TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

CENTRE OF PRE-UNIVERSITY STUDIES

FPEM1013 Introduction to Engineering Materials

Table of Experiments
Exp. No. Experiment
M1 Measurement of Hardness Values of Specimens (Metal)
M2 Measurement of Hardness Values of Specimens (Polymeric
Material)
M3 Impact test of Materials (Charpy)
M4 Impact test of Materials (Izod)
M5 Tensile Test (Ferrous Metal)
M6 Tensile Test (Non-Ferrous Metal)

Week
Group No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 M1 M2 M5 M6 M3 M4

2 M2 M1 M6 M5 M4 M3
Introduction
3 M3 M4 M1 M2 M5 M6
to Materials
4 M4 M3 M2 M1 M6 M5
Laboratory
5 M5 M6 M3 M4 M1 M2

6 M6 M5 M4 M3 M2 M1
 ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

Name of Student: Course Title:

Experiment E1 E2 E3

Score Weightage Total Marks Score Weightage Total Marks Score Weightage Total Marks
Rating Introduction and Background Information (5 marks) (1) (2) (1) x (2) (1) (2) (1) x (2) (1) (2) (1) x (2)

 Develops context appropriately and concisely in facilitating

5
thorough understanding on the scopes of the laboratory work

 Establishes context necessary to facilitate understanding on the

4
scopes of the laboratory work

 Establishes just sufficient context necessary to facilitate a basic 1 1 1

3
understanding on the scopes of the laboratory work

 Missing key elements of context necessary to understand on the

2
scopes of the laboratory work
1  Goal on the scopes of the laboratory work is difficult to identify

Rating
Experimental Procedure and Result Obtained (10 Score Weightage Total Marks Score Weightage Total Marks Score Weightage Total Marks
marks) (1) (2) (1) x (2) (1) (2) (1) x (2) (1) (2) (1) x (2)

 Methods outlined are consistent with objectives and scope of work

and adopt the standard method of measurements (even if it is not
a standard method of measurement, proper citation is required)
 Suitable equipment/apparatus/technique used are included. Flow
5
of activities (measurement/test run/calibration etc.) are shown
 Data is complete, relevant, well tabulated read and units are
provided, graphs are labeled, the experiment could be easily
replicated based on the procedures provided

 Methods outlined are consistent with objectives and scope of work

and adopt the standard method of measurements (even if it is not
a standard method of measurement, proper citation is required)
2 2 2
4  Suitable equipment/apparatus/technique used are included
 One component of the data is incomplete, experimental procedures
are clearly written but some steps are not numbered and/or are in
incomplete sentences

 Methods outlined are consistent with objectives and scope of work

and adopt the standard method of measurements (even if it is not
a standard method of measurement, proper citation is required)
3  Some equipment/apparatus/technique used are included
 Two components of the data are incomplete, experimental
procedures included but do not accurately list the steps of the
experiment, acceptable result with minimum error

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  Methods outlined consistent with objectives and scope of work but
do not follow the standard method of measurements
2
 Minor equipment/apparatus/technique used are included
 Result out of range, experimental procedures not accurately listed

 Methods outlined not consistent with objectives and scope of work.

No evidence of data collection programme
1  Equipment/apparatus/technique used is not included
 Results wrong and out of range, experimental procedures not
accurately listed

Score Weightage Total Marks Score Weightage Total Marks Score Weightage Total Marks
Rating Analysis of Results and Discussion (15 marks) (1) (2) (1) x (2) (1) (2) (1) x (2) (1) (2) (1) x (2)

 Results substantiated with analysis. Tabulation of results in tables

and figures and some explanation on the trends or behavior of the
variables/parameters are expected substantiated with relevant
5
theory
 Able to make sound discussions based on the analysis of result
and make a synthesis comment, completed as expected

 Results substantiated with analysis. Tabulation of results in tables

and figures and some explanation on the trends or behavior of the
4 variables/parameters are expected
 Able to make sound discussions based on the analysis of result,
completed with no error in raw data 3 3 3
 Some results are shown but not substantiated with analysis.
Tabulation of results in tables and figures with no explanation
3
 Acceptable discussion on relevant issues, completed but with
avoidable error detected

