SYNTHESIS OF BIODIESEL FROM COCONUT OIL

AND ITS FUTURE SCOPE

PROJECT REPORT

Submitted in fulfillment of requirement of degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCES
to

J.C.BOSE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

by

Aman kumar

Registration no. 17001751003

Under the supervision of

DR. VISHWAS KHURANA

ASST. PROFESSOR

Department of HAS

Faculty of chemistry

J.C.Bose University of Science Technology

Sector-6,Mathura Road , Faridabad , Haryana ,India

MAY,2019
1
J.C. BOSE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

SUBMITTED ROLL NO: 17001751003

REGISTRATION NO: MSCC-063-2K17

WORD COUNT: 6,597

2
 DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this project entitled SYNTHESIS OF BIODIESEL FROM COCONUT
OIL AND ITS FUTURE SCOPE by AMAN KUMAR , being submitted in fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of master of sciences in CHEMISTRY under the faculty of
chemistry of J.C.Bose university of science and technology Faridabad , during the academic year
2018-2019 is a bonafide record of my original work carried out under guidance and supervision
of DR. VISHWAS KHURANA , ASST. PROFESSOR , DEPARTMENT OF HAS and has
not been presented elsewhere.

I further declare that the project does not contain any part of any work which has been submitted
for the award of any degree either in this university or in any other university.

AMAN KUMAR

Registration no. 17001751003

3
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this project report entitled “SYNTHESIS OF BIODIESEL FROM
COCONUT OIL AND ITS FUTURE SCOPE ” by AMAN KUMAR submitted in fulfillment of
requirement for the Master of sciences in chemistry under faculty of chemistry of J.C.bose university
of science and technology during academic year 2018-2019 is a bonafide record work carried out under
my guidance and supervision.

I further declare that to the best of my knowledge , the project report does not contain any part of
any work which has been submitted for the award of any degree either in this university or in any
other university.

(signature of supervisior)

Dr. vishwas khurana

ASST. PROFESSOR

Department of HAS

Faculty of chemistry

J.C.Bose university of sciences and technology

4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Supervisor Dr. Vishwas Khurana for giving
me the opportunity to work in this area. It would never be possible for me to take this project
report to this level without her innovative ideas and her relentless support and encouragement.

I am grateful to honorable Vice Chancellor Dr. Dinesh Kumar and Dean Faculty of Sciences
Dr. Raj Kumar for their support.

I would like to thank Chairman, Department Of Chemistry Dr. Ashutosh Dixit and Faculty
Incharge Dr. Bindu Mangla for providing me the lab facility for the project work.

……………..

……………..

AMAN KUMAR

Registration no. 17001751003

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 ABSTRACT
The possible shortage of fossil fuels and environmental problems that the world is facing today
requires long-term actions for sustainable development. The renewable energy sources appear to
be one of the most efficient and effective solutions. One of the solutions is the extraction and
usage of biodiesel. Biodiesel industry needs a cheaper and economical viable raw material such
as coconut waste that can replace the currently used vegetable oil. Obtaining cheaper raw
materials are one of the continuous targets of many biodiesel producing facilities since most of
the production costs are attributed to raw materials. One of the main options is to use waste
material from animal and plant sources. The coconut waste raw material is easily available from
various coconut oil refineries. The coconut waste is used to produce biodiesel using ethanol and
NaOH. The oil content of coconut waste varies from 10-11% weight. The biodiesel could be used
as pure fuel or as a blend with petro diesel, which is stable in all ratio.

6
Table of contents

Introduction……………………………………………………………………… 08

Literature survey ………………………………………………………………… 09

Experimental work……………………………………………………………… 12

Result and discussion…………………………………………………………… 13

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………… 16

References……………………………………………………………………… 19

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INTRODUCTION

Alternative and renewable sources of energy have become more attractive in recent years due to
many reasons like depletion of world petroleum reserves, increasing energy demand and
increasing environmental concerns due to rising green house gas emissions. Owing to the
increasing price of crude oil and environmental concerns, bio diesel fuel which chemically
constitutes methyl esters of long chain fatty acids has attracted considerable attention over recent
decades. Biodiesel is a non-petroleum based fuel that consists of fatty acid alkyl esters derived
from either the transesterification of triglycerides or the esterification of free fatty acids with low
molecular weight alcohols. The flash point and lubricant of the bio diesel are better than those of
the fossil diesel. A biodiesel source does not contain significant amounts of nitrogen and sulphur
compounds. Therefore it has fewer amounts of NOx and SOx emissions much cleaner than fossil
diesel fuel. Bio diesel can be employed as a clean substitute for fossil fuel without any
modification in the diesel engines. It is technically proven that more than 300 types of fatty
acids, majorly from animal fats, plant lipids, can be used as a feed stoke for the bio diesel
production. Biodiesel is a viable alternative to petroleum diesel due to its proper lubricate, low
toxicity, excellent combustion efficiency, environmental safe and biodegradability.

