Introduction

Speaking is very important because speaking and human being can not be separated
from each other. It is used to express ideas and to communicate with people. Speaking among
other foreign languages skill ( reading , writing , listening and speaking ) seems to be the most
important one that must be mastered , because it is necessary for the displaying the language
proficiency .Learners are going to be input in situations where communication in English is
needed. That is why; the emphasis is mainly on speaking. So, the need for effective strategies
and activities for the sake of teaching speaking skill and enhancing the learners speaking skill
is not an easy task for many English as foreign language teachers.

This chapter presents the theoretical frame work of the current study, it will shed some
light on speaking skill, it will deal and give a clear definition of what is meant by the
speaking. Also, deal with elements of speaking .In addition ,it mentions the functions and the
characteristics of speaking performance .Moreover; it discussed the difficulties that may face
learners when learning a foreign language ; for instance , teaching speaking and classroom
speaking activities are mentioned ; furthermore , this chapter deal also with oral
communicative strategies for EFL speaking and finally speaking errors.

1. Speaking Skill
Speaking skill is the art of communication and one of the four productive skills that
must be mastered in learning foreign language .A good speaking skills is the act of generating
words that can be understood by the listeners, a good speaker is clear and informative.
Speaking is considered as very important skill since it enables people to express their
emotions, ideas, thoughts, and feelings.

1.1 The Definition of Speaking Skill

Thornbury (2005) stated that:

Speaking is so much a part of daily life that we take it for granted. The average
person produces tens of thousands words a day, although some people -like
auctioneers or politicians -may produce even more than that. So, natural and integral is
to speaking that we forget how we once struggled to achieve this ability-until, that is,
we have to learn how to do it all over again in a foreign language (p.01).
That is to say, people speak every day, every minute, or may be every second .Therefore, as a
language skill. Speaking becomes an important component to master by the students as the
main tool of verbal communication of expressing opinions and what they have in their minds.

Moreover, according to Hedge (2000), “speaking is a skill by which they are judged
while first impressions are being formed”(p.261).In other words, speaking is an important
skill which deserves more attention in both first and second language since it reflects people’s
thoughts and personalities and that people judge each other depending on their speaking
abilities.

Nunan also defined speaking as “the productive aural/oral skill. It consists of

producing systematic verbal utterances to convey meaning”(2003,p.48).That is to say,
speaking is a process of building and sharing meaning which depends on the use of verbal and
non verbal symbols.

In addition, Harris (1977, p.81) claimed that “Speaking is a complex skill requiring the
simultaneous use of different abilities which often develop at different rates”. In the sense
that, speaking is a skill that requires relating sounds together to form utterances and implicate
the social, Linguistic and mental capacities.

1.2 Elements of Speaking

Developing speaking skill is not such an easy task to do; one should take into
consideration different elements which are sufficient. Harmer (2001) mentions the elements
off speaking which refers to the language and information in the same time when an
interlocutor interacts with them (pp.269-271).

1.2.1 Language Features

Some of the elements that are important for speaking are the following:
1.2.1.1 Connected Speech
The speakers of English need to produce more connected sound, and not only depend
on the individual phonemes .These sounds are modified, omitted, added or weakened. By
this reason; the teacher should involve students in activities designed specifically to
improve their connected speech.

1.2.1.2 Expressive Devices

Students should be able to use devices such as changing the pitch, stress, volume,
speed, physical and non verbal .They should deploy at least some of such supra segmental
features and devices in the same way if they are to be fully effective communicators. The use
of such devices contributes to the ability to convey meaning.
1.2.1.3 Lexis and Grammar
Teachers should use different phrases which carry the variety of functions because
learners most of the time use the same lexical structures .Teachers should provide them with
the relevant expressions that they may use it in a different situations and context such as
greeting , agreeing and disagreeing.

1.2.1.4 Negotiation Language

It is a beneficial tool to use negotiation language, students may ask for clarification
when they listen to other’s talk. In this case, the teacher should give them the expressions that
aid them in order to ask for explanation in a correct way and form .Also, students need to well
perform their utterances in order to be understood especially if they notice that the listeners
are confused or have not understood.

1.2.2 Mental /Social Processing

The most important processing skills are:

1.2.2.1 Language Processing

It refers to the ability of students to process the information in their heads and to put it
in a suitable order that assists them to be comprehensive. Also, to convey the intended
meaning .In addition, the students need to be able to retrieve words, phrases and sentences
from their memory to use them when they are needed.

1.2.2.2 Interacting with others

Practicing speaking requires interactions between one or more participants. In other
words, an effective speaker needs to be able to listen and understand to others’ talk then reacts
through taking turns and allows others to do so.

