. Mills must search to find
another customer (that can accept the lower quality) to take the off-spec steel at a
discount. While secondary will not affect the reported yield, margins will suffer.

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Projection Welding
A welding process that uses small projections on one or both components of the weld
to localise the heat and pressure, the projections collapse when the weld is made.

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Proof Stress
The stress that will cause a specified small, permanent extension of a tensile test piece.
Commonly the stress to produce 0.2% extension is quoted in N/mm2 for steel. This
value approximates to the yield stress in materials not exhibiting a definite yield point.

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Pulverized Coal Injection System (PCI)

A blast furnace enhancement to reduce an integrated mill's reliance on coke (because
of environmental problems with its production). Up to 30% of the coke charged into the
blast furnace can be replaced by this talcum-like coal powder, which is injected through
nozzles at the bottom of the furnace.

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Q

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Q-BOP
Modified Basic Oxygen Furnace in which the oxygen and other gases are blown in from
the bottom, rather than from the Top. While the Q-BOP stirs the metal bath more
vigorously, allowing for faster processing, the design produces essentially the same
steel grades as the Top-blowing basic oxygen furnace. Today's state-of-the-art furnace
design combines the previous technologies: 60% of the oxygen is blown from above,
with the rest blown through the bottom of the vessel.

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Qualification Trials The testing required for a new process adopted to make certain
grades of steel with exacting end uses. In order for the process to become qualified,
the steel made by the process must be tested.

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Quenching
Rapid cooling from a high temperature by immersion in a liquid bath of oil or water.
Molten salts may also be used.

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Quenching Crack
A fracture, often termed a hardening crack, which arises from thermal stresses induced
during rapid cooling.

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QUENCHING
Cooling rapidly by immersion in oil, water, etc.

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QUENCHING MEDIUM
The medium used for cooling steel during heat treatment-usually oil, water, air, or
salts.

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QUENCHING TEMPERATURE
The temperature from which steel is quenched during a heat treating process.
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Ra
Chemical symbol for Radium.

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Radiography
A method of non-destructive testing. Internal examination of a metallic structure or
component is carried out by exposing it to a beam of X-Ray or gamma radiation.
Internal defects can be seen on a screen or recorded on film.

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Rb
Chemical symbol for Rubidium.

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Re
Chemical symbol for Rhenium.

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Re-crystallisation
The re-arrangement of crystals in cold worked metal brought about by heating so that
the deformed crystals are absorbed by newly-formed crystals and the effects of work
hardening are removed. Also occurs when steel is heated through the transformation
range and when steel is hot worked.

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Red Hardness
A term sometimes associated with high speed steel because it has the property of
retaining sufficient hardness for cutting metals even when heated to a temperature
high enough to cause a dull redness. The tungsten content has a significant influence
on this property.

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Reducing Agent
Either natural gas or coal can be used to remove the oxygen from iron ore in order to
produce a scrap substitute. In gas-based processes, the iron ore is heated in a vessel
as reformed natural gas passes through. In coal-based processes, iron ore is combined
with gasified or ground coal and heated. The oxygen in the ore combines with carbon
and hydrogen in the gas or coal, producing reduced, or metallic, iron.

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Reduction of area
The percentage decrease in the cross- sectional area of a tensile test piece caused by
wasting or necking of the specimen. It is expressed as a percentage of the original area
of the test piece and is a measure of ductility.

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RECALESCENCE
The liberation of heat due to internal changes, which occurs when steel is cooled
through the critical tetriperature range.

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RED SHORTNESS
See "Hot Shortness."

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REDUCTION OF AREA
The difference between the original cross-sectional area of a tensile specimen and that
of the small-est area at the point of rupture. It is usually stated as a per-centage of the
original area; also called "contraction of area."

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REFINEMENT OF STRUCTURE
See "Grain Refinement."

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REFINING TEMPERATURE
A temperature employed in heat treatment to refine structure, in particular, to refine
the grain size. Usually just above Ac3 in steel.

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REGENERATIVE QUENCHING
Quenching carburized parts from two differnet temperatures to refine case and core.
(often called double quenching.)
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RIMEED STEEL
A steel that is poured containing enough oxygen to evolve appreciable gas during
solidification. The ggas evolution results in a finished product having a very pure
surface with the impurities concentrated in the interior. The pure zone which is readily
shown by etching is reffered to as the "rim".

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ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

Forcing a cone-shaped diamond or hardened steel ball into the specimen being tested
under standard pressure. The depth of penetration is an indication of the Rockwll
Hardness.

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ROLLER LEVELER
A rolling device used for eliminating buckles and waves in steel sheets and strip and for
producing sheets of commercial flatness. The roller leveler has sets of rolls that are
staggered to flex the sheet as it pasess between them. Besides its use in leveling, it
has extensive application for minimizing or temporarily eliminating the tendency to
develop stretcher strains. -

Refining

a. The removal of impurities and metallic oxides from the molten bath by the reaction
of the slag and other additions.

b. A heat treatment process with the object of refining or making the grain size of the
steel uniform.

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Refractory
A ceramic material that can resist great heat and is therefore suitable for lining
furnaces. Fireclay, dolomite, magnesite and silica are examples. This is not to be
confused with refractory metals, such as columbium and tantalum

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Refractory Brick
Heat-resistant brick. Because its melting point is well above the operating
temperatures of the process, refractory bricks line most steelmaking vessels that come
in contact with molten metal, like the walls of the blast furnace, sides of the ladles, and
inside of the BOF.

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Reinforcing Bar (Rebar)

A commodity-grade steel used to strengthen concrete in highway and building
construction.

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Reline
The process of replacing the refractory lining of a liquid steel vessel. Once it wears out,
the brick lining of a furnace must be cooled, stripped and replaced. This maintenance
can be significant because a blast furnace reline may require up to three months to
complete.

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Residual Stress
The stress which exists in an elastic solid body in the absence of, or in addition to, the
stresses caused by an external load. Such stresses can arise from deformation during
cold working such as cold drawing or stamping, in welding from weld metal shrinkage,
and in changes in volume due to thermal expansion.

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Residuals
The impurities in mini-mill steel as the result of the mix of metals entering the process
dissolved in obsolete scrap. Residuals are key concerns regarding the mini-mills' recent
entry into the flat-rolled market, where high residuals can leave sheet steel too brittle
for customer use.

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Reverse Torsion Test

This is a test for wires carried out by twisting the test piece a specified number of times
in one direction and then in the opposite direction.

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Reversing Mill
The stand of rolls used to reduce steel sheet or plate by passing the steel back and
forth between the rolls; the gap between the rolls is reduced after each pass. Reversing
mill Any rolling mill in which the direction of rotation of the rolls can be reversed at will.
Heavy primary mills for bloom and slab rolling are the most common, but others,
including some cold-rolling mills, are also made to reverse.