 Able to fabricate results with no evidence on data collection

programme
2
 Discussion given on irrelevant issue, incomplete or wrong
substitution of data
1  No discussion, did not analyze / discuss as instructed
Score Weightage Total Marks Score Weightage Total Marks Score Weightage Total Marks
Rating Problems / Questions (10 marks) (1) (2) (1) x (2) (1) (2) (1) x (2) (1) (2) (1) x (2)
 A deep and critical analysis was made based on a wide range of
5 inter-disciplinary perspectives, supplements with relevant and
thoughtful information

 A satisfactory analysis was made, showed attempts to analyze the

4
problems/questions but not deep and critical

 Analysis was made based at an acceptable level, identifies and

3 2 2 2
explains theoretical concepts that is important

 Most theoretical concepts important to problems/questions are

2
identified and briefly explained

 Presents an incomplete analysis of some of the

1 problems/questions identified but misses a few essential
developments

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 Score Weightage Total Marks Score Weightage Total Marks Score Weightage Total Marks
Rating Conclusion & References (10 marks) (1) (2) (1) x (2) (1) (2) (1) x (2) (1) (2) (1) x (2)
 Present an accurate summary of works done, factors influencing
5 the validity of results are also presented, with many relevant
references are cited

 Present an accurate summary of work done, more than two

4
relevant references are cited
2 2 2
 Presents conclusions at superficial level with minor errors, more
3
than one relevant reference is cited

 Summary only, issues and key aspects are neglected, only one
2
reference is cited
1  No conclusions and references

Total Mark (E1) Total Mark (E2) Total Mark (E3)

Overall Mark (E1+E2+E3)

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 Laboratory Safety Rules and Regulations
Procedures and precautions should be observed to ensure the safety and security
of students in the Materials Engineering Laboratory. These include how a student
should react in case of an emergency such as fire or explosion and preventive
measures, which should be taken in order to reduce or eliminate any possibility of
accidents. Students should follow these safety rules strictly.

1. You should be aware of the location of the emergency switch buttons, which
can be used to cut the power supply in the laboratory.

2. You should be aware of the location of the fire extinguisher and the fire alarm
in the laboratory.

3. Any malfunction of laboratory instrument and machine should be promptly

reported to a lecturer or laboratory assistant.

4. You should be aware of the location of first aid kit in the Materials Engineering
Laboratory.

5. Do not operate ANY equipment unless you are authorized to do so. If you are
uncertain of any procedure, ask your lecturer or instructor for assistance.

6. Report all injuries (and near misses), no matter how small, to your lecturer or
instructor.

7. You must wear proper Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) as requested by

your lecturer or instructor.

8. Tie up your long hair which may be caught in moving machinery.

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9. If chemicals have been spilled on the body, flush the exposed area for 15
minutes with sufficient running water and immediately remove any
contaminated clothing.

10. No food is allowed in the laboratory. Student should never drink from any
laboratory glassware because it may contain hazardous and poisonous liquid.

11. All the solutions available in the laboratory is meant for experiment. They
should never be drank or swallowed.

12. Always clean up the work area before you leave.

13. All samples, tooling and equipment used have to be returned to the original
places or to the laboratory assistant.

14. No low-cut jeans, short pants, V-neck t-shirt, open-toe shoes are allowed when
you work in the laboratory.

Disciplinary action will be taken in the case of student failing to observe these
regulations. The governing body of the Faculty of Engineering will not hold itself
responsible for the loss of or damage to any property belonging to a student or for
injury to a student caused by his/her own negligence or by disregard to the
regulations of the laboratory.

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 Guide to Writing A Laboratory Reports
1. The Title Page needs to contain the name of the experiment, the names of lab
partners, and the date of experiment. Titles should be straightforward and
informative.