1.2.2.3 Information Processing

Speed in response is also another important part of interacting .It is related to the ability of
processing the information rapidly in the mind .That is to say; the time speakers get
information, they should be ready to respond to the other’s talk.

1.3Functions of Speaking
Speaking is very important in daily communication. People recognized that they are
educated from the way of their speaking. So, someone has to know what to speak and
understand what he/she is talking about. for that reason, mastering the speaking skill in
English language is the priority for many second and FL learners.
 Richards (2008) states that, the functions of speaking are classified into their; talk and
interaction, talk as transaction, and talk as performance. He states that “in workshops with
teachers and in designing my own materials, I use an expended three-part version of Brown
and Yule’s framework (after Jones, 1996, and Burns, 1998): Talk as interaction; talk as
transaction; talk as performance. Each of these speech activities is quite distinct in terms of
form and function and requires different teaching approaches.”(p.21).These functions are:

1.3.1 Talk as Interaction

According to Richards(2008), “talk as interaction refers to what we normally mean by
“conversation” and describes interaction that serves a primarily social function when people
meet, they exchange greetings, engage in small talk, recount recent experiences, and because
they wish to be friendly and to establish a comfortable zone of interaction with others. The
focus is more on the speakers and how they wish to present themselves to each other than on
the message. Such exchanges may be either casual or more formal, depending on the
circumstances, and their nature has been well describes (Brown & Yule, 1983). The main
features of talk as interaction can be summarized as follows:

 Has primarily social function;

 Reflects role relationship;
 Reflects speaker’s identity;
 May be formal or casual;
 Uses conversational conventions;
 Reflects degrees of politeness;
 Employs many generic words;
 Uses conversational register;
 Is jointly constructed” (p.22).

1.3.2 Talk as Transaction

“Talk as transaction refers to situations where the focus is on what is said or done. The
message and working oneself understood clearly and accurately is the central focus, rather
than the participants and how they interact socially with each other” (Richard, 2008, p. 24).

Hodson and Jones (2006, p.14) clarify that “in this type of spoken language students
and teachers usually focus on meaning or on talking their way to understanding” (As cited in
Sabbah, 2015, p.10).

Burns (1998) distinguishes between different types of talk as transaction:

 The first type involves situations where the focus is on giving and receiving
information and where the participants focus primarily on what is said or achieved
(e.g. asking someone for directions). Accuracy may not be a priority, as long as
information is successfully communicated or understood.
  The second type is transactions that focus on obtaining goods or services, such as
checking into a hotel or ordering food in a restaurant (as cited in Richard, 2008,
p.26).

1.3.3 Talk as Performance

The third type of talk that can usefully be distinguished has been called talk as
performance. This refers to public talk, that is, talk that transmits information before an
audience, such as classroom presentations, public announcement, and speeches.
The main features of talk as performance are:

 A focus on focus on both message and audience;

 Predictable organization and sequencing;
 Importance of both form and accuracy;
 Language is more like written language;
 Often monologists (Richard, 2008, p. 28).

2. Characteristics of Speaking Performance

In recent teaching context, the need to release the balance between fluency and
accuracy has been paid a lot of attention in order to design such activities that concentrate on
tasks which makes this balance. That is why, EFL learners have to pay attention to these
components which affect their speaking performance. According to Kouicem (2010), “in the
communicative approach, fluency and accuracy are the main characteristics of this approach,
and they are seen as complementary in accomplishing a given task” (p.31).Even though
Richards and Rodgers (2001) state that “fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal:
Accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in context” (p.157).

2.1 Fluency
When teaching and learning processes the essential goal of FL teachers when they
teach the productive skill is oral fluency; which is the main important trait in performing.
Fluency is the capacity to speak confidently and at a rate consistent with the norms of the
relevant native speech community. Moreover, fluency in the view of Hedge (2000, p.54). The
capacity to have an idea about how to put words and expressions and relate ideas in an
effective way together in a suitable way. As he said, “The term fluency relates to the
production and it is normally reserved for speech. It is the ability to link units of speech
together with facility and without strain or inappropriate slowness, or undue hesitation”.
Belhabib (2015) states that, the majority of EFL learners think that fluency as the capacity to
speak quickly. That is why; they start to speak in a rapid way without pauses (p.14).

Furthermore; Hughes (2002) adds that “fluency is achieved when learners are able to
express themselves in a clear and reasonable in order to be understood without hesitation
otherwise the listeners will lose their interest”.
 In addition to that, Thornbury (2005) argued that pauses and speed are very important in
oral fluency for the speaker to take breath also native speakers take pauses from time to time
for the listeners do not lose their attention (p.6). He summarized the feature of fluency as
follows:

1- Pauses may be long but not frequent;

2- Pauses are usually filled;

3- Pauses occur at meaning full transition points;

4-They are long runs of syllables and words between pauses (ibid, p.8).