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Rh
Chemical symbol for Rhodium.

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Rimmed Steel
A steel which forms a relatively clean outer layer (rim) during solidification. Sheet and
strip made from such steel has good surface quality. Molten steel contains dissolved
gases, in particular oxygen. If the steel is not deoxidised (as in killed steel), CO
evolution is possible during solidification. Depending upon the amount of gas evolved, a
series of ingot structures are produced. If the evolution of gas is appreciable, in other
words deoxidation is not fully carried out, it gives appearance of boiling to liquid steel
in the mould. This boiling action is called Rimming and the steel is known as Rimming
Steel.

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Rockwell Hardness Testing

A method for testing the hardness of metals by determining the depth of penetration of
a steel ball or a diamond sphero-conical indentor. The value is read from a dial and is
an arbitrary number related to the depth of penetration. For testing hard steels, a
sphero-conical diamond is used with a 150 kg load, the result is read from the black
scale on the dial and is prefixed with the letter C. A hardened tool steel would typically
give a reading of 62Rc. For softer metals Scale B is used with a 1/16" diameter steel
ball and a standard load of 100 kgs.

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Rod
Round, thin semi-finished steel length that is rolled from a billet and coiled for further
processing. Rod is commonly drawn into wire products or used to make bolts and nails.
Rod trains (rolling facilities) can run as fast as 20,000 feet per minute‹more than 200
miles an hour.

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Roll Force Systems

Mill stands place considerable pressure on slabs, blooms and coils to further process
the material. There are two general ways of applying the force to the steel‹screw and
hydraulic systems.
SCREW (INCLINE PLANE) This older method used the basic principle of the screw to
adjust the space between the mill rolls. Because metal touches metal, these
configurations will wear down over time and can cause quality problems.

HYDRAULIC (PANCAKE CYLINDER) This modern system uses fluid pressure to rapidly
adjust the roll spacing several times per second. These minute, instantaneous
adjustments allow for superior gauge tracking and higher-quality products.

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Rolled in-scale
Local areas of scale pressed into the surface of the products during rolling.

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Rolling
The process of shaping metal by passing it between rolls revolving at the same
peripheral speed and in opposite directions. In steel there are a number of different
types of rolling mill for processing the ingot to its finished shape. These are variously
known as Cogging mills, Slabbing mills, Billet mills, Bar mills and Strip mills, which
produce plate, sections, bars, sheet and strip. Cold rolling of previously hot rolled strip
is carried out to produce strip that is accurate to size and with a smooth bright polished
surface.

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Rolling Lap
A fault arising from the overfilling or mis- alignment of rolls, the result is a bulge on the
bar which is rolled into the metal and is lapped over. It remains throughout subsequent
working and appears as a longitudinal crack.

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Rotary Hearth
A gas fired rotating furnace for reheating the billets prior to subjecting to piercing
process.

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Ru
Chemical symbol for Ruthenium.

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Ruling Section
More accurately termed limiting ruling section. One of the most important factors
associated with the choice of steel for a given purpose is to ensure that the desired
mechanical properties are obtained throughout the section when the material has been
heat treated. The limiting ruling section determines the maximum diameter or cross-
section of a bar or component in which the specified properties can be achieved by a
given heat treatment. The analysis of the steel also has an important bearing on this.

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S
Chemical symbol for Sulphur.

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Salt Bath
A method of heating steel using a bath of molten salts. Salt baths give uniform heating
and prevent oxidation, they are used for hardening, tempering or quenching. The type
of salt used depends on the temperature range required. For hardening, sodium
cyanide, sodium carbonate and sodium chloride are in common use.

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Sb
Chemical symbol for Antimony.

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SCAB
A defect on the ingot caused by metal which splashes during teeming; on rolled or
forged products it appears as a silver-like defect partially welded or mechanically bound
to the parent metal surface.

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SCLEROSCOPE or SHORE HARDNESS TEST

This test consists of ropping a small diamond tipped hammer rebounds is a measure of
the surface hardness of the specimen.

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SEAM
An elongated discontinuity in metal caused by blow hole or other defect which has been
closed by rolling or forging mechanicaly but not welded.

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SECONDARY HARDENING
An increase in hardnessfollowinging the normal softening during the tempering of
certain alloy steels.

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SELF-HARDENING STEEL
An alloy tool steel that hard when cooled in air and which will hold a cutting edge at
temperatures nearing a dark red.

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SEMI-FINISHED
See `Finished Steel.'

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SHERARDIZING
A cementation process used to give steel articles, such as bolts, a corrosion resistant
surface zinc-rich alloy. The articles are packed with zinc dust in drums which are
heated for several hours while slowly rotating.

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SHORTNESS
Brittleness.

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SILKY FRACTURE
A steel fracture having a very smooth, fine grain, or silky appearance.

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SINKHEAD
A heat-insulated reservoir for excess molten metal, placed at the Top of an ingot mold
in order to feed molten metal into the shrinkage in the Top of the ingot proper.

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SKELP
Steel or iron plate from which pipe or tubing is made.

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SLAB
A very thick rectangular piece of steel for rolling down into plates.

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SLABBING MILL
A mill for rolling slabs from ingots.

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SLIP BANDS
A series of parallel lines running across a crystalline grain. Slip bands are formed when
the elastic limit is passed by one layer or portion of the crystal slipping over another
portion along a plane, known as the slip plane.

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SLIP PLANE
See "Slip Bands."

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SOAKING
Holding steel at a predetermined temperature for a sufficient time to assure heat
penetration and/or to complete the solution of carbides.

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SOLIDIFICATION RANGE
The temperature range through whichmetal freezes or solidifies.

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SOLID SOLUTION
A condition wherein one element is dissolved in another element while the dissolving
element is in a solid and not liquid condition.

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SONIMS
Solid non-metallic inclusions in metal

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SPALLIN
G-Cracking and flaking of a metal surface.

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SPHEROIDIZING
Any of a number of processes of heating and cooling which cause the carbides to
assume a spherical-like shape Ordinary steels are commonly spheroidized by prolonged
heating at a temperature just below the lower limit of the transformation range with
subsequent slow cooling.

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SPIEGEL (OR SPIEGELEISEN)

A pig iron containing 15 to 30% manganese and 4.5 to 5.5% carbon.

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STATIC LOAD
A load which is sustained without motion such a weight hanging on a string.

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STEP DOWN TEST

In this test, a sample of steel is machined down to a series of different diameters so
that inspection can be made at different distances from the surface.

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STRESS
The load per unit area tending to deform a material.

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STRETCHER LEVELING
A method of producing unusual flatness in steel sheets by stretching them in a
hydraulic device.

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STRECHER STRAINS
These are vein-like surface defects appear in low carbon steel during cold deformation.
They are associated with the irregular movement of the metal when it is being strained
at the yield point. Stretcher strains are also known as "Luder's lines," "strain figures,"
etc'

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STRUCTURAL GRAIN SIZE

See "Grain Structure."