2. The Objective of the experiment. State the objective(s) of the experiment

concisely, in paragraph form. The section should inform the reader precisely
why the experiment was undertaken.

3. Equipment. List the model of equipment and the grade of material used in
the experiment.

4. Introduction and Background Information. The appropriate information for

the introduction varies with the kind of report. Most introductions provide the
reader with the necessary background to help put the objectives and results in
a proper perspective. Repeating the introduction stated in lab manual is not
recommended. Show your own comprehension of the experiment conducted.

5. Experimental Procedure describes the process in a chronological order.

Detail out the procedure used to carry out the experiment step-by-step. The
procedure should reflect the facilities available at the laboratory where the
experiment was conducted and may, therefore, differ slightly from the standard
procedure. In some cases, you can simply direct the reader to a lab manual or
standard procedure for an example: "Equipment was set up as in ASTM 109."

6. Experimental Results. All the raw data obtained during the experiment are
presented in this section. It is usually dominated by calculations, tables,
graph and figures. Each table, figure and graph in the report must have a
caption and a number that is referenced in the written text. Variables tabulated
or plotted should be clearly identified by a symbol or name, and units, if any,
should be clearly noted. This section should contain only raw information, not
results from manipulation of data.

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 Example of a table:
Table 1: The pressure of air as a function of volume.
Volume (mm3) Pressure (Pa)

Example of a figure:

Figure 1: Standing transversal waves on a string

7. Problems/Questions. In this section, you MUST answer all problems and/or

questions of the lab handout in a numbered fashion. Number the answers in
the same order presented in the handout.

8. Discussion. This section is devoted to your interpretation of the outcome of

the experiment. The information from the data analysis is examined and
explained. You should describe, analyze and explain (not just restate) all your
results. This section should answer the question 'what do the data tell me?'
Describe any logical projections from the outcome, for instance the need to
repeat the experiments or to measure certain variables differently. Assess the
quality and accuracy of your procedure. Compare your results with expected
behavior, if such a comparison is useful or necessary, and explain any
unexpected behavior.

9. Conclusion. Explain the meaning of the experiment, the implications of your

results and the outcomes of the experiment in relation to the stated objectives
of the experiment.

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10. References. Cite all the published sources consulted from published paper,
reference book, journal or website during the conduct of experiment and the
preparation of your laboratory report. Harvard referencing system is adopted.
Refer to your lectures for the further guidelines of the referencing system.

Example of a book:
Author’s family name, Initial(s). Year. Title of book. Place of publication:
Publisher.

Author’s family name Year of publication Title of the book in

followed by a comma, followed by a full italics followed by a full
then initial(s) followed stop - no brackets stop - upper case used
by a full stop only for the first word

Cameron, S. 2002. Business student’s handbook: Learning skills for

study and employment. Harlow: Prentice Hall.

Publisher followed
Place of publication
by a full stop
followed by a colon

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Example of an academic journal:
Author’s family name, Initial(s). Year. ‘Title of article’. Title of journal,
Volume number, (Issue), Page no.

Author’s family name Year of publication Title of the article in single

followed by a comma, followed by a full inverted comma - upper
then initial(s) followed stop - no brackets case for the first word only,
by a full stop full stop after the second
inverted comma

Bilosvalavo, R. and Lynn, M. 2006. ‘Mission statements in Slovene

enterprises: Institutional pressures and contextual adaptation’.
Management Decision. 45(4), pp.773-788.

Page number (pp) of Title of the journal

Volume Issue number in a
the article followed in italics followed
number of bracket followed
by a full stop at the by a full stop
the journal by a comma
end

Example of an electronic publication:

Basic format for an electronic publication:

Author’s family name, Initial(s). Year. Title of document or website. Date

viewed. Full address <url>.

Author’s family name Year of publication Title of the article in italics,

followed by a comma, followed by a full followed by a full stop -
then initial(s) followed stop - no brackets upper case used for first
by a full stop word

Potter, J. 2005. The big five personality test. Viewed on 11 July 2007.
Available from: <http://www.outofservice.com/bigfive>.