Beside this, Luoma (2004, p.89) confirms that “one central part of fluency is related
to temporal aspects of speech, such as speaking rate, speech pause relationship, and frequency
of dissiliency markers such as hesitations, repetitions and self-corrections”.

Fluency can be defined as the ability to speak fluently and accurately .In speaking, it is
the aim of many language learners .It is an important part of speaking and it includes the
following:

The ability to use language spontaneously;

The ability to listen and comprehend spontaneously;

The ability to respond spontaneously. (Omari, 2015, p.26).

In other words, fluency is the capacity to answer or respond in a coherent way by relating
words and expressions effectively.

2.2 Accuracy
According to Alim (2015, p.16), most SL teachers nowadays emphasize the term of
accuracy in their teaching because learners seek more to be fluent and they forget being
accurate.

Baily (2004) defines Accuracy as “the ability to speak properly-That is, selecting the
correct words and expressions to convey the intended meaning, as well as using the
grammatical patterns of English” (p.5).In other words, if the learners neglect being accurate,
they will produce incorrect utterances during oral performance which leads to
misunderstanding the content and the listener later will lose interest.

Another definition of accuracy, “it is the speech where the message is communicated
using correct grammar .The notion the accuracy can be expanded to include correct
pronunciation to target language norms”(Goh & Burns,2012, p.43 as cited in Alim 2015,
p.16). Moreover, accuracy refers to ‘how well the target language is produced in relation to
the role system of the target language’ (Skehan, 1996b, p.23 as cited in Ellis & Barkhuizen
2005, p.139). Therefore, FL learners should put their emphasize on such things when
producing a spoken language. Hedge (2000, p.64) asserts that, “the communicative approach
somehow excuses teachers and learners from a consideration of how to develop high level of
accuracy in the use of grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary”. In other words, as all know
that language is a mean of communication. So, communicative approaches have some
tolerated in the errors of students which related to grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation.

2.2.1. Grammar
Grammar is the language’s rules. It is a description of the rules for forming sentences,
including an account of the meaning that these forms convey (Thornbury, 1999, p.13). It is
very important to teach grammar in spoken context and see how language works in sentences
and also expressions.

Grammatical range and accuracy refer to the range and the accurate and appropriate use
of the candidate’s grammatical resource. The indicators of grammatical range are the length
and complexity of the spoken sentences, the use of subordinate clauses, and the range of
sentence structures, especially to move elements around for information focus. The key
indicators of grammatical accuracy are the member of grammatical errors in a given amount
of speech and the communicative effect of error (Hughes, 2002, p.105). In other words,
grammar let us know how language is when interacting ideas, this last expressed in sentences
which are made by arranging words.

Carter and Mc Carthy (1995, p.207) assert that “if we need to achieve the oral production
then we need to focus on spoken language and not the written form”.

In addition, Thornbury (2005, p.21) lists the following features of spoken grammar:

First, the clause is the basic unit of construction, and clauses are usually added (co-
ordination). Also, the use of head+ body + tail construction. Another key feature of spoken
grammar is the direct speech favored, vagueness tolerated, a lot of ellipsis and many question
tags as well. The last feature in the use of performance effects, including: (hesitations,
repeats, false starts, incompletion and syntactic blends).Also, Harmer (2001) explains that FL
learners have to achieve grammatical accuracy when expressing their thoughts without
changing the meaning of sentences as natives.

2.2.2. Vocabulary
When EFL learners succeed in selecting the appropriate words during oral
performance, they will release vocabulary accuracy. Harmer (2001) says that the pre-
knowledge in any language facilitates producing words and utterances for the learner. When
students interacting with others, they find it difficult to express their ideas because they lose
such words especially in the case of synonyms, the learners use words incorrectly which do
not carry the same meaning. That is why; they have to achieve accuracy in vocabulary.
Moreover, Hughes (2002) says that “this criterion refers to the range of vocabulary the
candidate can use and the precision with which meaning and attitudes can be expressed. The
key indicators are the variety of words used, the adequacy and appropriacy of the words used
and the ability to circumlocution (get round a vocabulary gap by using other words) with or
without noticeable hesitation”.

Also, Chaib & Djerada (2018) confirm that “vocabulary is the fuel of both fluency and
accuracy; the more lexicon students’ use, the more they get fluent and accurate” (p.15).