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Scale
The oxidised surface of steel produced during hot working, as in rolling, and by
exposure to air or steam at elevated temperature.

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Scale Pit
These are cavities on the surface of the products resulting from unsatisfactory
processing.

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Scarfing
Also termed deseaming. It is a process for burning out defective areas on the surface
of ingots or semi-finished products such as billets so that the product is suitable for
subsequent rolling or forging.

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Scrap
It forms the basic raw material for making steel by the electric arc process. Steel offers
ecological advantages as it can be recycled enabling the discarded car of today to
appear as part of a new model tomorrow. Scrap is sorted and graded before use and
the necessary elements are added during the steel making process to achieve the
desired specifications.

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Scrap (Ferrous)
Ferrous (iron-containing) material that generally is remelted and recast into new steel.
Integrated steel mills use scrap for up to 25% of their basic oxygen furnace charge;
100% of the mini-mills' raw material for their electric furnaces generally is scrap.
HOME SCRAP Waste steel that is generated from within the steel mill, through edge
trimming and rejects. It normally is sent directly back to the furnace.

PROMPT (INDUSTRIAL) SCRAP Excess steel that is trimmed by the auto and appliance
stampers and auctioned to scrap buyers as factory bundles. This is a high-quality scrap
as the result of its low-residual content and consistent chemistry.

OBSOLETE SCRAP Iron-bearing trash. Automobile hulks, worn-out refrigerators and

useless storage tanks, for example, can be recovered from the junkyard and remelted.
The residual impurity of such scrap normally relegates obsolete scrap to the mini-mills
(see No. 1 Heavy Melt).

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Scrap Substitute
Raw material that can be charged in place of scrap in electric arc furnaces and basic
oxygen furnaces. Scrap substitutes include, among others, DRI, HBI, iron carbide, and
pig iron.

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Se
Chemical symbol for Selenium.

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Seams
A surface defect caused during the steel making process. Seams are generally formed
from blow holes in the ingot, non metallic inclusions, or stresses arising during the
solidification stage. They appear as longitudinal discontinuities in the bar. Seam A tight,
but unwelded imperfection on the surface of a wrought metal product. Also refers to
long, shallow grooves formed during working by the elongation of oxidised surface or
sub-surface holes.

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Seamless Pipe
Pipe made from a solid billet, which is heated, then rotated under extreme pressure.
This rotational pressure creates an opening in the center of the billet, which is then
shaped by a mandrel to form pipe.

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Secondary Hardness
An increase in hardness which sometimes occurs when hardened steel is re-heated. It
can be caused by the transformation of retained austenite to martensite or by the
precipitation of alloy carbides.

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Secondary Steelmaking
The major bulk steelmaking processes like Open hearth, LD etc. are classified as
"Primary steelmaking" processes wherein major portion of the total refining or melting
is carried out. The final refining and finishing is carried out in any one of the secondary
steelmaking processes. Basically, secondary steelmaking is resorted to achieve one or
more of the following requirements:

1. improvement in quality.
2. improvement in production rate.
3. Decrease in energy consumption.
4. Use of relatively cheaper grade or alternative raw materials.
5. Use of alternative sources of energy.
6. Higher recovery of alloying elements.

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Segregation
A term applied to the concentration and partial separation of one or more elements
from solution during solidification of liquid steel in an ingot mould. Sulphur and
phosphorus tend to segregate to a greater extent than other elements which can have
a particular adverse effect on machinability in high sulphur free- cutting steels. Modern
steel making and continuous casting have largely overcome this problem.

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Selenium
An element that closely resembles sulphur in its properties. The main use in steel is as
a freecutting additive but due to high cost its use is limited to stainless steel. One of
the benefits being the ability to obtain a very good surface finish on machined
components.

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Semi-finished Steel
Steel shapes-for example, blooms, billets or slabs-that later are rolled into finished
products such as beams, bars or sheet.

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Semi-killed Steel
Molten steel contains dissolved gases, in particular oxygen. If the steel is not
deoxidised (as in killed steel), CO evolution is possible during solidification. Depending
upon the amount of gas evolved, a series of ingot structures are produced. If the
evolution of gas is appreciable, in other words deoxidation is not fully carried out, it
gives appearance of boiling to liquid steel in the mould. This boiling action is called
Rimming and the steel is known as Rimming Steel. In between violently rimming and
killed steels lie the semi-killed steels which are only partially deoxidised such that some
gas evolution takes place duringlater stages of solidification. The capped steel is only a
special variety of rimming steels in which the rimming action is less violent.

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Sendzimir Mill (Z-mill)

A Compact mill used for rolling cold coils of stainless steel in order to make the steel
thinner, smoother, and stronger. It is used to to control the thickness of steel better at
lower capital cost, and to roll thinner sheets and strips.

Steel sheet or strip passes between a matching pair of small work rolls with extremely
smooth surfaces, heavily reinforced by clusters of back-up rolls. The rolls reduce the
steel to the desired thickness.

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Service Cente
A catchall name for an operation that buys steel, often processes it in some way and
then sells it in a slightly different form. A service center is distinguished from an end-
user by the fact that, unlike an end-user, a service center sells steel, not a fabricated
product. Service centers are manufacturers to the extent that they add labor to steel
by providing a service.

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SG Iron
An abbreviation for Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron. As the name implies, graphite is
present in spheroidal form instead of flakes and compared with Grey Cast Iron it has
higher mechanical strength, ductility and increased shock resistance.

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Shape Correcting
Rolling, heating and quenching steel sheets often affect the dimensions of the steel.
Levelers, temper mills and edge trimmers rework the processed steel to match
customer specifications.
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Shearing
If the edges of sheet and strip are not controlled during reduction, they must be
trimmed parallel by shears. This process may be performed by either the steel mill or
steel processor to match customer needs.

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Shearing Test
The test applied to metal to determine the stress required to fracture it across its
section.

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Sheet Bar
A semi-finished hot rolled steel product of approximately rectangular section, sheared
to length and used to produce a hot rolled sheet by cross rolling.

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Sheet Steel
Thin, flat-rolled steel. Coiled sheet steel accounts for nearly one-half of all steel shipped
domestically and is created in a hot-strip mill by rolling a cast slab flat while
maintaining the side dimensions. The malleable steel lengthens to several hundred feet
as it is squeezed by the rolling mill. The most common differences among steel bars,
strip, plate, and sheet are merely their physical dimensions of width and gauge
(thickness).

