Activity 01

 Measuring mass
 Measuring volume
 Measuring temperature
 Storage/Transfer/Carriage of reagents
 Miscellaneous equipment
 Triple Beam Balance
 Platform Beam Balance
 Analytical/Digital Balance
 Volumetric pipette with aspirator
 Graduated cylinder
 Burette with clamp
 Automatic pipette
 Erlenmeyer flask
 Viscosity pipette
 Volumetric flask
 Centrifuge tube
 Thistle tube
 Beaker
 Glass thermometer (mercury and/or
alcohol)
 Dropping pipette/Pasteur
pipette/Medicine dropper
 Stirring rod with rubber policeman
 Test tube with rack and holder
 Reagent bottle
 Spatula
 Funnel
 Connecting tubes
 Distilling flask
 Condenser
 Adapter
 Retort
 Separatory funnel
 Filtration flask
 Crucible with cover and
tong
 Mortar and pestle
 Evaporating dish
 Watch glass
 Bunsen burner with rubber
tubing
 Alcohol lamp
 Clay triangle
 Wire gauze
 Tripod
 Iron stand with ring and
clamp
 Clamp holder
 Forceps
 Cork and cork borer
 Test tube brush
 Plastic wash bottle
 Select a pipette appropriate for the
volume to be measured and dispensed.
 Use the NON-WRITING (non-dominant)
hand for holding the SEROLOGIC PIPETTE
while using the WRITING (dominant)
hand for holding the PIPETTOL (RUBBER
BULB).
 Immerse the pipette into a beaker or
flask containing the solution to be
aspirated with the delivery tip about 1-2
inches deep into the solution. The
pipette should ALWAYS be held at an
upright position during aspiration of the
solution.
 Press the pipettol. Continue pressing the
pipettol and fit it onto the upper end
(mouthpiece) of the pipette.
 Release the pressure on the bulb in a
controlled and slow manner. This will
allow the solution to be aspirated into
the pipette.
 The user should continue step (5) until
there is aspiration of the solution WELL
BEYOND THE 0 MARK of the pipette.
Quickly remove the pipettol and
immediately seal the mouthpiece with
INDEX FINGER pressing firmly to prevent
the fluid from further flowing out of the
pipette.
 NEVER USE THUMB IN SEALING THE
MOUTHPIECE
 Raise the pipette OUT FROM THE
SOLUTION. Maintain the seal provided by
the index finger of the non-writing hand.
Use the other hand to wipe the sides of
the pipette with a tissue paper to
remove excess liquid clinging at the
sides.
 AT EYE LEVEL and while maintaining the
upright position of the pipette, adjust the
lower meniscus of the liquid exactly to
the 0 mark by allowing the index finger
to relax a little bit to allow a controlled
flow of the liquid. Press the index finger
firmly when the meniscus is adjusted.
 While the meniscus is held in place,
remove the pipette from the container.
Maintain the pipette in upright position.
The index finger is firmly pressed on the
mouthpiece of the pipette so as to
prevent flowing down or spilling of the
solution from the pipette.
 Place the pipette over the designated
container where the solution will be
dispensed. WITH THE PIPETTE HELD IN A
VERTICAL POSITION, relax the index finger
to dispense the desired volume.
 IMPORTANT QUESTION: Will the user also
dispense the remaining liquid at the tip
of the pipette?
 To know whether to include the
remaining liquid to the volume being
dispensed, the user should determine the
type of the pipette according to
draining characteristics.
 › has a continuous etched ring or two
small, close, continuous rings located
near the top of the pipette
 FOR BLOWOUT PIPETTE: The remaining
liquid should be expelled into the
receiving vessel using the pipettol.
 › does not have the above-stated
markings found in blowout pipettes.
 FOR SELF-DRAINING PIPETTE: The
remaining liquid is NOT expelled into
the receiving vessel.
Activity 02
 Are characteristics a substance shows by
itself, without changing into or
interacting with another substance
› Color
› Texture
› Appearance
› Odor
 Solubility
 Melting point range
 Refers to the amount of solute that
dissolves in a fixed amount of solvent at
a given temperature, where an excess of
the solute is present
 A quantitative term
 The solubility of a substance is the
concentration of its saturated solution
 Ion-dipole, ion–induced dipole, and dipole–
induced dipole forces occur in solutions, in
addition to all the intermolecular forces that
also occur in pure substances.
 If similar intermolecular forces occur in solute
and solvent, they replace each other when the
substances mix and a solution is likely to form
(―like dissolves like‖).
 When ionic compounds dissolve in water, the
ions become surrounded by hydration shells of
H-bonded water molecules.
 Solubility of organic molecules in various
solvents depends on the relative sizes of their
polar and nonpolar portions.
 Temperature at which the solid and
liquid forms of a substance are at
equilibrium
 An important test for the purity of an
organic compound is to measure its
melting point. Usually, if the compound
is not pure, it begins to melt at a lower
temperature than the pure compound.
General properties – properties that exist in all Specific - properties that exist only in
materials
1. Inertia – the resistance to change in motion
2. Mass – the amount of matter in an object
3. Weight – a measure of the pull of gravity on
an object
4. Volume – the amount of space an object
takes up
5. Impenetrability – the inability of two
objects to occupy the same space at the
same time
6. Density – mass per unit volume
particular materials
1. Hardness – the ability to oppose change in
shape
2. Brittleness – the ability to crumble when
subjected to blow
3. Luster – ability to shine
4. Malleability – ability to be hammered into
thin sheets
5. Ductility – ability to be drawn into thin
wires
6. Elasticity – ability to be stretched and
regain its original form
7. Flexibility – the ability to bend without
breaking
8. Solubility – the ability to be dissolved in
another material
9. Miscibility – measure of dissolution of
liquids in each other
10. Viscosity – measure of the resistance of a
fluid to flow
 Copper (II) sulfate
 Iron (II) sulfate
 Benzoic acid
 Acetanilide
 Copper (II) Iron (II) Benzoic Acid Acetanilide
Sulfate Sulfate