2.2.3. Pronunciation
Harris (1994) states that pronunciation is very important in speaking. If we do not
have an appropriate pronunciation, it can influence the meaning of word .Also, He adds
pronunciation is the way in which a language is spoken, the way in which a word is
pronounced, the way a person speaks the word of language (as quoted in Susaniyah, 2015,
p.7).According to Omari (2015), “Pronunciation is a way in which a language is spoken,
person’s way of speaking a language or words of a language” (p.29).

Moreover, Harris (1994) explains pronunciation (including the segmental features-

vowels and consonants-and the stress and intonation patterns.)(p.81). In other words, English
language is considered as a difficult language by both native speakers and non native speakers
due to its pronunciation. FL learners who want to improve their oral production effectively,
they have to take into their account the sounds, rhythm, intonation and stress patterns which
help achieving a better understanding of spoken English.

In addition, Redmond and Vrchota (2007, p.104) argue that “it is imperative that you
use the correct word in the correct instance and with the correct pronunciation. Pronunciation
means to say words in ways that are generally accepted or understood.” (As cited in Kouicem,
2010, p.34). Hence, the listener will not understand if the pronunciation is not correct. Thus,
accuracy is not released.

It is very important for oral production to pay attention to correctness and completeness of
the language.

3. Difficulties that EFL Learner Faces during Teaching Speaking

When teachings speaking many problems have been revealed and that leads the
teachers think of these problems and discussed seriously to solve. FL students proclaim
having barriers in achieving a real and perfect oral performance. So, the learners want to
participate during oral session, but they face many obstacles which can hinder their
performance achieved and speaking proficiency. The main problems that face students in
speaking classes are in terms of personality and linguistics.

According to Ur (1996), there are four main problems in getting students speak in FL
classes:

3.1. Inhibition
 This problem reveals more when learners try to participate in the classroom but many
factors stop them to do so. Ur(1996) states that “ Learners are often inhibited about trying to
say things in Foreign language in the classroom worried about making mistakes, fearful of
criticism or losing face , or simply shy of the attention that their speech attracts”(p.121).

Littlewood (1981, p.93) states that “it is all too easy for a FL classroom to create
inhibitions and anxiety”. In the sense that, applying or practicing the speaking skill of the FL
is not as knowing about this language .He adds that inhibition from one side results from
learners feeling of neglecting in front of their teachers or who they consider as the main
source of input.

From another angle, inhibition appears nearly relating to the students shyness and the
fear of their classmates laughing at them that is why they do not want to talk and develop their
speaking proficiency time and also participation .In other words , inhibition pushes learner to
keep silent during the oral session. According to Little wood (1981, p.93), “many learners will
prefer to keep a “Low profile”, in the hope that they will not be called upon to participate
openly”.

3.2. Nothing to Say

When SL learners are imposed to contribute others in a given topic inside the
classroom, the common expressions that they use is “no comment”, “I do not know”, I have
nothing to say or they keep silent. These expressions refer to the absence of that motive which
pushes them to express themselves, their ideas and their thoughts, also feelings. This problem
comes from student’s lack of vocabulary, simply because they do not have word to express
such an idea. Moreover, the poor practice of SL can contribute to create this problem. That is
why, they immediately face nothing to say problem. Thus the teachers need to choose familiar
topics which can every student talks about, and avoid nothing to say expressions.

According to Ur (1996, p.121), “even if they are not inhibited, you often hear learners
complain that they cannot think of anything to say, or that they have no motive to express
themselves beyond the guilty feeling”.

3.3. Low or Uneven Participation

This problem refers to the amount of each student’s time of talking. On one side, if the
teacher dominants the speaking class, the learners will have a short time to talk or keep silent
all the time, it depends on the personality. From another side, there are some students who
lend to speak only if they are imposed to talk or if they ensure that what they will say is
correct. Harmer (2001) streaming weak participators in groups and telling them work
together. In such cases, they will not keep silent behind the strong participators, and then the
teacher can release a high level of participation.

Moreover, Ur (1996) asserts that this problem is comprised by the inclination of some
learners to dominate, while others speak very little or not at all. Low uneven participation is
due to the neglecting of teachers motivation too because if the teacher does not push his
learners to contribute others their ideas, and thoughts. So, directing student motivation is one
of the teacher’s responsibilities.

3.4. Mother Tongue Use

Speaking skill is a complex skill that EFL learners have to improve since they face
different problems that hinder their application communicative tasks and that what push them
to use mother tongue language whether outside or inside the classroom because they feel at
ease. According to Baker and Westrup (2003, p.12), “Barriers to learning can occur if
students knowingly or unknowingly transfer the cultural rules from their mother tongue to a
foreign language” (As cited in Boughazzoula, 2016, p.29).

Therefore, the students talk the vocabulary in the TL. For that reason, they borrow
words from their MT; because they find it difficult to use TL correctly .Ur (1996) states that
since the use of MTL when the learners feel less exposed if they do so.