The internet address (URL) is enclosed in < Date the document is

and > with the full address and followed by a accessed followed by a
full stop full stop

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Note on Verb Tense
Writing reports often create difficulties for students who struggle with
keeping verb tenses straight. These two points should help you navigate
the report writing:

 The experiment is already finished. Use the past passive tense when
talking about the experiment.

"The hand pump was connected to the gas thermometer..."

 The report, the theory and permanent equipment still exist; therefore, these
get the present tense:

"The purpose of this report is..."

"The scanning electron microscope produces micrographs...”

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 TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
CENTRE OF PRE-UNIVERSITY STUDIES

Measurement of Hardness Values of Specimens

Objectives
 To learn the preparation techniques for hardness testing
 To develop the proficiency in operating hardness tester
 To identify the different hardness of specimens.

Introduction
Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not a fundamental physical property. It is
defined as the resistance to indentation, and it is determined by measuring the permanent
depth of the indentation. More simply put, when using a fixed force (load) and a given
indenter, the smaller the indentation, the harder the material, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Indentation after hardness test

M1 Vickers Hardness Test for Metallic Materials

Apparatus
Vickers hardness tester, polishing and grinding apparatus, grinding papers of 4 different
grades, steel, brass and aluminum.

Specimen Preparation
The preparation of metallic or other materials for hardness testing is very simple. There
are three basic processes that you will need to become familiar with: sample cutting and
sectioning, surface grinding and surface polishing.

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Sample Cutting and Sectioning
Sectioning means removal of convenient size specimen from large sample with minimal
damage to microstructure with the help of abrasive cut off machine. Abrasive cutting
wheel/saw is attached to cutting machine and for work piece holding proper vice is
provided on machine. The primary concern in this process is to minimize the heating of
the sample due to the cutting.

Sample Surface Grinding

The first step in preparing your sample is to ensure that you have a flat surface to begin
with. The hand lapping station has four graded abrasive papers to produce a sequentially
finer surface finish. Be sure the water is turned on and flowing uniformly over the
abrasives.
1. Start with the coarsest grit (200) and, using a firm and uniform pressure, slowly
move the specimen forward and back across the abrasive. This will produce
parallel scratches of uniform size. Continue this step until the entire surface of your
sample is flat and contains only scratches of the size of 200 grit abrasive.
2. When the sample is flat and the only scratches remaining are those due to the 200
grit abrasive, WASH your sample and your hands thoroughly, and move to the 320
grit abrasive, bearing in mind that the orientation of the scratches obtained from
the 200 grit abrasive should be held normal to the 320 abrasive paper at the
beginning of the grinding process.
3. Repeat this procedure for the 400 grit and the 600 grit abrasive, checking after
each step to be sure that only those scratches remain that are due to the smallest
grit.

Procedure
1. The specimen is correctly placed on anvil of the Vickers hardness instrument.
2. By adjusting the turret (Figure 2), make sure specimen is properly focused using
the low-power objective lens by referring to the image obtained at the eyepiece.
3. Rotate the turret, carefully place the diamond indenter on top of the specimen
surface.

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 4. Press the START button on tester, when the light goes off, rotate the turret and
place the high-power objective lens on top of the specimen surface.
5. As a result of the indentation, the impression on the surface of the specimen will
be a square. The length of the diagonal of the square is measured through a
microscope fitted with an ocular micrometer that contains movable knife-edges.

Figure 2 Schematic of a Vickers hardness tester

Vickers Hardness Testing Vickers test, it involves a diamond indenter in the form of a
square-based pyramid with an apex angle of 136˚. The indenter is being pressed under
load for 10 to 15 seconds into the surface of the specimen under test. The result is a
square-shape indentation. After the load and indenter are removed the diagonals of the
indentation d (mm) are measured. The Vickers hardness number HV is obtained by
dividing the size of the load F (kgf), applied by the surface area A (mm), of the indentation
as shown in Figure 3.