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Product Classification by Size

Specified Thickness
In Inches Specified Width in Inches
Up to 6 Over 6 to 8 Over 8 to 12 Over 12 to 48 Over 48
0.2300 + Bar Bar Plate Plate Plate
0.2299 - 0.2040 Bar Bar Plate Plate Plate
0/2039 - 0.1800 Strip Strip Strip Sheet Plate
0.1799 - 0.0449 Strip Strip Strip Sheet Sheet
Source: Smith Barney Inc./Salomon Brothers Inc.

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Sherardizing
A process developed in Britain in 1904 by Sherard Cowper-Coles. It is a method of
producing a protective zinc coating on iron and steel products.

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Shore Scleroscope
An instrument that measures the hardness of a sample in arbitrary terms of elasticity.
A diamond tipped hammer is allowed to fall freely down a graduated glass tube on to
the sample under test. The hardness is measured by the height of the rebound. In
another form the rebounding hammer actuates the pointer of a scale so that the height
of the rebound is recorded.

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Shredded Scrap
Fist-sized, homogenous pieces of old automobile hulks. After cars are sent through a
shredder, the recyclable steel is separated by magnets. Mini-mills consume shredded
scrap in their electric arc furnace operations.

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SI Units
A system of units (System International d'Unites) used as a basis for metrication in
Britain and is recommended for all countries using the metric system.

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Silicon Electrical Steel

A type of specialty steel created by introducing silicon during the steelmaking process.
Electrical steel exhibits certain magnetic properties, which make it optimum for use in
transformers, power generators and electric motors.

GRAIN-ORIENTED The metal's grain runs parallel within the steel, permitting easy
magnetization along the length of the steel. Although grain-oriented steel may be twice
as expensive to produce, its magnetic directional characteristics enable power
transformers, made from this metal, to absorb less energy during operation.

NON-GRAIN-ORIENTED Because there is no preferential direction for magnetization,

non-grain-oriented steel is best used in rotating apparatus such as electric motors.

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Sinter
See "Sintering"
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Sintering
A process that combines iron-bearing particles, once recovered from environmental
control filters, into small pellets. Previously, these materials were too fine to withstand
the air currents of the smelting process and were thrown away. The iron is now
conserved because the chunks can be charged into the blast furnace (see
Agglomerating Processes).

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Skelp
Steel that is the entry material to a pipe mill. It resembles hot-rolled strip, but its
properties allow for the severe forming and welding operations required for pipe
production.

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Slab
The most common type of semi-finished steel. Traditional slabs measure 10 inches
thick and 30-85 inches wide (and average about 20 feet long), while the output of the
recently developed "thin slab" casters is approximately two inches thick. Subsequent to
casting, slabs are sent to the hot-strip mill to be rolled into coiled sheet and plate
products.

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Slag
The impurities in a molten pool of iron. Flux such as limestone may be added to foster
the congregation of undesired elements into a slag. Because slag is lighter than iron, it
will float on Top of the pool, where it can be skimmed.

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Slitting
Cutting a sheet of steel into narrower strips to match customer needs. Because steel
mills have limited flexibility as to the widths of the sheet that they produce, service
centers normally will cut the sheet for the customer.

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Sliver
A relatively thin film of metal imperfectly attached to the surface of the steel.

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Smelter
Facility is used to extract metal concentrates found inside mined ore. The ore will often
contain more than one kind of metal concentrate and this facility also separates them.

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Soak
To hold an ingot, slab, bloom, billet, or other piece of steel in a hot furnace, pit, or
chamber to secure uniform temperature.

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Soaking Pit
A furnace or pit for the heating of ingots of steel to make their temperature uniform
prior to rolling or forging.

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Spark Test
A visual test for an approximate estimation of chemical composition by observing
sparks produced by holding a sample against a grinding wheel.

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Special Bar Quality (SBQ)

SBQ represents a wide variety of higher-quality carbon and alloy bars that are used in
the forging, machining and cold-drawing industries for the production of automotive
parts, hand tools, electric motor shafts and valves. SBQ generally contains more alloys
than merchant quality and commodity grades of steel bars, and is produced with more
precise dimensions and chemistry.

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Specialty Steel
Category of steel that includes electrical (see Silicon Electrical Steel), alloy (see Alloy
Steel), stainless (see Stainless Steel) and tool (see Tool Steels) steels.

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Specialty Tube
Refers to a wide variety of high-quality custom-made tubular products requiring critical
tolerances, precise dimensional control and special metallurgical properties. Specialty
tubing is used in the manufacture of automotive, construction and agricultural
equipment, and in industrial applications such as hydraulic cylinders, machine parts
and printing rollers. Because of the range of industrial applications, the market typically
follows general economic conditions.

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Specification
A document defining the measurements, tests, and other requirements to which a
product must conform typically covering chemistry, mechanical properties, tolerances,
finish, reports, marking, and packaging.

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Spheroidising
A process of heat treatment to produce globular form of carbide in steel and consists in
prolonged heating of steel to suitable temperature, within or near the transformation
range. This treatment improves machinability and facilitates finishing by cold work. It is
also useful where such structure is desirable for further heat treatment in processing
certain materials.

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Spinning
The formation of sheet metal blanks into hollow circular shapes. This is carried out on a
lathe with forming tools which service to press and shape the metal. Annealing may be
needed during and/or after the operation to remove the effects of work hardening.

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Sponge Iron
See "Direct Reduced Iron (DRI)"

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Spot Market
Sales for delivery in less than three months.

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Spot Welding
A process for joining steel sheets. The two parts are held between electrodes and the
heat generated at the interface between the sheets causes local welding when pressure
is applied.

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Spring Steel
The steels used for spring making depend on the application and type of spring. They
range from plain carbon grades in the range 0.5% to 1.00% C. to Chromium,
Chromium-Vanadium, Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum, Silico- Manganese and Silicon-
Manganese-Chromium-Molybdenum types. Full details can be found in BS5770.

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Stabilisation
A term applied to a number of processes: a) A type of heat treatment to relieve
internal stresses: b) The retarding or prevention of a particular reaction by the addition
of a stabilising element; c) A thermal and/or mechanical treatment given to magnetic
material in order to increase the permanency of its magnetic properties or condition.

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Stainless Steel
Can be defined as a group of corrosion resisting steels containing a minimum 10%
chromium and in which varying amounts of nickel, molybdenum, titanium, niobium as
well as other elements may be present. An Englishman, Harry Brearley, is generally
acknowledged to be the pioneer who developed stainless steels for commercial use.

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Stainless Steel
The term for grades of steel that contain more than 10% chromium, with or without
other alloying elements. Stainless steel resists corrosion, maintains its strength at high
temperatures, and is easily maintained. For these reasons, it is used widely in items
such as automotive and food processing products, as well as medical and health
equipment. The most common grades of stainless steel are:

TYPE 304 The most commonly specified austenitic (chromium-nickel stainless class)
stainless steel, accounting for more than half of the stainless steel produced in the
world. This grade withstands ordinary corrosion in architecture, is durable in typical
food processing environments, and resists most chemicals. Type 304 is available in
virtually all product forms and finishes.