Compared to petroleum diesel, biodiesel production price is high particularly for virgin oil
which is one of the major hurdles to commercialize it. The production cost can be significantly
reduced by using low cost feed stock such as waste cooking oil or animal fat.

There are four major biodiesel production processes that have been studied extensively.
ie.dilution, micro-emulsification, pyrolysis and transesterification techniques. Of all these
process, transesterification is the most popular. In transesterification, three consecutive reactions
convert triglycerides into mixture of esters and glycerol in the presence of suitable catalyst and
alcohol. The selection of biodiesel production method also depends on the level of free fatty
acids present in the feed stock. Used cooking oil normally has higher acid value than refined
vegetable oil due to the presence of high free fatty acid content. Oils with free fatty acid content
> 5% cannot be used directly in a base catalysed transesterification reaction. This free fatty acid
can react with a base catalyst and accelerates the base catalysed transesterification reaction and
lowers the yield of biodiesel. Therefore a pre treatment stage (esterification) is used to reduce the
amount of free fatty acid content in the feedstock before the base catalysed transesterification.
Most biodiesel processes use homogeneous catalysts because of their simplicity. Homogeneous
catalysts are favourable due to their capability to produce a high yield of biodiesel under mild
reaction conditions and short reaction times. However, homogeneous catalysts suffer from a
number of drawbacks including corrosion of equipment, side reactions, generation of a
substantial amount of waste water, a high production cost due to additional equipments for
separation process and difficulty in catalyst recovery. The use of heterogeneous catalyst
simplifies the production and purification process because they can be easily separated from the
reaction mixture. In addition, neutralization process is not needed and less unit operations are
8
required when using heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel. On the other hand, solid base
catalysts are proved to be effective for transesterification of feed stocks with low free fatty acid
content. In this present study low cost feedstock waste cooking coconut oil and waste cooking
palm oil were used to produce biodiesel using single step transesterification process in the
presence of Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) as the base catalyst. The process parameters such as
catalyst loading, feed molar ratio, temperature of the transesterification reaction, reaction time
were studied. The transesterified oil was characterized using different techniques to check the
quality of produced biodiesel as per the ASTM standards.

Biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils. The main components of vegetable oil are
triglycerides. Triglycerides are esters Of glycerol with long chain fatty acids, commonly called
fatty acids. Bio-diesel is defined as mono alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids from renewable
feed stock such as vegetable oil or, animal fats, for use in compression ignition (IC) engines
[12]. This name is given to esters when they are use as fuel. Blends of biodiesel and conventional
hydrocarbon-based diesel are products most commonly distributed for use in the retail diesel
fuel marketplace. [13] Much of the world uses a system known as the "B" factor to state the
amount of biodiesel in any fuel mix:

_ 100% biodiesel is referred to as B100, while

_ 20% biodiesel, 80% petro diesel is labeled B20

Coconut oil like any other vegetable oils and animal fats are triglycerides, inherently containing
glycerin. The biodiesel process (transesterification) turns the oils into esters, separating out the
glycerin from the main product (biodiesel).The glycerin sinks to the bottom and the biodiesel
floats on top and can be decanted off. The process is called transesterification, which substitute’s
alcohol for the glycerin in a chemical reaction, using a catalyst.