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 Figure 3 Indentation of Vickers hardness test

The HV is given by:

Typically, a load of 30 kg is used for steels and cast irons, 10 kg for copper alloy, 5 kg for
pure copper and aluminum alloy, 2.5 kg for pure aluminum and 1 kg for lead, tin and tin
alloys.

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Results
Tabulate the hardness values of the three different specimens and calculate their
HV values.
Steel Brass Aluminum
D1 (mm)
D2 (mm)
(D1+D2)/2 (mm)
P (Kg)
𝑷
HV = 1.854
𝑫𝟐

(Kg/mm2)

Questions
1. Define the term hardness.

2. Discuss on the results for each tested specimen.

3. Why is it important to follow the rules of cleanliness in the preparation of specimen?

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4. Why hardness test needs to perform in engineering practice?

5. Specify the possible sources of errors for Vickers hardness test.

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M2 Shore Hardness Test for Polymeric Materials
Apparatus
Shore (Durometer) hardness tester, thermoset, thermoplastic and rubber. The test
specimen, shall be at least 6.0 mm in thickness unless it is known that results equivalent
to the 6.0 mm values are obtained with a thinner specimen.

Shore (Durometer) Hardness Testing of Plastics

The hardness of plastics is most commonly measured by the Shore (Durometer) test.
This method measures the resistance of plastics toward indentation and provide an
empirical hardness value that doesn't necessarily correlate well to other properties or
fundamental characteristics. Shore Hardness, using either the Shore A or Shore D scale,
is the preferred method for rubbers/elastomers and is also commonly used for softer
plastics such as polyolefins, fluoropolymers, and vinyl. The Shore A scale is used for
softer rubbers while the Shore D scale is used for harder ones. Many other Shore
hardness scales, such as Shore O and Shore H hardness, exist but are only rarely
encountered by most people in the plastics industry. Types of indenter is depending on
the types of materials being tested, as shown in Figure 1.

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 Figure 1 Indenter type and scale

Procedure
1. Care shall be exercised to minimize the exposure of the instrument to
environmental conditions that are averse to the performance of the instrument, or
adversely affect test results.
2. Place the specimen on a flat, hard, horizontal surface.
3. Hold the durometer in a vertical position with the indenter tip at a distance from
any edge of the specimen.
4. Apply the presser foot to the specimen, maintaining it in a vertical position keeping
the presser foot parallel to the specimen, with a firm smooth downward action that
will avoid shock, rolling of the presser foot over the specimen, or the application of
lateral force.
5. Apply sufficient pressure to assure firm contact between the presser foot and the
specimen.
6. After the presser foot is in contact with the specimen, the indicated reading shall

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 be recorded within 1 ± 0.1 s. If the durometer is equipped with a maximum
indicator, the maximum indicated reading shall be recorded within 1 ± 0.1 s of the
cessation of initial indenter travel. The indicated hardness reading may change
with time as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Shore hardness measurement

Operation
As the hardness tester is pressed against the sample, the material resistance force
and indenter spring load balance. The depth of the indenter is measured, which
provides a measure of the material's hardness. Values are based upon a 100-point
scale. However, as time elapses the indicator will creep back so that a reading
taken a few seconds after the tester makes contact with the sample will be less
than the peak reading. The optional peak indicator helps to more closely monitor
the difference between peak and creep in hardness tests.

7. Make five determinations of hardness at different positions on the specimen at

least 6.0 mm (0.24 in.) apart and calculate the arithmetic mean.
8. It is acknowledged that durometer readings below 20 or above 90 are not
considered reliable. It is suggested that readings in these ranges not be recorded.

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Result
The hardness numbers are derived from a scale. Shore A and Shore D hardness scales
are common, with the A scale being used for softer and the D scale being used for harder
materials.
Reading Reading Reading Reading Reading Average
1 2 3 4 5
Thermoplastic
Thermoset
Rubber

Questions
1. Outline the factors affecting the selection of hardness testers in polymeric
materials.

2. What are the factors have to be considered when performing hardness test for
polymeric materials?

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3. Comment on the results obtained from this experiment.