TYPE 316 Austenitic (chromium-nickel stainless class) stainless steel containing 2%-3%
molybdenum (whereas 304 has none). The inclusion of molybdenum gives 316 greater
resistance to various forms of deterioration.

TYPE 409 Ferritic (plain chromium stainless category) stainless steel suitable for high
temperatures. This grade has the lowest chromium content of all stainless steels and
thus is the least expensive.
TYPE 410 The most widely used martensitic (plain chromium stainless class with
exceptional strength) stainless steel, featuring the high level of strength conferred by
the martensitics. It is a low-cost, heat-treatable grade suitable for non-severe corrosion
applications.

TYPE 430 The most widely used ferritic (plain chromium stainless category) stainless
steel, offering general-purpose corrosion resistance, often in decorative applications.

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Stamp Charging
Stamp charging of coke ovens is a breakthrough in cokemaking that has been
developed in recent times. In stamp charging the coal-mix charge of coke ovens is
prepared by compacting it by drop hammer such that the bulk density of mix is higher
than what otherwise exist when coal mix is just added to the ovens. This increased
density is obtained by dropping heavy weight on the mix and the cake thus formed is
charged in the ovens.

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Statistical Process Control (SPC)

A technique used to predict when a steelmaking function's quality may deteriorate. By
tightly monitoring the product's variance from specifications, the operator can
determine when to apply preventative maintenance to a machine before any low-
quality (secondary) steel is produced.

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Steckel Mill
A reversing steel sheet reduction mill with heated coil boxes at each end. Steel sheet or
plate is sent through the rolls of the reversing mill and coiled at the end of the mill,
reheated in the coil box, and sent back through the Steckel stands and recoiled. By
reheating the steel prior to each pass, the rolls can squeeze the steel thinner per pass
and impart a better surface finish.

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Steel
Generally defined as a metallic product whose principal element is iron and where the
carbon content is not more than 2%. (The presence of large quantities of carbide
forming elements may modify the upper limit of the carbon content.)

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Steelnext.com ™
This is the steel trading portal of the B2B e-commerce company eCircle.

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Steel Intensity
The amount of steel used per unit of gross domestic product. Intensity reflects the
secular demand for steel, as opposed to cyclical demand. The amount of steel used in
vehicles and the popularity of alternative materials affect the intensity, or how much
steel is needed per unit produced. The state of the economy, however, determines the
number of units.

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Steel-Intensive Products
Consumer products such as automobiles and appliances that, because so much of their
weight is from steel, exhibit a high demand correlation with steel.

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Steel not ordered

Steel that does not meet the original customer's specifications because of a defect in its
chemistry, gauge or surface quality. Mills must search to find another customer (that
can accept the lower quality) to take the off-spec steel at a discount. While secondary
will not affect the reported yield, margins will suffer.

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Steel Strapping
Banding and packaging material that is used to close and reinforce shipping units, such
as bales, boxes, cartons, coils, crates, and skids.

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Strain Ageing
The gradual changes in physical and mechanical properties, in particular hardness and
tensile strength, which takes place following cold rolling or deformation. At atmospheric
temperatures, this may take place over a number of weeks but can be accelerated by
heating.

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Strain Hardening
The loss of ductility and gain in hardness resulting from strain ageing.
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Strength
Properties related to the ability of steel to oppose applied forces. Forms of strength
include withstanding imposed loads without a permanent change in shape or structure
and resistance to stretching.

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Stress Corrosion Cracking

Cracking of metals under combined action of temperature, corrosion, and stress. The
stress can be either applied or residual. Austenitic stainless steels are either applied or
residual. Austenitic stainless steels are especially susceptible to cracking in chloride
containing and some caustic environments.

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Stress Relieving
A heat treatment including heating and soaking at a suitable temperature (e.g. 600-
650oC) followed by cooling at an appropriate rate in order to reduce internal stresses
without substantially modifying the steel's structure. This treatment may be used to
relieve stresses induced by machining, quenching, welding or cold working.

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Stress Strain Curve

A graph in which stress (load divided by the original cross sectional area of the test
piece) is plotted against strain (the extension divided by the length over which it is
measured).

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Strip
Thin, flat steel that resembles hot-rolled sheet, but it is normally narrower (up to 12
inches wide) and produced to more closely controlled thicknesses. Strip also may be
cut from steel sheet by a slitting machine (see Sheet Steel).

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Structurals
Steel product group that includes I-beams, H-beams, wide-flange beams and sheet
piling. These products are used in the construction of multi-story buildings, industrial
buildings, bridge trusses, vertical highway supports, and riverbank reinforcement.

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Sub-Critical Annealing
Heating to, and holding at, some point below the critical temperature. Subsequent
cooling may be in air. This form of heat treatment has a variety of uses depending on
the temperature and specification of the steel, its purpose is often to soften the
material.

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Sub-zero Treatment
A low temperature treatment carried out after quenching on hardened steel to
transform the retained austenite into martensite. It involves immersing the component
in a bath of solid carbon dioxide at a temperature of minus 70-80oC.

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Substrate
Raw material used as an input for steel processing: For example, hot-rolled steel is the
substrate for cold-rolling operations.

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Sulphur
Generally regarded as an impurity in steel as it can have detrimental effects on
strength, ductility and weldability as well as producing hot and cold shortness. Its
content in most steels is limited to a maximum of 0.050%. Sulphur is beneficial to
machining and is added to freecutting steels in amounts up to 0.35% with the
manganese content increased to overcome any detrimental effects.

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Surface Hardening
A method of hardening the surface of steel to increase its wear resistance. Depending
on the analysis of the steel, the following treatments can be employed: Case-
hardening, Nitriding, induction hardening, Flame hardening.

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Swaging
A method of forming or reducing steel or other metals to a desired shape by a series of
blows rapidly applied by dies or hammers. The process is applied to wires, rods and
tubes and can be used for a variety of pointing, tapering, sizing and reducing
operations.

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Swarf
The particles of metal arising from machining or grinding operations, much of it finds
its way to the steel maker for remelting.

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Ta
Chemical symbol for Tantalum.

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Taconite
WHAT Natural mineral containing less than 30% iron. It is the primary ore used in blast
furnaces. WHY Domestic supplies of iron-rich ores (greater than 50% iron) were largely
depleted in the 1940s, so integrated steel companies now process the lower-grade
taconite to make it useful.

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Tailings
The end-product or waste of ore mining, usually piled up in close proximity of a mining
area. Some will often contain some metal that can be extracted.

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Tailored Blanks
A section of sheet or strip that is cut-to-length and trimmed to match specifications for
the manufacturer's stamping design for a particular part. Because excess steel is cut
away (to save shipping costs), all that remains for the stamper is to impart the three-
dimensional shape with a die press (see Blanking).