Physical Blue crystals Yellow- Colorless White to

Properties brown crystalline gray
crystalline with faint crystalline,
solid odor odorless

Solubility Soluble in Soluble in Soluble in Slightly

water (75.4 water (48.6 water (3.4 soluble in
g/100 ml) g/100 ml g/L) water (6.9 x
Insoluble in Soluble in 103 mg/L)
ethanol ethanol (58.4 Soluble in
g/L) ethanol (1
Soluble in g/3 ml)
chlorhexane
(0.9 g/L)
Melting Point 100ºC-200ºC 64ºC - 90ºC 120 - 122ºC 114ºC
Activity 03
 Physical Change Chemical Change Nuclear Change
 Only the physical  Chemical composition is  Involves change in the
condition or property is altered identity of the atom
altered  Involves disappearance itself
 Chemical composition is of the original  Involves great amount
not altered substance and of energy
 No formation of a new formation of a new one
substance  Evidence of formation
of a new substance:
o Evolution of gas
o Evolution of heat
o Formation of moisture
o Formation of an
insoluble solid or
precipitate
 Microscale Sublimation
 Extraction and Filtration
 Evaporation
 Direct passage of molecules from the
solid to the vapor state
 The enthalpy of sublimation is the
quantity of heat needed to convert a
solid to vapor.
 At the sublimation point, sublimation is
equivalent to melting followed by
vaporization This suggests the following
relationship among and at the melting
point.
 Process of separating a solid from the
liquid in which it is suspended
 Passage of molecules from the surface
of a liquid into the gaseous, or vapor
state
 Occurs more readily with:
› increased temperature—more molecules
have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome
intermolecular forces of attraction in the
liquid.
 Occurs more readily with:
› increased surface area of the liquid—a
greater proportion of the liquid molecules
are at the surface.
 Occurs more readily with:
› decreased strength of intermolecular
forces—the kinetic energy needed to
overcome intermolecular forces of attraction
is less, and more molecules have enough
energy to escape.
 Theoretical yield. amount of product
calculated from the molar ratio
 Actual yield. amount of product actually
obtained is the actual yield; expressed in
units of amount (moles) or mass (grams)
 Percent yield.
Activity 04
 The process of correcting for systematic
error of a measuring device by
comparing it to a known standard
 Comparing the measuring device with a
known standard
 Prevention of Random vs systematic
errors
 All glassware to be calibrated must be
scrupulously clean before calibration.
 The test for cleanliness of glass apparatus
is that on being filled with deionised
water, and the water discarded an
unbroken film of water remains.
 In the most precise work it is never safe to
assume that the volume delivered by or
contained in any volumetric instrument is
exactly the amount indicated by the
calibration mark.
 Instead, the amount of water delivered
by or contained in the volumetric
apparatus is quantified by mass to effect
the calibration.
 This mass is then converted to the
desired volume using the tabulated
density of water and the following
standard relation:
 d = m/v
› v is measured volume
