Chapter II

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Soft skills

2.3 Communication Skills

2.4 Verbal Communication

2.5 Non-Verbal Communication

2.6 Summary

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2.1 Introduction

For a research review of related literature is an essential aspect to understand about the

studies that have already been conducted in the same field. The word “review” itself gives a

clear meaning of it. It means revision or “glance over” or “to refer back on”. It is all about

finding, studying and assessing the reports and findings of relevant researches, studying

published articles, research abstracts as well as reports of casual observation and opinion

that are related to the individuals’ planned research project (Agarwal, 1998).

Mouly states that “the review of related literature promotes a greater understanding of the

problem and it is crucial aspects and ensures the avoidance of unnecessary duplication.” As

John W Best (1986) stated that, “review of related literature is a valuable guide in defining

the problem, recognizing its significance, suggesting data gathering devices, appropriate

study design and sources of data.

The survey of related studies serves multiple purposes. It helps the researcher to know more

about the area of research and get acquainted with the tried methods, techniques, priorities

and importance about the similar related past studies and to help in the formation of

hypotheses for the new study. By studying the works of other researchers, it is helpful in

understanding that which topics cannot be useful for the study as a result futile efforts and

ineffective methods can be avoided.

With this point of view the researcher has made an attempt to collect relevant information

related to the work available in the field.

The research, on the issues related to the importance of Verbal skill and non- Verbal skills

which are complementary to the Verbal skills, has become very important today. It is a

matter of great concern that there is lack of employable work force today which a thing of

great concern to any country. Various surveys and research are being conducted to

understand the root cause for this problem. One of the reasons that have been understood is

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the lack of basic skills and it has been realized that lack of Soft skills is one of the causes.

Among the various Soft skills, lack of effective Communication skills is one of the

important causes. Various researchers have taken interest in this topic and have to tried to

understand the reason for lack of skills in the work force and have made efforts to throw

light on the importance of it. A number of books have been written on the subject to

encourage the learners of various ages to work on building up these skills.

A glance at the Language research literature relate to the Soft skills, Verbal skills and Non-

Verbal skills illustrates that the subject has received substantial interest in studying this

subject from various aspects. It has been studied from the psychological aspect, sociological

aspect by various researchers. The present study focuses on the empirical study that focus

on the concepts of the development of Verbal skills and the non-Verbal skills which are

helpful to understand the meaning of the Verbal message. The research studies the concepts

relevant to the present study.

2.2 Soft skills

We need out-of-box thinking approach to tackle the issue, considering that barely 10% of

the 30 lakh students, who pass with these degrees every year are considered employable in

today’s competitive world. (M. Govardhan, 2012, January 15), T o I

Last few years have seen the growing awareness and need of research to understand the

need of subtle issue of the skills required by individual for success. A number of researches

have been done in the area to understand this issue. Jacobs and Marshall have discussed

about the specific skills required though there is no specific mention of the Soft skills but

there is a clear cut indication that they are talking about it.

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Soft skills actually cannot be defined by what it means, but it can be defined by what it does

not mean: Soft skills have been placed parallel to hard skills, which have been defined as

“the technical ability and the factual knowledge needed to do a job” (Klaus 2007: 2). This

particular explanation, which is based on the differentiation from its opposite term, has in

fact become a standard way of introducing the meaning of Soft skills. Usually authors avoid

defining Soft skills by providing lists of clarifying examples (Duncan and Dunifon 1998;

Gentry et al. 2008). Muir has modified the term and has defined actively by stating that Soft

skills are “attitudes and behaviours displayed in interactions among individuals that affect

outcomes of such encounters” (Muir 2004: 13).

Mohanty (2009) mentions about the importance that organizations place quite a lot stress on

‘good communication skills’ in the global market. This aspect deals with the humanistic

aspect of the need to be well grounded in ‘Soft skills’ as these Soft skills help groom the

whole personality of the individual. A person who can communicate well integrates into a

team more easily and effectively, resulting in an increasing level of efficiency and

productivity.