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Tandem Mill
A type of cold-rolling mill, the tandem mill imparts greater strength, a uniform and
smoother surface, and reduced thickness to the steel sheet. Unlike the original single-
stand mills, a tandem mill rolls steel through a series of rolls (generally three to five in
a row) to achieve a desired thickness and surface quality.

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Tantalum
A rare metal of silver white colour having excellent corrosion resistance and a high
melting point. It is widely used for chemical process equipment and specialised aero-
space and nuclear applications.

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Tap to Tap time

Tap to time or heat time is the total time required for converting a batch of raw
materials into steel, including handling time.

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Tapping
The act of pouring molten metal form a furnace into a ladle.

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Te
Chemical symbol for Tellurium.

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Teeming
Pouring; ingot molds are filled (teemed) by iron-bearing ladles.

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Tellurium
Its main use in the steel industry is as an additive in leadbearing freecutting steels to
further improve their machinability. Its presence in the steel is either within the
manganese sulphide particles, where it is partially soluble, or as particles combined
with lead or manganese. For certain applications it offers significant improvements in
machinability but the added cost is a factor that should be taken into account.

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TAPPING
Removing molten metal from a furnace.

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TEEMING
Pouring steel from the ladle to the molds.

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TEMPER CARBON
A form of graphite in iron-base alloys produced by heating below the melting point.

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TEMPERING
Reheating after hardening to a temperature range vital and then cooling.

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TENSILE STRENGTH
The maximum load per unit cross-sectional area obtained before rupture of s tensile
specimen.

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TRANSFORMATION RANGE
The temperature range in which varios changes occur in the structure of steel and
above necessary to heat steel to effect complete structural change. Normally,
distinction should be made betwen the transformation range when heating and the
range when cooling.

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Temper
A term to which a number of definitions can be applied. These include: a) The
operation of tempering; b) The degree of hardness left in a steel bar after quenching
and tempering; c) The grading of the hardness of low carbon cold rolled strip, e.g.
Hard, Half Hard, Quarter Hard, Skin Passed, Soft; d) An indication of the amount of
carbon present in a tool steel, e.g. razor temper, file temper, die temper, etc.

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Temper Brittleness
The loss in impact resistance that is present in some low and medium carbon alloy
steels when tempered in the range of 350oC - 600oC. It is revealed by the notched bar
impact test but not the tensile test.

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Temper Colours
Before the use of instruments such as pyrometers, colours were used to judge
temperatures when hardening and tempering. For example, on carbon tool steel where
the tempering range may typically be from 200oC to 350oC, the colours change with
the rise in temperature giving Light Straw at around 210oC, Purple at 275oC, and Grey
at 330oC. The practice still continues in workshops where controlled heat treatment
facilities are not available.

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Temper Rolling
A light pass given to annealed cold rolled strip to prevent the formation of kinks and
stretcher strain markings on subsequent cold working. Also termed Pinch pass and Skin
pass.

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Tempering
Also known as drawing, the process by which steel or iron is softened by reheating it at
a considerably lower temperature than that at which its previous hardening was done.

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Temper Mill
A type of cold-rolling mill, usually with only one or two stands, that finishes cold-rolled,
annealed sheet steel by improving the finish or texture to develop the required final
mechanical properties. By changing the rolls of the temper mill, steel can be shipped
with a shiny, dull or grooved surface.

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Terne
Sheet steel coated with a mixture of lead and tin. Terne principally is used in the
manufacture of gasoline tanks, although it also can be found in chemical containers, oil
filters and television chassis.

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Tempering
A heat treatment applied to ferrous products after hardening. It consists of heating the
steel to some temperature below the transformation range and holding for a suitable
time at the temperature, followed by cooling at a suitable rate. The object of tempering
is to decrease hardness and increase toughness to produce the desired combination of
mechanical properties.

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Tensile Strength
The maximum load applied in breaking a tensile test piece divided by the original cross-
sectional area of the test piece. Originally quoted as tons/sq.in. it is now measured as
Newtons/sq.mm. Also termed Maximum Stress and Ultimate Tensile Stress.

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Tensile Test
A standard test piece is gripped at either end by suitable apparatus in a testing
machine which slowly exerts an axial pull so that the steel is stretched until it breaks.
The test provides information on limit of proportionality, proof stress, yield point,
tensile strength, elongation and reduction of area.

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Thomas Process
The Continental name for the basic Bessemer steel making process, now superseded by
modern day BOS plants.

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Ti
Chemical symbol for Titanium.

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Time Temperature Transformation Curve

An isothermal transformation diagram showing the relationship between temperature
and the time taken for the decomposition of austenite when the transformation occurs
at constant temperature.

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Tin
When present in steel it is an undesirable impurity which gives rise to temper
brittleness. When used as a coating on steel, it has a good resistance to corrosion for
many applications.

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Tin Mill
Continuous tin-plating facility to produce tin mill steel sheet to be used in food and
beverage cans and other containers.

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Tin/Chrome Plating
A plating process whereby the molecules from the positively charged tin or chromium
anode attach to the negatively charged sheet steel. The thickness of the coating is
readily controlled through regulation of the voltage and speed of the sheet through the
plating area.

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Tin-Free Steel
Chromium-coated steel. Because it is used in food cans just like tin plate, it ironically is
classified as a tin mill product. Tin-free steel is easier to recycle because tin will
contaminate scrap steel in even small concentrations.

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Tin Plate
Thin sheet steel with a very thin coating of metallic tin. Tin plate is used primarily in
canmaking.

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Titanium
Small amounts added to steel contribute to its soundness and give a finer grain size. In
austenitic stainless steels it acts as a carbide stabiliser and is used to prevent
intercrystalline corrosion, commonly termed "weld decay". Titanium carbide is also
used with tungsten carbide in the manufacture of hard metal tools.

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Tolerances
The amount of variation permitted on dimensions or surfaces. The tolerance is equal to
the difference between the maximum and minimum limits of any specified dimension.
Tolerances A customer's specifications can refer to dimensions or to the chemical
properties of steel ordered. The tolerance measures the allowable difference in product
specifications between what a customer orders and what the steel company delivers.
There is no standard tolerance because each customer maintains its own variance
objective. Tolerances are given as the specification, plus or minus an error factor; the
smaller the range, the higher the cost.

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Toll Processing
The act of processing steel for a fee ("toll"). Owners of the steel sheet may not possess
the facilities to perform needed operations on the material (or may not have the open
capacity). Therefore, another steel mill or service center will slit, roll, coat, anneal, or
plate the metal for a fee.

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Ton
Unit of measure for steel scrap and iron ore.

GROSS TON 2,240 pounds.

LONG (NET) TON 2,240 pounds.

SHORT (NET) TON 2,000 pounds. Normal unit of statistical raw material input and steel
output in the United States.