Actually, it is appropriate for the learners to select the exact strategy to overcome these
difficulties.

4. Teaching Speaking
Speaking English is the main goal of many adult learners .Their personality plays a
large role in determining how quickly and correctly they will accomplish this goal .So,
teaching speaking has become important goal for many EFL teachers. However; today’s
world requires that the aim of teaching speaking needs to improve student’s communicative
skills, since only in that way students can express themselves and learn how to follow the
social and the cultural circumstance , because of that, there are different principles and goals
for teaching speaking.

4.1. Principle of Teaching Speaking

Speaking English is not an easy task; there are many things to consider. Kathleen
(2003, p.54) introduced some principles for teaching speaking which are:

1. be aware of the differences between second and foreign language learning

contexts:
Speaking is learned in two different contexts, the first one is FL, and the second is SL
situation .The focus is on the target language context. A foreign language context is the
language which not used by the society to communicate. FL learners find difficult to
understand or to be understood. A second language context is the target language used by the
society to communicate and it includes refugees, international student, and immigrants, some
second language learners achieve a suitable average in speaking skill specially those who
arrive to the country as children, and some others could not achieve a notable average, they
reach a certain part then stop to develop; they make mistakes such as patterned errors which
refers to the errors in Grammar, Vocabulary and Pronunciation.
 2. Give students practice with fluency and accuracy
Accuracy is the extent to which the speed of the student related to what people say
when using the target language .Whereas, fluency is the extent to which student can use the
language quickly and in the confident way with few hesitation, unnatural pause, or false starts.
Both fluency and accuracy must be developed specially for the beginning and intermediate
levels , in which learners should be given opportunity to practice the language , teachers need
to provide the students with practices that involve building of fluency and to release that
making mistakes is a natural part of learning a new language.

3. Provide opportunities for students to talk by using group work or pair work,
and limiting teacher talk
The teacher should not be the only who talks in the classroom, the learners should be
given an opportunity to speak. Teachers do approximately 50 to 80 percent of the talking
inside the classroom. Pair work and group work activities can be implemented in order to
increase the student’s talk in the target language during lessons, in this situation the students
can fulfill diverse speaking roles that are normally filled by the teachers; for example, to ask
for clarification.

4. Plan speaking tasks that involve negotiating for meaning

Interaction helps the student to develop their communicative skill, because it involves
trying to understand and to be understood as well. It is called negotiating for meaning, it
includes checking whether you understand what someone has said, clarifying your
understanding and to confirm that someone has understood what have you said, such as
asking for a repetition, explanation or clarification.

5. Design classroom activities that involve guidance and practice in both

transactional and interactional speaking
Interactional speech is to communicate with someone for social purposes. It includes
both establishing and maintaining social relationships; whereas, transactional speech involves
communicating to get something done; including the exchange of goods or services. Speaking
activities inside the classroom should involve both transactional and interactional purposes,
because language learners will have to speak the target language in both transactional and
interactional speaking.

5. Classroom Speaking Activities

In most EFL classes, teacher/student exchanges have a little communicative value.
Hedge (2000) emphasizes on building awareness of social use of language and to practice
essential features of this, he also concentrates on building confidence in students in order to
be able to produce language quickly and automatically (p.273). He states that there several
quite simple strategies which could be explicitly taught in the early stages of learning such as:

 Ways of opening conversation in order to get practice with other students or

English speaking members of a community.
 Ways of asking a repetition, asking someone to speak more slowly or requesting
clarification in order to get more comprehensive input.
 Ways of checking that someone has understood, for example “ok”, “so”, you
follow me?.

He also emphasized on the use of the aspects of conversation such as turn taking, or using
Meta language like topic shift, adjacency pairs, closing, or interruptions. In other words, such
steps should be taught at the beginning of the teaching learning process in order to help
student to communicate correctly and effectively.

Thornbury also states that “we now know that speaking is much complex than this and
that it involves both a command of certain skills and several different types of knowledge”
(2005, p.1); i.e. it is difficult to teach speaking and it requires various and multiple types of
activities to teach it. For the sake of a successful learning process, students should be
comfortable to speak and explore their own thinking, they should be supported and
encouraged to express their ideas among classroom activities in order to achieve their
objectives and goals.

Classroom speaking activities is an opportunity to practice the student’s speaking skill.

The reason behind this, is to lead them to learn and develop their speaking and allow them to
practice using all of the language they know in a real situations and contexts such activities
enable students to express their own ideas, feelings, preferences and opinions. It is a helpful
tool which makes languages more memorable and motivating, finding ways that makes
students use the language in interpersonal situations. Therefore, language teaching activities
in the classroom should be provided by teachers in order to make students language use.