Shakir (2009) reviewed the implementation methods of Soft skills development in

Malaysian institutions of higher learning. In the study she recommends that institutions

embed elements of Soft skills in the curriculum itself rather than implementing them as

separate units (Shakir, 2009). However, this particular method of Soft skills development

has its challenges, some of which were identified by Idrus et al. (2009) in a study focusing

on teachers teaching technical courses who have integrated Soft skills elements in their

classroom at a private institution. The results of the study indicate that the negative attitude

of students, the limited time to cover the syllabus as well as the large number of students as

extremely challenging in implementing this method of Soft skills development (Idrus et al.

2009).

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S. Mangala Ethaiya Rani states that Soft skills are learned from behaviour for which

training and focused application is required. Soft skills enable students with a strong

conceptual and practical framework to build, develop and manage teams. They play an

important role in the development of the students’ overall personality, thereby enhancing

their career prospects. Training in Soft skills provides strong practical orientation to the

students and help them in building and improving their skills in communication, the

effective use of English, business correspondence, presentations, team-building, leadership,

time management………… It also helps students in career visioning and planning, effective

resume writing and dealing with placement consultants and head hunters.

2.3 Communication Skills

Communication is a concept closely related to Soft skills and emotional intelligence. After
all, effective communication is identified in some studies as the most important managerial
skill (Gentry et al. 2008). Many competency models include aspects of communication.

In social science terminology Communication skills is “the scientific study of the

production, processing and effects of signal and symbol systems used by human to send and
receive messages.”(hargie,1992)

Allen Louis has explained Communication as the sum of all the things that a person does to
convey something to the other person and make him/her understand it. The complete
process of communication involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening
and understanding.

Badne A.G. in her research paper on Oral Communication has concluded that, Oral
communication is the most widely spread used method and is used in day today life. It
provides a number of opportunities to people in various organizations for expressing their
views.

Coover and Murphy’s (2000: 125) views are that the essence of communication is the

formation and expression of an identity. Being completely on own and developing oneself is

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not an independent event generated by an autonomous actor but it is actually the self

emerges through social interaction’

This helps in understanding that, ‘a sense of personal identity is achieved through

negotiation with others’ (Postmeset al., 2006: 226). Actually this helps in bringing in us the

quality of interacting effectively with others. Communication is a necessary ingredient to

achieve success. Communication plays a very important role in the learning process and

sharing of the knowledge. Communication is an essential condition for our existence and

that is the reason we cannot not communicate. The worst and inhuman punishment is

depriving one from any communication with other person in the society.

Bull (2002: vii) is of the opinion that , Communication is plays a vital role in many aspects

of human life from time unknown, yet it is only in the recent years that it has become the

focus of scientific investigation.’

Hargie, in 1960 (2006a) suggested that the notion of communication is a form of skilled

activity which is first suggested In the intervening years, the fairly obvious observation that

some individuals can interact better than others led to carefully formulated and systematic

investigations into the nature and function of interpersonal interaction.

Celce-Murcia and Olshtain (2000) state that speaking / oral skill is the most complex and

challenging part of language skills. It being a multi-dimensional skill cannot be bond in any

specific definition.

Dutt (2008:28) has expressed that the effective communication is the outcome of correct use

of voice and body language; understanding the situation and the people involved in it;

understanding the message communicated and giving appropriate response to it.’

Herbert Clark and Susan Brennan (1991) made the observation that, certain activities in a

natural way involve joint or collective action, and it makes little sense to think of

participants' actions as individual events. It takes two people working together to play a

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duet, shake hands, play chess, waltz, teach, or make love. To succeed, the two of them have

to coordinate both the content and process of what they are doing...Communication, is a

collective activity of the first order. Close examination of what actually is said in

conversations reveals that it is seldom an orderly process in which participants alternate in

the roles of speaker and listener. Many times sentences go off the track or are left

incomplete, listeners interrupt to ask questions, interject comments and finish sentences,

topics change abruptly and unpredictably, and at times it may convey even what has not

been said. These conversational speeches cannot be considered to be defective. I fact these

apparent aberrations reflect the way conversation operates as a communicative process.

According to Kimbell (1991) communication plays an important role in any design and

technology activity and is essential at various stages in the Design-Make-Appraise

approach.

Philips (1978) opined that a person was socially skilled individual. From our early ancestors

who preferred to remain and move in groups survived as compared to those who lived

alone, and so the skills involved in developing and maintaining social bonds assumed a

central role in human evolution (Leary, 2001).

Forgas and Williams(2001: 7) pointed out that ‘Homo sapiens is a highly sociable species .