METRIC TON 1,000 kilograms. 2,204.6 pounds or 1.102 short tons.

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Tool Steel
A generic term applied to a wide range of steels, both plain carbon and alloy. It
includes steels suitable for various types of cutting tools, press tools, hot and cold
heading dies, moulds for plastics and die- casting, extrusion tools, hand tools, etc.

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Tool Steels
Steels that are hardened for the use in the manufacture of tools and dies.

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Torsion Test
This is a test carried out by twisting a test piece about its axis until fracture occurs.
When the test piece is machined off from a bar, the practice is to state the maximum
stress in shear and the angle or rotation. In testing wires, the acting length in relation
to the diameter and the number of twists is required.

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Torsional Strength
The resistance of a bar to twisting. Closely related to its shear strength.

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Toughness
The ability of a metal to rapidly distribute within itself both the stress and strain caused
by a suddenly applied load, or more simply expressed, the ability of a material to
withstand shock loading. It is the exact opposite of "brittleness" which carries the
implication of sudden failure. A brittle material has little resistance to failure once the
elastic limit has been reached.

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Tramlines
An overfill or lap usually occurring in parallel pairs of lines. Long straight marks due to
drawn-out inclusions on rolled sheets are also called tramlines.

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Transformation Range
The temperature range within which austenite forms and ferrite or carbide
progressively dissolves while ferrous alloys are being heated. Also the temperature
range within which austenite decomposes to form ferrite and carbide on cooling.

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Transformation Temperature
The temperature at which a change in phase occurs or the limiting temperature of a
transformation range. These critical points are denoted by symbols, e.g. Ac1; the
temperature at which austenite begins to form on heating. There are 12 principal
temperatures to which symbols are applied.

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Transition Temperature
The temperature at which a transition from ductile to brittle fracture takes place in
steel. It is usually determined by making a series of Charpy impact tests at various
temperatures, the transition temperature is usually taken as the point where 50% of
the fracture is brittle.

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Transverse Strength
A measurement of strength when the load is applied across the longitudinal flow of the
grain of a metal. Certain impurities such as sulphur have a detrimental effect on the
transverse strength. This can be minimised by the inclusion modification process.

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Transverse Test
Also known as Radial or Tangential Test. A test taken at right angles to the principal
direction of rolling or forging.

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Transverse Tension Test

A tension test for evaluating mechanical properties of a material in a direction
transverse to that of rolling.

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TTT Curve
An abbreviation of Time Temperature Transformation Curve.

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Tubing
When referring to OCTG, tubing is a separate pipe used within the casing to conduct
the oil or gas to the surface. Depending on conditions and well life, tubing may have to
be replaced during the operational life of a well.

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Tufftriding
A form of surface hardening, the process involves nitrogen but does not achieve the
hardness of conventional nitriding.

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Tundish
The shallow refractory-lined basin on Top of the continuous caster. It receives the liquid
steel from the ladle, prior to the cast, allowing the operator to precisely regulate the
flow of metal into the mold.

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Tungsten
When used as an alloying element it increases the strength of steel at normal and
elevated temperatures. Its "red hardness" value makes it suitable for cutting tools as it
enables the tool edge to be maintained at high temperatures. In conjunction with other
alloying elements it finds applications in heat resisting and other severe service
conditions.

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Tunnel Furnace
Type of furnace whereby stock to be heated is placed upon cars which are then pushed
or pulled slowly through the furnace.

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Tuyeres
These are located above the hearth of the blast furnace through which hot air blast is
blown into the furnace. The number of tuyeres vary with the size of the furnace.
Usually it is any even number between 10 - 20 and are uniformly spaced all over the
periphery.

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U
Chemical symbol for Uranium.

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Ultimate Analysis
In chemistry, this is a quantitative analysis in which percentages of all elements in the
substance are determined.

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Ultimate Tensile Strength

The highest load applied in breaking a tensile test piece divided by the original cross-
sectional area of the test piece.

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Ultrasonic Inspection
A means of locating defects in steel. When acoustic energy in the ultrasonic range is
passed through steel, the sound waves tend to travel in straight lines, rather than
diffusing in all directions as they do in the audible range. If there is a defect in the path
of the beam it will cause a reflection of some of the energy, depleting the energy
transmitted. This casts an acoustic shadow which can be monitored by a detector
placed opposite the transducer or energy source. If the acoustic energy is introduced as
a very short burst, then the reflected energy coming back to the originating transducer
can also be used to show the size and depth of the defect. Ultrasonic techniques can be
used to detect deeply located defects or those contained in the surface layer. Skill and
experience are required in interpreting the results portrayed on the cathode ray tube.
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Underfill
A cross section that has not filled up the roll pass, so that it is inaccurate in both shape
and dimension.

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Unkilled Steel
Steel which has been insufficiently deoxidised and evolves gas during solidification with
the formation of blow-holes.

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Upsetting
Working a piece of steel so that its length is shortened and its cross-sectional area is
increased. Its effect is to increase ductility in the radial and tangential directions.

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Uranium
A white malleable metal which is softer than steel. Its specific gravity is 18.7, it melts
at a temperature of 2400oC.

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V
Chemical symbol for Vanadium.

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Vacuum Arc Remelting

A process used for producing advanced steels to the most demanding and critical
specifications, particularly in such areas as aerospace applications. The steel is first
produced to a very close analysis and the resulting ingot is slowly remelted in a
Vacuum Arc Remelting furnace for up to 14 hours. Such steels are, by necessity,
expensive to manufacture.

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Vacuum Degassing
A ladle of molten metal is placed within a chamber which is then evacuated. This
reduces the gas content, particularly hydrogen, as well as reducing non- metallic
inclusions. Modern secondary steel making processes using Vacuum Arc Degassing
units that include automated stirring and control of temperature and chemical analysis,
ensure a consistent and high quality product.

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Vacuum Degassing
An advanced steel refining facility that removes oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen under
low pressures (in a vacuum) to produce ultra-low-carbon steel for demanding electrical
and automotive applications. Normally performed in the ladle, the removal of dissolved
gases results in cleaner, higher-quality, more pure steel (see Ladle Metallurgy).

The amount of carbon in the steel is reduced by exposing liquid steel to a very low
vacuum environment. Carbon combines in the process with oxygen to form carbon
monoxide, which is removed in the process. The result is a steel that contains lower
levels of carbon and thus, has higher formabiliy.

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Vacuum Oxygen Decarburization (VOD)

Process for further refinement of stainless steel through reduction of carbon content.

The amount of carbon in stainless steel must be lower than that in carbon steel or
lower alloy steel (i.e., steel with alloying element content below 5%). While electric arc
furnaces (EAF) are the conventional means of melting and refining stainless steel, VOD
is an economical supplement, as operating time is reduced and temperatures are lower
than in EAF steelmaking. Additionally, using VOD for refining stainless steel increases
the availability of the EAF for melting purposes.