5. 1.Discussion
Hedge states that free discussion can provide important opportunities for developing
certain aspects of fluency ideally over a period of time. Free discussion activities will involve
student in talking about a range of topics which engage their interest opinions, histories and
experiences (p.277).

It is the most common activity in the classroom, because it is considered as one form
of communicative activities. So that, it is the activity in which students talk about something
and tell each other their opinions or ideas. It is an exchange of views for the sake of “the
communication and of the communicative continuum” (Harmer, 2001, p.273).

It is one of the most used activities by the teacher in order to teach speaking, this
action or process of taking and debating about a topic should be provided by the teacher. In
this case, the students agree or disagree about the topic and this lead them to express
themselves with more confidence.
 Harmer introduces different ways in which discussion can be used (2001, p.273).

5.1.1. Buzz Group

The students make a quick discussion is a small group. They prepare themselves
before they speak in public. So, they can think of language they use in order to express their
selves and ideas. This helps to reduce the level of the students stress.

5.1.2. Instant Comment

It is a mini activity into lessons. Instant comment is an implementation of
photographs or to involve topics in any part of the lesson than nominate the students to
mention the first idea come to their minds.

5.1.3. Formal Debate

To prepare arguments for or against various propositions. Then, when the debate
starts, the speaker gives his/her arguments and the audiences also give their own arguments
which are not prepared before.

5.1.4. Balloon Debate

This popular format is based on the idea that a lot air balloon with its passengers is in
danger of fall and one of the passengers need to jump. The students require taking a character
of a living or a historical person. They need to give arguments in order to stay in the balloon
and to convince them that he/she should not be the one to jump from the balloon. These
activities encourage students to speak and they provide some of the most enjoyable and
productive speaking in language classes.

5.2. Role Play

According to Hedge (2000), role play is: “a number of different activities, ranging
from simple dialogues promoted by specific information on role cards to more complex
simulation which pass through a number of stages” (p.277). In other words, students play and
explore. Role play enables them to act and speak in simple dialogues. kathleen(2003) states:
“role plays are also excellent activities for speaking in the relatively safe environment of the
classroom, in a role play student are given a particular roles in the target language […]role
plays give learners practice speaking the target before they must do so in a real environment”
(p.57). That is to say, it is one of the favorite activities in speaking classroom. This activity
gives the chance to the students to produce and practice the needed language. In addition of
these, Hedge identifies a number of advantages of role play:

- It encourages rehearsal;

- Some students find role play easier than discussion;

- The students enjoy acting and assuming other personae;

- It gives a purpose and a direction to the discussion;

- It involves both competitive and co-operate elements;

- It gives opportunity to practice the language.

5.3. Information Gap Activities

“It involves each learner in a pair or group possessing information which the other
learners do not have, the learners information must be shared in order to achieve an outcome”
(Hadge, 2000, p.281).Information gap activities are interactive activities where students are
supposed to be working together, having different information that should be shared to get the
complete and correct information.

In addition, Harmer states that information gap activities involve one student to talk to a
partner in order to solve a puzzle, or find similarities and differences between pictures.

Also, Nunan (2003, p.56) added that “it is a useful activities in which one person has
the information that the other lacks, they must use the TL to share that information, for
instance; one student has the directions to a party and must give them to a classmate”. The
advantages of this activity are to engage students negotiating meaning and help them to
acquire language. It boosts intrinsic motivation and creates a great atmosphere in classroom
by encouraging learner, learner interaction. These activities push students to shift from
working structured environment in a more active communicative one. So, the students use
more TL and discover their gaps which they wish to improve.

5.4. Prepared Talks

It is one of the popular activities in which the teacher proposes some topics or gives
free topics to present them in the classroom by students. It is the act of giving a piece of
information to somebody, this technique encourages learners to interpret utterances through
which they can initiate their own language and put it in communicative use. A good oral
report happens when the topic has chosen by the students themselves, because it allows
students to use their own experience and knowledge. Harmer states: “prepared talks represent
a defined and useful speaking genre and if properly organized can be extremely interesting for
both speaker and listener […] the development of talk from original ideas to finished work,
will be of vital important” (2001, p.274).In other words, prepared talks or presentations allow
learners to develop their interaction skill since student can present in front of audience, ask
and answer questions, agree and disagree.

5.5. Acting from Script

Students are asked to act sciences from plays or from their course book. These scripts
have been written by the students themselves, this involves the students coming out to the
front of the class before start working on the script , we need to choose the appropriate student
and we need to work to create the right kind of supportive atmosphere. Harmer (2001)
“acting out is both a learning and a language producing activity” (p.279).In other words, it
helps students to learn and in the use of much language in the classroom. The role of the
teacher in this activity is a theatre director, drawing attention to appropriate stress, intonation
and speed which means that, what students speak will have real meaning.