. . the impressive records of achievements owe a great deal to the highly elaborate strategies

that have been developed for getting along with each other and co-coordinating our

interpersonal behaviors.’

Levinson (2006) argued that the human mind is specifically adapted to enable us to engage

in social interaction, and that we could therefore be more accurately referred to as homo

interagens.

Marc J. Riemer (2002) in his study on English and Communication Skills for the Global

Engineer states that, in the Engineering education, skills such as problem solving,

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communications, interpersonal skills and critical and independent thinking should be

promoted, not only for the reason for getting an employment as they are qualities that

employers look for but because they should be part of any tertiary education. These are the

skills that are useful in professional as well as personal life.

Interpersonal skills and Communication skills (speaking and listening) have been identified

by American Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills report (SCANS,

1992) as two of eight essential competencies necessary for success in the workplace. North

and Worth (2004) found that interpersonal skills were the most frequently mentioned

competency required in entry level job ads from newspapers in 10 metropolitan areas. This

proves the indispensible role played by communication skills in achieving success. As per

the opinion of Pincus and DeBonis (2004) leadership skills completely rely on the effective

communication because it strengthens trust and understanding. A number of leading

organizational communication textbooks like (Conrad & Poole, 2002; Eisenberg &Goodall,

2004; O’Hair, Friedrich, & Dixon, 2002;Shockley-Zalabak, 2002) agree and share this

definition of leadership as nothing but communication skills.

Solomon and Hall (1996) explains that Language is an essential element for almost all

learning, for describing shapes, anchoring concepts, and making the tacit articulated. Ability

to use language is central to children’s overall development and specially in developing

technological capability. Communication in collaborative technology tasks involves Verbal

discourse, non-Verbal interactions (sharing, gestures) and graphicacy skills that include

writing and drawing (Dillenbourg et al, 1996).

Medway, (1994) has very clearly pointed out towards the role of Verbal communication in

design and technology, Verbal communication is needed for the articulation of the tasks

which cannot be represented graphically.

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A survey was conducted by Peterson (1997) in which 253 corporate recruiters were

surveyed and it was found that the potential hires lacked in required basic communication

skills. The findings of Kane’s (1993) survey of Management recruiters for Fortune 500

companies presented that it is believed that the aspirants have technical and managerial

knowledge as a result the communication skills of the candidate becomes an important

criteria for the recruiters to evaluate the candidate. It has been strongly recommended by

Krapels and Davis (2000) that the if the academicians study and develop various courses for

developing the communication skills of the students it would be a great help to the

companies and would be helpful to the students in the long run

Littlewood (1981:3) mentions Communication as a two-sided process . . . . because while

speaking the person is constantly evaluating the knowledge and opinion of the learner so

that appropriate language and method of expression can be selected for the correct

interpretation of what we intend to convey.

Brumfit (1984) expressed his point of view about language that it is not at all advisable to

separate the learning of a language from the use of a language.

S. Srinivas’s observation is that Communication is the process of using Verbal and Non-

Verbal cues to negotiate a mutually acceptable meaning between two or more people within

a particular context and environment. This process means when people communicate, they

engage with a dynamic and moving set of variables that have been interacting and will

continue to interact. Verbal and Non-Verbal cues are given through language and voice,

body, face, space, touch and other personal cues. Sharing the same does not ensure

understanding because each person has different connotations for even simple words and

gestures that come from his or her own personal identity group or cultural experiences.

Negotiating a mutually acceptable meaning between two or more people indicates that

communication is not the transfer of meaning or information from one person to another. It

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has been said that discourse is a field of contest that communication is largely about

difference and not about “sameness”. So negotiating a mutually acceptable meaning

involves people giving and taking bits of meaning to and from one another in a dialogue

until each can work with an agreed-on interpretation. A mutually agreed meaning, therefore,

does not imply that people’s perceptions will match perfectly but that dialogue can lead

them to an understanding all parties can accept.

2.4 Verbal Communication / Speaking Skills

Speaking skill has been recognized as an interactive, social and contextualized

communicative event by Alicia Martinez-Flor et al. (2006). Nunan states that speaking /

oral communication is more complex as compared to that of listening and is an act of

creativity. Along with the knowledge of language the speaker needs to get an idea to

express in the form of monologue or conversation or response.