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 TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
CENTRE OF PRE-UNIVERSITY STUDIES

Impact test of Materials

Objective
 To determine the energy required to break a material under impact.
 To compare between different types of steel made from a variety of manufacturing
processes.
 To record whether the fracture mode was ductile or brittle.

Introduction
Impact energy is a measure of the work done to fracture a test specimen. When the striker
impacts the specimen, the specimen will absorb energy until it yields. At this point, the
specimen will begin to undergo plastic deformation at the notch. The test specimen continues
to absorb energy and work hardens at the plastic zone at the notch. When the specimen can
absorb no more energy, fracture occurs.

Impact tests are designed to measure the resistance to failure of a material to a suddenly
applied force. The test measures the impact energy, or the energy absorbed prior to fracture.
The most common methods of measuring impact energy are the:
 Charpy Test
 Izod Test

M3 Charpy Impact Test for Metallic Materials

Apparatus
Standard Charpy impact specimens, micrometer or Vernia calliper, impact testing machine

Charpy Impact Test

Charpy impact test is practical for the assessment of brittle fracture of metals and is also used
as an indicator to determine suitable service temperatures. The Charpy test sample has 10 x
10 x 55 mm dimensions, a 45ºV notch of 2 mm depth and a 0.25 mm root radius will be hit

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by a pendulum at the opposite end of the notch as shown in Figure 1. The absorbed energy
required to produce two fresh fracture surfaces will be recorded in the unit of Joule.

Figure 1 Charpy impact tester

Procedure
1. Prepare the specimen for impact testing.
2. Before the test commences, the hook is disengaged from the hammer and the
indicating needle position is adjusted to 0º.
3. The hook is then engaged to the hammer and the hammer is slightly lifted upwards
to position the test specimen on the anvil. The position of the test specimen is
positioned until its notch opposite and aligned with the striking edge of the hammer
as shown in Figure 1 (a).
4. The handle of the hammer lifting up device is then rotated to the right side to raise
the hammer. While turning the handle, the indicating needle is also rotated to make
contact with index needle push metal (to know the angular displacement of
hammer) Turning of the handle continue until the highest point corresponds to a
rotation of 136.5ºis reached.
5. *Note: DO NOT PERFORM REVERSE TURING OF THE WHEEL, OTHERWISE
THE HAMMER WILL DROP BY ITSELF.

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 6. The hook lever is then pushed to release the hammer to fracture the test specimen.
7. The angle reading shown by indicating needle corresponds to the highest position
reached by swinging hammer after breaking the specimen by impact force is then
noted
8. Charpy impact value is then determined based on the following equation:

Impact Energy (E) = PD (cos β – cos α)

α, represents lifting angle, 136.5º

β, represents swing angle after test
P, weight of hammer, 41.76 Kg
D, distance from rotating axis to axis of gravity, 695 mm
E, impact energy

Results
Complete the table below and determine the impact energy for the specimens.
Carbon steel
Types of specimen
Specimen 1 Specimen 2 Specimen 3 Average
Width (mm)
Thickness (mm)
Cross-Sectional area
(mm2)
Angle before impact (α)
Angle after impact (β)

Impact energy, kg⋅m2⋅s−2, J

Charpy impact value =

𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
, J/mm2
𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂

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Questions
1. What physical property is determined by the impact test?

2. Of the materials tested, explain, why the impact values differ? Sketch and
discuss on the fracture surfaces of the tested specimens.

Fracture surface of the tested specimens:

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3. Why does mild steel break with a brittle fracture in the impact although it
behaves as a ductile material in the tensile test?