Molten, unrefined steel is transferred from the EAF into a separate vessel, where it is
heated and stirred by an electrical current while oxygen enters from the Top of the
vessel. Substantial quantities of undesirable gases escape from the steel and are drawn
off by a vacuum pump. Alloys and other additives are then mixed in to refine the
molten steel further.

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Vanadium
Steels containing vanadium have a much finer grain structure than steels of similar
composition without vanadium. It raises the temperature at which grain coarsening
sets in and increases hardenability where it is in solution in the austenite prior to
quenching. It also lessens softening on tempering and confers secondary hardness on
high speed steels. Vanadium is used in nitriding, heat resisting, tool and spring steels
in conjunction with other alloying elements.
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Vickers Hardness Test

A method of determining the hardness of steel whereby a diamond pyramid is pressed
into the polished surface of the specimen and the diagonals of the impression are
measured with a microscope fitted with a micrometer eye piece. The rate of application
and duration are automatically controlled and the load can be varied.

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VOD
See "Vacuum Oxygen Decarburization"

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W
Chemical symbol for Tungsten, from wolfram.

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Walking Beam Furnace

A type of continuous reheat furnace in which the billet or slab moves through distinct
heating zones within the furnace: By controlling the speed through the zones,
steelmakers can achieve precise rolling temperatures and consume less fuel during
operation.

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Walking beam
A means of conveying steel bars, billets, slabs, etc., across a cooling bed or through a
furnace. The material to be conveyed rests on a metal grid and a second grid is
arranged to lift up and move forward between the stationary grid, thus lifting the
material and "walking" it forward, before returning to make another stroke.

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WATER QUENCH
(In steel heat treatment.) Cooling steel from its quenching temperature with water.

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WORK HARDNESS
Hardness resulting from mechanical working.
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Weat Test
A test for determining the resistance of a sample to abrasion under given conditions,
such as loading, lubrication, speed etc.

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Welding
The process of joining together two pieces of metal so that bonding accompanied by
appreciable interatomic penetration takes place at their original boundary surfaces. The
boundaries more or less disappear at the weld, and integrating crystals develop across
them. Welding is carried out by the use of heat or pressure or both and with or without
added metal. There are many types of welding including Metal Arc, Atomic Hydrogen,
Submerged Arc, Resistance Butt, Flash, Spot, Stitch, Stud and Projection.

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Whiskers
Thin hair-like growths on metal that are barely visible to the naked eye, they are
stronger than the metals from which they are formed, probably because they are free
from defects.

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White Annealing
A heat treatment process carried out on pickled steel with the objective of eliminating
the hydrogen that has entered the steel during the pickling operation and thus
removing any tendency to hydrogen embrittlement.

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Wide-Flange Beam
A structural steel section on which the flanges are not tapered, but have equal
thickness from the tip to the web and are at right angles to the web. Wide-flange
beams are differentiated by the width of the web, which can range from 3 inches to
more than 40 inches, and by the weight of the beam, measured in pounds per foot.

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Widmanstatten Structure
A microstructure resulting when steels are cooled at a critical rate from extremely high
temperatures. It consists of ferrite and pearlite and has a cross-hatched appearance
due to the ferrite having formed along certain crystallographic planes.
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Widths
The lateral dimension of rolled steel, as opposed to the length or the gauge (thickness).
If width of the steel strip is not controlled during rolling, the edges must be trimmed.

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Wire Rods
Finished product of solid section which is basically round in cross section and supplied
in coils or in straight lengths.

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Wolfram
The alternative name for tungsten.

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Woody Fracture
A fracture that is fibrous or woody in appearance due to the elongation of the individual
grains. This may be accentuated by the presence of slag or by a banded structure. It is
grey and dull and is characteristic of ductile but non-homogeneous material such as
wrought iron.

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Work Hardening
The increase in hardness and strength produced by cold plastic deformation or
mechanical working.

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Work Rules
The division of jobs into separate crafts and specific guidelines for work in the labor
contract. These provisions define the duties of a specific job, and management must
negotiate with the labor representative to make any changes.

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Wrought Iron
A commercial iron that has little use today and has been replaced by mild steel. It was
commonly produced by the puddling process. The temperatures employed in its
production are too low to render it fluid, it is heated until it forms a pasty mass then it
is squeezed or forged. The process does not lend itself to removal of impurities so it
contains an appreciable quantity of slag. It will not respond to any heat treatment
designed to increase the hardness or strength.

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X-Ray Crystallography
X-ray photographs of metals are a means of providing information which in many cases
cannot be obtained by microscopic methods. The lines produced by each element, or
phase are characteristic, and their general pattern enables the crystalline structure to
be identified. The scale of the pattern can be used to determine accurately the size of
the unit cell and, therefore, the distance apart of the individual atoms. From the
relative intensity of the lines it is possible to deduce the distribution throughout the unit
cell, the various types of atoms in an alloy or the degree of preferred orientation in the
material.

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Yield
The ratio of the quantity of finished shipments to the total raw steel produced, adjusted
for changes in inventory and any slabs that are purchased from outside.

Yield has significantly improved during the past decade, primarily as the result of the
industry's conversion to continually cast steel, whose yield is superior to that of
traditional ingot teeming.

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Yield Point
Can be defined as the point where a tensile test piece begins to extend permanently. If
the load is reduced to zero, the test piece will not return to its original length.

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Yield Strength
The stress at which general plastic elongation of the test piece takes place. This point is
well defined in hardened and tempered or annealed structures but can be ill defined in
"as drawn" structures.

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Young's Modulus
Within the limits of elasticity, the ratio of the linear stress to the linear strain is termed
the modulus of elasticity or Young's Modulus and may be written Young's Modulus, or E
=(Stress/Strain) It is this property that determines how much a bar will sag under its
own weight or under a loading when used as a beam within its limit of proportionality.
For steel, Young's Modulus is of the order of 205000 N/mm2.

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YIELD POINT
The load per unit of original cross-section area at which a marked increase in the
deformation of the specimen occurs without increase in load. Usually calulated from the
load detemined by the drop of the beam of the testing machine or by use of dividers.

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Zinc
Zinc is a metallic chemical element, it has a white colour with a bluish tinge. It has a
high resistance to atmospheric corrosion and a major use is as a protective coating for
iron and steel sheet and wire. Galvanised sheets are a prime example. The melting
point of zinc is 419oC.

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Zirconium
Acts as a deoxidising element in steel and combines with sulphur.

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Zn
Chemical symbol for Zinc.

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Zr
Chemical symbol for Zirconium.

Z-mill
(See Sendzimir Mill).

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Z-mill
Common name for a Senzimir multiple-backup cluster mill used for cold-rolling
stainless and carbon steel sheet or strip to