According to Kumaravadivelu (2006) a successful communication needs grammatical

competence and also socio linguistic competence.

Chaney, (1998, p. 13) has rightly pointed out Speaking to be the process of building and

sharing meaning through the use of Verbal and non-Verbal symbols, in a variety of

contexts.

Kodotchigova (2002) explained the relation between Language and culture and that they are

inter dependent. They are closely related as language cannot be taught without culture.

There are a number of ways that are used for co-teaching language and culture.

Wilson et al. (2000: 136–137) illustrated that effective interaction involves adaptation at all

levels: Speakers coordinate their own behavior with that of their interactive partner.

Interparty coordination is evident at micro levels, such as in the timing of mutual smiles . . .

(and) . . . at more macro levels, such as in the adjustment of one’s own plans to the apparent

plans of one’s conversational partner.

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The National Knowledge Commission (NKC 2007), of India brings it out rightly, “There is

an irony in the situation. English has been part of our education system for more than a

century. Yet English is beyond the reach of most of our young people, which make for highly

unequal access. Indeed, even now, more than one percent of our people use it as a second

language, let alone a first language ……. But NKC believes that the time has come for us to

teach our people, ordinary people, English as a language in schools. Early action in this

sphere would help us build an inclusive society and transform India into a knowledge

society.”(P.47)

Maslow (1954) has suggested that the teachers need to play an instructional role as well to

resolve the tensions or apprehensions created by the anxiety. This anxiety may be the result

of some psychological barrier which is usually mistaken as being ‘immotivated’. This

psychological barrier results in the indifference and disinterest of learners in the classroom

activities.

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Aspects of oral communication Training

ORAL COMMUNICATION

ELEMENTARY PROCESSES COMPLEX PROCESSES

BREATHING CONVERSATION

LISTENING CLARIFICATION

EXPRESSIONS INFLUENCE

ARTICULATION SPEECH

CLARIFICATION
INTONATION

DYNAMICS INFLUENCE

TEMPO

Figure aspects of communication training (Forster 2001: 12)

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Elementary processes refer to breathing, listening and means of expression such as

intonation or articulation. Complex processes refer to the use of these elementary

communication aspects in conversations or presentations and speeches.

Mohammad Arif’s findings of the research are that the problem related to communicating in

English results because it is simply taught as the subject in the institutions rather than a skill

for life. As a result the efforts are lacking to teach all the skills of the language.

Schoenbaechler (2008) stresses the influence of personality on communication a consulting

context and concludes that personality “is a basis for successful consulting”

(Schoenbaechler 2008: 281).

Globalization in the present time has made it necessary for the professionals and aspirants to

be proficient in Verbal (Oral) communication skills. Mastering this skill helps a person to

achieve success in personal as well as professional life.

Speaking is a multi-dimensional concept which is very much important in our day today

life. It is such an integral part of our everyday working that is actually difficult to explain it

as a separate identity. It is included under linguistics, psychology, anthropology and

sociology, they have informed speaking (Gumprez, 1999,p.98)

Dobrijevic, (2011 explains that acquisition of speech and language (Verbal) communication

starts with the first cry of the newborn, takes place through certain stages, progressing in the

development period and lasts throughout life.

Howarth, (2006) ‘When asked what is the biggest problem that they face when speaking,

learners generally admit that they have a great difficulty in trying to express what they want

to say as they cannot think of the words that they need to use to do so.’

G. Anitha Ruth in her study has stated that the aspect of multilingualism reflects on the

agenda of language learning processes at societal, institutional, political, economic and

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individual levels. The multilingual background also determines the extent of availability of

the exposure to language and the attitudes and motivation towards each language and

language within the particular context.

Luthans (1973) speaks about the importance of communication effectiveness within an

organization. He says: "Communication is one of the most frequently discussed concepts in

the entire field of organization and management, but it is seldom clearly understood. In

practice, effective communication is a basic prerequisite for the attainment of organizational

goals, but it has remained one of the biggest problems facing modern management. Most

estimates state that about 70% of an active human being's life, and a higher proportion

(about 90 percent) of a typical manager's time, are spent communicating" (p. 234).