› m is mass of water used to fill the volume
› d is the density of water
 The volume occupied by a given mass of liquid
varies with temperature, as does the volume of
the device that holds the liquid. 20°C has been
chosen as the normal temperature for
calibration of much volumetric glassware.
 Glass is a fortunate choice for volumetric ware
as it has a relatively small coefficient of thermal
expansion;
 a glass vessel that holds 1.00000 L at 15 °C
holds 1.00025 L at 25 °C. If desired, the volume
(V) obtained at a temperature (T) can be
corrected to 20 °C by use of:
› V20°C = VT [1 + 0.000025 (20 – T)]
 Use density of water to convert the mass
of water to the volume delivered by the
pipette
 Convert the mass of water to the volume
delivered by the pipette
 weight of deionized water contained in the
flask or pipette is used to determine the actual
volume contained in the glassware.
 Water weight is corrected for density
differences due to temperature.
 The method involves weighing a specific
volume of water either dispensed or to contain.
 Corrections for buoyancy are very small and
are therefore can be neglected.
 The temperature of the water is measured at
time of the calibration after the water has
been allowed to equilibrate to a constant
temperature.
 Multiplication of the obtained mass of water at
some temperature is converted to the volume
it would occupy at 20oC.
 The difference between the apparent volume
(i.e. that at some temperature) and the true
volume is the absolute error, which should be
less than the glassware tolerance.
 If so, the glassware is for all practical purposes,
acceptable for quantitative work.
 If the absolute error > the tolerance, a
correction factor needs to be introduced to
correct to the true volume
 100 ml A-class beaker was found to give
a mean value of 99.43 g of water at
24ºC
 Vbeaker = W beaker + water – W
beaker/density of water
 99.43 g x 1/0.99732 g/ml = 99.697
 Standard deviation is found to be 0.82
ml. Calculating the ±2s for the mean
based on 2 x 0.82 ml:
› (98.360 – 101.640)
 Since one of the values, 98.0336 is
outside of the range, it is rejected as an
outlier and not included in the mean &
standard deviation calculations. A new
mean excluding this datum is calculated
along with a new standard deviation.
The ±2s is now: (99.947 – 100.05)
 The absolute error is calculated and
found to be within the tolerance of 0.08
for the 100 ml beaker
 Absolute error = [Nominal flask volume –
Mean apparent volume]
 Absolute error = 100 – 100.041 = 0.041
 Since the criterion of the absolute error <
tolerance has been satisfied (i.e.
0.041<0.08), the 100 ml beaker is taken as
accurate for all quantitative purposes.
 Density = mass/volume
 Mass of beaker = 20 g
 Mass of beaker + 10 ml 0.1 M NaOH = ___
 Density of 0.1 M NaOH = 1.01 g/ml
Trial Mass (g) Volume (ml) Density
1 10.420 10.06 1.03
2 10.289 10.12 1.02
3 10.262 10.04 1.02
4 10.362 10.08 1.03
Mean 10.333 10 1.025
SD ±1.77

Density of 0.1 M NaOH = 1.01 g/m

Absolute error = (1.01 – 1.025)100 = 1.5%
Density Range = 0.745 – 2.795
 Boiling point of 0.1 M NaOH = 100ºC
 Trial Temperature (ºC)
1 128
2 122
3 115
Mean 121.67
SD ±5.29