5.6. Questionnaire
Questionnaire are very useful as communicative tool in the classroom , students
should prepare a questionnaire about any topic that they want .It is a helpful tool it is already
prepared and both questioner and respondent have something to say to each other. These
questionnaires aid in the use of repetitive language patterns , the advantages of using
questionnaire are that , they have been pre planned , Harmer(2001) states that “
Questionnaires are useful because by being preplanned they ensure that both questioner and
respondent have something to say to each other”(p.274).

5.7. Simulation
Some researchers relate simulation to role play, simulation , as harmer (2001) defines
“ students simulate real life encounter (…) as if they were doing so in the real world , either as
themselves (…) or taking on the role of character different from themselves or with thoughts
and feelings they do not necessarily share “(p.274).Furthermore, “ in simulation the
individual participation speaks and react as themselves , but the group role situation and a task
that they are given is an imaginary one “(Ibid, p.132). It means that, the student thinks of
himself that he is a real participant in the simulation. It is very important in teaching speaking
because it is a practice or activity that gives students the opportunity to practice
communication in different social contexts and in different social rules. Harmer (2001) states
that simulation encourages the use of the oral fluency, also it motivates and a tool of fun and
entertainment.

6. Learner’s Communicative Strategies for EFL Performance

An oral communicative strategy in EFL classes is a way to improve student’s speaking
performance and release other communicative objectives. It can help learners to avoid the
failure in such speaking tasks that face their oral performance.

The teaching of speaking is having high concern in many language programs and
teaching strategies cannot be denied as a factor influencing the teaching outcomes; it should
be made appropriate for each skill. Hughes (2002) defines this term as the ability of the
learners to manipulate a conversation and negotiate interaction in an effective way. Such
strategies are particularly important where there are problems of expression and
communication. (As cited in Kouicem, 2010, p.34).

Different number of speaking strategies is used in the FL classes, for many reasons
and conditions. Among others, the strategies of teaching speaking are classified by Bygate
(1987) into two main type’s .first, achievement strategies which include; guessing strategies,
paraphrase strategies, and cooperative strategies. Second, reduction strategies which involve
avoidance strategies.
 6.1. Achievement Strategies

According to Bygate (1987), the learners always try to find how to deliver a message
without change their ideas in order to fill language gap by using a substitution .As the
following example:

“L I came down from twenty degrees…er. I do not know how you say it was twenty
degrees hot you know

NS: mm

L: and I came up er in Scotland to twenty degrees freezing so, I got very sick just before
Christmas.”(Haastruo and Philipson, 1983, p.149 as cited in Ibid, p.43). (Bygate, 1987,p.43).
Therefore; by utilizing the achievement strategies, because of the insufficient linguistic
resources, the learners try to find solution to the communicative problems.

6.1.1. Guessing Strategies

This type of strategies is commonly used in oral expression, that they are not sure that
they are in right way (Bygate, 1987).It occurs just in oral production; there are many types of
guessing strategies, the students lend some expressions from their first language and when
interacting with others, they say it as it is; For example, “An English speaker saying Il ya
deux candles sur le chemenee.”(Bailystok, 1983, p.105 as cited in Ibid, p.44).

Another type of guessing strategies , that the speaker might use , is coin a word ,i.e. a
learner may create new words , expressions of the target language word on the basis of his
knowledge of the language to make the interlocutor get the idea .For example; “ Such as
vegetarianist for vegetarian” (Thornbury, 2005 ,p.29).

Moreover, the learner can foreignize his first language words and expressions by
pronouncing it as it refers to the target language for success in delivering his message to the
listener. For example, a Frenchman who speaking English words and pronouncing it in French
tone. According to Thornbury (2005), “Foreignizing a word: such as turning the Spanish word
una carpeta (meaning a file for papers) into the English –sounding a carpet” (p.29).

Finally, the literal translation, this strategy means translating words from the learner’s
mother tongue to overcome obstacles when speaking FL. For example, a Frenchman may
attempt to say “crescent” instead of “croissant” (Ibid).

6.1.2. Paraphrasing Strategies

These strategies are used to describe or paraphrase the meaning of target words that
the learner need .It is divided into two types.

The first one is lexical substitution strategy, which means the using synonyms and
more general words that constitute the same meaning of the missing words.
 The second type is circumlocution strategy whereby the learners compensate a limited
linguistic knowledge; also get their message across, i.e. they can explain a concept by using
some sort of words to express what they want to deliver.