“How to teach” and “what to teach” were the two aspects of communicative approach that

were presented by Harmer (2005). “What to teach” aspect is all about the functions of

language. “How to teach” aspect of communicative approach states that “Language learning

will take care of itself” (p 84).McDonough and Shaw (1993), state that, speaking is

linguistic knowledge that creates and oral message for communication and self-expression.

Oral communication or speaking is the specific conversation which is necessary for the
social purpose.

According to Burnkart (1998) speaking includes three areas of knowledge: first is the

mechanical element of knowledge (pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary), it helps in the

right use of words in the right way with right pronunciation. Second is the speaking

functions (transaction and interaction), it is about at what point the clarity in the exchange

of information is required and when it is not. Third one is about the socio-cultural norms

(rate of speech, pauses required etc) which are helpful for the person to understand the

situation of the conversation.

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Oral communication plays an undeviating and unchallenged role in the society.

Halliday (1978, p. 169) explains, communication is more than merely an English for

exchange of words between parties; it is a “…sociological encounter” (Halliday, p. 139) and

through exchange of meanings in the communication process, social reality is “created,

maintained and modified” (Halliday, p. 169).

Austin‟s (1962) earlier work on speech act theory where, as cited by Clyne (1994, p. 2),

language and thus communication is an “…instrument of action”. Speech act theory,

concerned with the communicative effect, that is, the function and effect of utterances,

dissects an utterance into three components: the actual utterance (the locution); the act

performed by the utterance (the illocution); and the effect the act has on the hearer (the

perlocution).

Human beings have a great store of lingual abilities which we use to communicate with

each other. Language is used as a powerful medium used to express ourselves and convey

our message to others. Language being such an important tool, its acquisition is an

important aspect. Much research has been done on it. To quote Emerson about language and

its development, “Language is a city to the building of which every human being brought a

stone.”

Jovicic, (1999) Verbal communication is a crucial link between the people and represents

the fundamental link in the formation and survival of the human community. It separates a

man from other living beings and allows him to express his thoughts, feelings, desires,

wishes and attitudes about the world around him. Although there are various ways of

communication (facial expressions, writing, music etc.), speech is the most effective way of

expressing the most complex ideas and concepts and the most resistant communication

system to various types of interference and noise.

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Mario Pei (1949) states that the history of language is as old as the history of mankind. The

civilization is mirrored perfectly in the speech. Everybody makes his/ her contribution to the

language by speaking. The study of language is the social science as it is the tool and

product of all human society. Language is the sum of all the fields and something more. It

plays a number of roles as that of conveyor, interpreter and shaper of man’s social doings.

So, the language has a major role to play as it paves the way for an individual’s success.

This proves that the language is actually the base of all our doings.

Vladisavljevic, (1987)is of the opinion that Normal language development is an integral

part of biological and mental development of children and takes place in accordance with

them. Therefore, any knowledge of language development implies meeting the basic

neurophysiological and psychological sublingual functions without which language could

not exist. In addition, it is necessary to know the structure of native language and its

developmental stages.

2.5 Non-Verbal Skills

“As the tongue speaketh to the ear, so the hand speaketh to the eye” Francis Bacon (1884;
1947)

Carol Kinsey Goman (2008) has compared Body language with a computer. Everybody

knows what it is, but most of the people are not exactly sure how it works. That’s because

the process of receiving and decoding non-Verbal communication is often done without any

conscious awareness. It simply happens. Human beings are genetically programmed to look

for facial and behavioral cues and to quickly understand their meaning. Gestures of the

person are automatically and unknowingly observed and help to make a judgement about

the intention of that gesture.”

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Desmond Morris (1977) states that ‘man is pre-programmed to a decisive extent’. Though

the cultures generally seem to be different actually they are not. There are number of

similarities in various cultures but the normal inclination is to look for the differences and

not for the similarities.

Houser and Frymier (2009) have noted that the role of non-Verbal communication in the

development of student empowerment and achievement. According to these authors, the

manner in which an educator responds to a student during an interaction reflects through

both Verbal and non-Verbal communication. Educators whose Verbal and non-Verbal

communication patterns are congruent and reinforcing will be able to provide students with

a clear sense of confidence in their actions. When a lack of congruity in Verbal and non-

Verbal cues results however, challenges arise creating a high degree of uncertainty for the

student. This can impact the student’s confidence level and reduce the overall sense of

accomplishment established through Verbal communication tactics. The research provided

by Houser and Frymier not only demonstrates the importance of non-Verbal communication

in student development, but also reinforces the need for congruity between Verbal and non-

Verbal cues provided by the educator.