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M4 Izod Impact Test for Polymeric Materials
Apparatus
Standard Izod impact specimens, micrometer or Vernia callipers, Izod impact testing machine

Izod impact test

Notched Izod Impact is a single point test that measures a materials resistance to impact from
a swinging pendulum. Izod impact is defined as the kinetic energy needed to initiate fracture
and continue the fracture until the specimen is broken. Izod specimens are notched to prevent
deformation of the specimen upon impact. This test can be used as a quick and easy quality
control check to determine if a material meets specific impact properties or to compare
materials for general toughness. The breaking energy can be converted into an indication of
a materials impact resistance using such unit as joules as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Izod impact tester

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Procedure
1. Switch on the GT-7045-HMH Izod/Charpy Digital Impact Tester.
2. Refer to Figure 1, select the UNIT of measurement by pressing Unit. There are
four types of unit is available.
3. Select the Test Mode by pressing Cap. (ID:7 is default test mode for plastic
specimen) as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Monitor Screen of GT-7045-HMH Izod/Charpy Digital Impact Tester

4. Key in the width and thickness of test specimen by pressing the icon.
5. Raise the pendulum to the specific height.
6. Put the test specimen in between grips and tighten it as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Placement of the Izod impact specimen

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 7. Start the test by pressing icon.

8. View the test result by pressing icon.

Results
Complete the table below and determine the impact energy for the specimens.
Specimen
Types of specimen Specimen Specimen Specimen
Average
1 2 3
Width (mm)
Thickness (mm)
Cap, J
Angle after impact
(β)
Impact
energy, kg⋅m2⋅s−2, J

Questions
1. What is the necessity of making a notch in Izod impact test specimen?

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 2. Of the materials tested, explain, why the impact values differ? Sketch and
discuss on the fracture surfaces of the tested specimens.

Fracture surface of the tested specimens:

3. What are the differences between Charpy and Izod Impact tests?

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 TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
CENTRE OF PRE-UNIVERSITY STUDIES

Tensile Test

Objectives
 To understand the principle of a uniaxial tensile testing and gain their practices on
operating the tensile testing machine to achieve the required tensile properties.
 To determine and compare mechanical properties (yield strength, ultimate tensile
strength, and Young’s modulus of various materials.
 To explain load-extension and stress-strain relationships and represent them in
graphical forms.
 To explain deformation and fracture characteristics of different materials such as
aluminum, steels or polymer when subjected to uniaxial tensile loading.

Introduction
Uniaxial tensile test is known as a basic and universal engineering test to achieve material
parameters such as ultimate strength, yield strength, % elongation, % area of reduction
and Young's modulus. These important parameters obtained from the standard tensile
testing are useful for the selection of engineering materials for any applications required
and they are important in materials selections for mechanical design.

1. Stress and strain

When a specimen is subjected to an external tensile loading, the metal will undergo elastic
and plastic deformation. Initially, the metal will elastically deform giving a linear
relationship of load and extension. These two parameters are then used for the
calculation of the engineering stress and engineering strain to give a relationship as
illustrated in Figure 1 using equations 1 and 2 as follows

𝐹
𝜎= (1)
𝐴𝑜

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 𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿𝑜 ∆𝐿
𝜀= = (2)
𝐿𝑜 𝐿0

where
σ is the engineering stress, N/m2
ε is the engineering strain
F is the external axial tensile load, N
Ao is the original cross-sectional area of the specimen, m2
Lo is the original length of the specimen, m
Lf is the final length of the specimen, m

Figure 1 Stress-strain relationship under uniaxial tensile loading

2. Yield Strength or 0.2% Offset Yield Strength

This is the point at which the stress applied to the material at which plastic deformation
starts to occur while the material is loaded. It is also known as yield point.

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For aluminum on the other hand having a FCC crystal structure does not show the definite
yield point in comparison to those of the BCC structure materials, but shows a smooth
engineering stress-strain curve. The yield strength therefore has to be calculated from the
load at 0.2% strain divided by the original cross-sectional area as follows i.e. using the
offset method as shown in Figure 2.

P0.2%Y
σ0.2%𝑌 =
Ao

Figure 2 Determination of the yield strength using the offset method

3. Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

This is the point at which the maximum stress that the material sustains during the test.
Ultimate Tensile Strength is also known as tensile strength or Ultimate Strength. (The
highest point on the stress-strain diagram).