According to Bygate (1987), “This basically involves searching his knowledge of the
TL vocabulary to find an alternative to the expression that he needs” (p.44).

6.1.3. Co-operative Strategies

This strategy is a genre of cooperation between the speaker and the listener. In the
sense that, the listener may help the speaker in interpreting words from his MT to the TL.

For example,

“S4: You have a basket for.

S3: A basket for.

S4: For umbrellas

S3: For

S4: Umbrellas”. (Ibid, p.46).

Simply because the speaker demands help from the listener.

6.2. Reduction Strategies

According to Bygate (1987.p.47), “Reduction strategies generally involve speakers in
reducing their communicative objectives”. In the sense that; reducing messages by
communicators who do not manage finding words in order to replace the unknown
vocabulary.

Reduction strategies are used for valuating accuracy over fluency .Yet it may be the
successful one when interacting; thus, they decide finishing the conversation. Therefore, it
used by those learners who know what they want to say, even though, they feel with some
hesitation in explaining their thoughts and ideas which are related to the actual meaning.

6.2.1. Avoidance Strategies

The learners may face different kinds of troubles. That is why, they often use such
strategies in order to avoid it and sacrifice parts of their intended meaning .Hence, they avoid
some obstacles in expressing their point of view by omitting some message content, looking
for something else to talk about it. Simply because of the lack of vocabulary or phonological
problem. Therefore, they try to interact with less risk of error with reference to other strategies
in order to keep the same goal of communication. For example, some learners hope to avoid
the conditional in English, ‘Th’ in English .So, they prefer to avoid some tricky structures.
 In brief, the use of the appropriate communicative strategies can help FL learner to
enhance their speaking ability by negotiating meaningful ideas, also communicating
effectively with others inside the classroom through the use of debate technique. According to
Selinker (1972), communicative strategies are attempted from learners to use meaningful TL
in a spontaneous speech.

7. Speaking Correction Errors

Hedge states (2000) that « Errors are now seen as reflection of a learner’s stage of
inter language development” (p.288).That is to say, errors reflect the development of the
students in learning a specific language; therefore, error correction is an expected role for the
teacher, his role is to provide feedback which learners can work on in order to refine their
understanding and move to the next stage of inter language. He added that the learners
develop faster and quick with a practice of the language in a suitable environment and with a
policy of error correction on the part of the teacher; moreover, getting feedback from other,
students in the class enables learner to refine their developing knowledge of the learned
language

7.1. Types of Speaking Errors

There are different errors that students may commit during oral lesson or sessions.
Hedge (2000, p.289) distinguishes between two types of errors.

7.1.1. Systematic Errors versus Mistakes

Systematic errors are evidence of a learners lack of the target language knowledge ;
whereas, mistakes are the inability the correct use of the language knowledge due to the
different factors such as carelessness, tiredness, and distractions, mistakes can be self
corrected when learners notice them.

7.1.2. Global errors versus local errors

Global errors refer to the misunderstanding that may come from listener; whereas,
local errors refer to what the listener understand from the speaker .This type of errors lead to
the break downing of communication between the speaker and the listener .

7.2 Speaking Errors Correction Strategies

There are different strategies of correcting speaking errors that were introduced by
Hedge (2000, pp. 290-291).

1. The teacher frowns and says “No, you do not say that, what you say? Can anybody
hold faun?”
2. The teacher repeats a sentence the student has first said with rising intonation up to the
point of the mistakes, and waits for the students to self-correct.
 3. The student has just produced present answer to past- tense question from the teacher,
this later repeats the question, stressing the past tense form, and waits for the student
to self-correct
4. The students use incorrect intonation in a question. The teacher asks the class for an
accurate version, then repeats it, asks the class for choral, repetition, an individual
repetition, and finally returns to the original student.
5. The teacher looks puzzled and requests clarification by asking “What did you say?”
Which the students recognize as an indication of an error, then the teacher waits for
the student to self-correct.
6. The teacher moves his/her hand to indicate an error, gives the correct version, and asks
the student to repeat it.

Conclusion
As a productive skill; speaking is a core element taught in any language class since it
is a mean through which many language aspects could be learned .It plays an increasingly
important role in SL or FL setting as a mean of communication in our daily life to achieve
certain goals or to express view points. Therefore, people who know a language are referred
to as “Speakers” of that language. It is the most frequently used language skill because the
capability to speak English is the priority for many SL/FL learners. They often assess their
success in improving their spoken ability .For that reason, the classroom should be learner’s
centered. This chapter has focused on the difficulties that can face students during speaking
class, and the strategies that can be used .In addition to some communicative activities which
fosters speaking proficiency, helping students to interact freely when using the FL to provide
them with as many opportunities to practice the language orally as possible.