Kendon observation was that classical and medieval works on rhetoric frequently focus on

the factual conduct of the orator while he delivers his speech. They occasionally defined

many forms of particular gestures and provided instructions for their use in creating planned

effects in the audience.”

Knapp opines that there is definite relevance of non-Verbal behaviour with communication

in general. The assumptions suggested are – the human communication primarily consists

of combinations of channel signals as that of spatial, facial and vocal signals. Second

assumption is that the communication consists of ‘multi-level signals’ and deals with

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broader interpretations of interactions. The third and last assumption is there is critical

importance of generating meanings from human communication encounters.

Mehrabian and Wiener (1967) showed that the overall impression made by a person was

shaped by the following components: contents of a message, tone of voice, and facial

expression. When each of these were assessed with respect to their individual importance,

the following formula resulted: overall impression

= 0.07 (contents) + 0.38 (voice tone) + 0.55 (facial expression). Important to note here is the

dominating significance of facial impression in this formula, as well as voice tone, showing

that Non-Verbal cues are of overarching importance. Mehrabian and Wiener made clear

that, in cases of inconsistency between Verbal and Non-Verbal behaviour, it is the Non-

Verbal information which is allocated the greatest significance.

Patterson is of the opinion that, as social communication, non-Verbal behaviour is only

meaningful when considered in terms of an exchange of expressions between participants in

an interaction. This relational nature of behaviour need to be considered and requires

sensitivity to the behavioural context that each person constructs for the other.

Patterson (1990) has also revealed about the functions of Non-Verbal behaviour during

social interaction: (a) providing information, (b) regulating interaction, (c) expressing

intimacy, (d) social control, (e) presenting identities and images, (f) affecting management

and (g) facilitating service and task goals.

Thombury, (2005.p.9) explains Speaking as a multi-sensory activity because it involves

paralinguistic features such as eye-contact, facial expressions, body language, tempo,

pauses, voice quality changes, and pitch variations which affect conversational flow.

Liu (2001) has pointed out towards the importance of non-Verbal communication in the

classroom. As the reports by the author, non-Verbal communication in the classroom serves

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as number of specific purposes including: “expressing emotions, conveying interpersonal

attitudes, presenting personality, and amplifying Verbal communication” (p. 30). Moreover

the author’s opinion is that, that research regarding the development of non-Verbal

communication in the classroom has demonstrated that there are five component parts to

this process. It includes: paralanguage, facial expression, eye contact and visual behavior,

gesture and body movement, and space” (p. 30). Liu asserts that each of these dimensions

functions differently in the classroom depending on the context of the classroom

environment and the specific subject that is being reviewed.

Ray Birdwhistell , anthropologist coined the term ‘kinesics’. An estimation of the amount of

non-Verbal communication takes place between the humans was done by him. According to

his view an average person actually speaks ten or eleven minutes a day and the average

sentence takes only about 2.5 seconds and also that we have the ability to make and

recognise around 250,000 expressions. He had also discovered that the Verbal component

of a face-to-face conversation is less than 35% and the non-Verbal communication is over

65%.

Non-Verbal behaviour can convey supportiveness.

Remland, Jacobson, and Jones (1983) found in an experimental study, leaning forward,

touching the subordinate, speaking in a soft voice, smiling sympathetically, gazing, and

nodding are related to the perception of supportiveness whereas leaning backwards, keeping

distance, speaking in a firm voice, refusing to smile, interrupting, looking away, and turning

away represents being non supportive.

2.6 Summary

In recent years, researchers have explored various aspects related to Soft skills. The chapter

focuses on relevant review of literature pertaining to the Soft skills, Communication Skills,

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Verbal Communication and Non-Verbal Communication. Various books, articles and online

resources available on the subject have been studied for the purpose. The complete chapter

has been classified in four sections: Soft skills, Communication skills, Verbal skills and

Non-Verbal skills.

The overall review of studies shows that there are marked differences in the aspects covered

under the present study and the ones that have been studied and quoted.

It was observed that though there are studies about the need of Soft skills, effective

communication and appropriate Non-Verbal communication but there is difference in what

has been covered in the present study.

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