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4. Fracture Strength
This is the point at which the sample finally breaks. It is determined by dividing the load
sustained at breaking point by the original cross sectional area of the specimen. It is also
known as rupture strength.

5. Young’s Modulus
The initial slope of the curve, related directly to the strength of the atomic bonds. This
modulus indicates the stiffness of the material. It is the slope of the stress vs strain graph
in the elastic region of the test. It is measured in GPa or N/mm2. Young’s Modulus is also
known as Modulus of Elasticity.

6. Percentage of Elongation and Percentage Reduction in Area

Tensile ductility of the specimen can be represented as % elongation or % reduction in
area as expressed in the equations given below

∆L
% Elongation = x 100
Lo
Ao − Af
% Reduction in Area = x 100
Ao

Where Af is the cross-sectional area of specimen at fracture.

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M5 and M6 Tensile Test for Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Materials
This test is a destructive method, in which a specimen of a standard shape and
dimensions is subjected to an axial load. During a typical tensile experiment, a dog-bone
shaped specimen is gripped at its two ends and is pulled to elongate at a determined rate
to its breakpoint; a highly ductile polymer may not reach its breakpoint. For analytical
purposes, a plot of displacement versus load is constructed during a tensile test
experiment, which can be done automatically on the software provided by the instrument
manufacturer.

Apparatus
Universal tensile tester, micrometer, Vernier caliper, standard tensile specimens.

Procedure
1. Measure and record the initial dimensions of the test specimen: gauge length, total
length, thickness and width (for a plate) or diameter (for a rod) using a micrometer
and caliper. Mark the gauge section with two lines, referring to the Figure 3.
Aluminum Polymer
Width (mm)
Thickness (mm)
Gauge Length (mm)
Area (mm2)
Gauge length (mm)

Figure 3 Specimen dimension

2. Turn on load frame power and control panel power. Make sure you check the
EMERGENCY button on the frame panel.

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3. Select Test Method (Note: Choose the test method that has test speed set at 10
mm/min for metal specimens and 100 mm/ min for polymer specimens).
4. Insert the specimen into the top and bottom grips and check that the gripping is
not loose.
5. Input the specimen’s geometry data into the computer. Adjust crosshead to zero
load (right click on the ‘load’ button).
6. Press START to run the tensile test.
7. After specimen rupture occurs, carefully remove the test specimen. Measure the
final dimensions of the test specimen: width, thickness or diameter near rupture
point.
8. Click ‘Print’ to print the data detailing the tensile properties and the engineering
load-displacement curve.
9. Calculate the percentage of elongation and percentage reduction in cross section
area using the final dimensions obtained.

Results
1. From the experiments, determine the yield, maximum, and failure values of load
and displacement from the load-displacement data provided by the machine, as
shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Measured Load and displacement
Aluminum Polymer
Yield Load (kN)
Yield Disp. (mm)
Max Load (kN)
Max Load Disp. (mm)
Failure Load (kN)
Failure Disp. (mm)

2. Construct the engineering stress-strain curves for aluminum and steel specimens
using the engineering load-displacement curves obtained from the tensile tester.

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Aluminum

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Polymer

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3. From the engineering stress vs strain curves, determine the following mechanical
properties, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Mechanical Properties
Aluminium Polymer
Yield Strength / 0.2% Offset Yield Strength, MPa
Ultimate Tensile Strength, MPa
Fracture Strength, MPa
Young’s Modulus, GPa
Percentage of Elongation
Percentage Reduction in Area
*Note: You are required to show how you obtain the above results

Questions
1. Briefly discuss the differences between the engineering stress-strain curve and
true stress-strain curve. Briefly explain why two plots are different.

Illustrate the difference between engineering stress-strain curve and true stress-
strain curve.

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2. Visually examine and describe the feature of fracture surfaces of each specimen.

Fracture surface of the tested specimens:

3. Compare the Young’s Modulus values obtained from the experiment for each
material with literature values.

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4. What is the area under the stress-strain curve equivalent to? What does the area
under the elastic portion of the stress-strain represent?

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