Boiling point of 0.1 M NaOH = 100ºC

Absolute error = (100 – 121.67)100 = 2.2 x 103%
Boiling point Range = 116.38 – 126.96
 refers to how close a measured value is
to the accepted, or actual value
 degree to which the measurement
agrees with the actual value
 refers to how close a measured value is
to the accepted, or actual, value; linked
to systematic errors (built-in or inherent
errors of measuring instruments)
 refers to the degree of reproducibility of
a measured quantity; the closeness of
agreement when the same quantity is
measured several times; linked to
random errors (limitations in an
experimenter’s skills or ability to read a
scientific instrument)
 ―reproducibility‖
 refers to the degree of reproducibility of
a measured quantity— that is, the
closeness of agreement when the same
quantity is measured several times.
 refers to how close the measurements in
a series are to each other
 the degree to which the measurements
agree with one another
 Error made by the experimenter in
performing an experimental technique
or measurement
 Observed by scatter in the data & dealt
with effectively by taking the average of
many measurements
 Linked to the precision of measurements
 E.g. Limitations in an experimenter’s skill
or ability to read scientific instrument
 Is one that recurs regularly in a series of
measurements because of an inherent
error in the measuring system
 Influence accuracy of a measurement
 E.g. faulty calibration of a measuring
device
  values that are either all higher or all
lower than the actual value

Systematic error
 Caused by
› faulty device
› Consistent mistake in taking the reading

 produces values that are higher and

lower than the actual value
Random error

 Always occur but depends on the

measurer’s skill & instrument’s precision
 Weight of water
 Density of water
 Error in sighting the level of water
 Error in temperature reading
Activity 05
 simplest formula for a compound; it
shows the types of atoms present and
their relative numbers. The subscripts in
an empirical formula are reduced to
their simplest whole-number ratio
 based on an actual molecule of a
compound. In some cases, the empirical
and molecular formulas are identical. In
other cases, the molecular formula is a
multiple of the empirical formula.
 Empirical and molecular formulas tell us
the combining ratio of the atoms in the
compound, but they show nothing
about how the atoms are attached to
each other.
 shows the order in which atoms are
bonded together in a molecule and by
what types of bonds
 written on a single line, is an alternative,
less cumbersome way of showing how
the atoms of a molecule are connected.
 used to show how a group of atoms is
attached to another atom.
 (1) Odd-electron species, such as NO, have an
unpaired electron and are paramagnetic.
Many of these species are reactive molecular
fragments, such as OH, called free radicals.
 (2) A few molecules have incomplete octets in
their Lewis structures, that is, not enough
electrons to provide an octet for every atom.
 (3) Expanded valence shells occur in some
compounds of nonmetals of the third period
and beyond. In these, the valence shell of the
central atom must be expanded to 10 or 12
electrons in order to write a Lewis structure.
 lines represent chemical bonds
 atoms are represented by small balls,
and the bonds between atoms by sticks
 help us to visualize distances between
the nuclei of atoms (bond lengths) and
the geometrical shapes of molecules
 shows that the atoms in a molecule
occupy space and that they are in
actual contact with one another.
 Involves a complete transfer of electrons
 Involves equal sharing of electron pairs
 POLAR COVALENT BOND
› Covalent bond in which electrons are not
shared equally between 2 atoms
› Electrons are displaced towards the more
nonmetallic element
› Unequal sharing of electrons leads to a
partial negative charge on the more
nonmetallic element
 Bond pairs
 Lone pairs
 Single covalent bond
 Coordinate covalent bond
 Multiple covalent bond
 Double covalent bond
 Triple covalent bond
 Describes an atom’s ability to compete
for electrons with other atoms to which it
is bonded
 Bond angles: angles between adjacent
lines representing bonds
 Mass
 Molar Mass
 # of ions
 Kg to mol
 Formula units
 Mass %
 Moles
 Empirical formula
 Molecular formula
 Limiting reactant
 Percentage yield
 Density
 Volume
 Molarity