OIL OF FATS + ALCOHOLS → BIODIESEL + GLYCERIN

LITERATURE SURVEY
A study by Yinnan Yuan on combustion and emissions of the diesel engine using bio- diesel
fuel. Here a natural aspirated, direct-injection diesel engine (YZ4102QF model from Yangzhou
Diesel Engine Co, LTD in China) was used. Soya bean methyl ester was used as bio- diesel,
and three types of fuel were used[1]. Another study by R.Murali Manohar on Thermal and
emission properties of engine fuelled with Diesel and Bio-Diesel blends of B20N, B80N, B20K
and B80K. Here vegetable oil in the presence of two different catalyst such as sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) and Potassium hydroxide (KOH) was used[2]. A.R.Pradeep Kumar studied
performance comparison of diesel engine and Low Heat Rejection (LHR) engine with bio diesel
as fuel. It was carried out with rice bran oil as a fuel and optimized blend was found to be 20
percent biodiesel by volume with diesel fuel[3]. A study by Y Sinkua on performance testing
9
of a diesel engine running on varying blends of Jatropha oil, waste cooking oil and diesel fuel.
It was revealed that the BF100 blend produces 25.3% less power than that of base diesel but has
an advantage of producing lower emissions compared to the other fuels[4]. A.Anitha studied on
spent groundnut oil for biodiesel production using supported hetero poly-acids using
transesterification process[5]. Shivaji Bhandarkar done a comparative study of vehicular
pollution load of biodiesel and conventional diesel fuel at north east Karnataka state road
transport corporation, Gulbarga[6].S. Murillo also studied on Performance and exhaust
emissions in the use of biodiesel in outboard diesel engines. Bio diesel was made from waste
cooking oil. Pure diesel (BD-0), 10% biodiesel, 90% diesel (BD-10), 30% biodiesel, 70% diesel
(BD-30), 50% biodiesel, 50% diesel (BD- 50), and pure biodiesel (BD-100) were prepared for
the study[7]. In a study on Combustion and emissions of cottonseed oil and its bio-diesel in
blends with either n-butanol or diethyl ether in HSDI diesel engine by D.C.Rakopulas. For the
study, HSDI diesel engine was fuelled with 20% n- butanol or DEE in cottonseed oil and
biodiesel[8]. Hu Chen studied oxygenated biomass fuel blends on a diesel engine. For the study,
vegetable methyl ester was added in ethanol–diesel fuel to prevent separation of ethanol from
diesel. Results showed that the torque of the engine was decreased by 6%–7% for every 10%
(by volume) ethanol added to the diesel fuel without modification on the engine[9]. In a study
on performance and emissions of bus engine using blends of diesel fuel with bio-diesel of
sunflower or cottonseed oils derived from Greek feed-stock. BD10 and BD 20 were prepared
for conducting the experiment by C.D.Rakopoulos[10].

Use of pure coconut oil in unmodified and modified engines

Many studies involving the use of un-modified vegetable oils (including copra oil) were
conducted in the early 1980s. Short-term engine testing indicates that vegetable oils can readily
be used as a fuel or in a range of blends with diesel fuel. Long-term engine research however
shows that engine durability is questionable when fuel blends contain more than 20% vegetable
oil [17,18,19]]. The lower iodine value of coconut oil compared to other vegetable oils works
favourably for its lower carbon deposits, however not many successful experiences have been
found [20]. Deposits on the pistons, valves, combustion chambers and injectors, in particular, can
cause severe loss of output power, engine lubricant deterioration or even catastrophic failure to
engines [18].
There have been a number of successful modified diesel
engines that have run on both mixtures of vegetable oil and diesel as well as 100% vegetable oil.
There are mainly two types of modifications to an engine: firstly to add an extra fuel supply
system to the existing diesel supply and secondly to adapt the fuel supply system and injectors.
As coconut oil has up to 30 times higher viscosity than regular diesel at the same temperature,
most engine modifications include a fuel heater. This device heats the fuel up to 70-80 C before
injection, using the engine coolant cross flow with the fuel in a heat exchanger. By heating up
the coconut oil, the resulting oil viscosity can approximate the viscosity of diesel [23].

Dual Fuel systems and adapted fuel system

These systems start and stop on regular diesel. As soon as the engine is rated at operating
temperature, the fuel supply is switched to vegetable oil and just before shutting down, the
supply is switched back to diesel to ensure that the fuel system has diesel ready for a cold start
and to avoid residues in the fuel system.In some areas there is also an electrical heater
10
incorporated in the fuel tank, to ensure that the fuel remains liquid, even at ambient temperatures
below 25 degree celcius. A technical challenge is to ensure that the return line of the alternative
fuel does not cause contamination of the regular diesel. This can be done through using a third
“day”-tank that assembles the excess mixture fuel during switching, or to short- circuit the return
line and using an extra pump during operation on vegetable oil.
Engines with adapted fuel systems can run on pure coconut
oil and use no fossil fuels. Mostly, they feature adapted fuel injectors, special pumps and extra
filters. The quality of the coconut oil is not always stable, especially if it is manufactured locally
on a small scale. Regular quality control and a number of filtering stages are therefore essential
to long service of this type of system. Often an electrical- operated fuel-heating system is
incorporated for ambient temperatures below 25 C. A good example of this is the pilot plant in
Ouvea implemented by SPC and CIRAD in the 1990’s. The generator is currently not in use
because of supply problems with locally-produced oil. Further feasibility studies have shown a
favourable opportunity for the Lory Co-operation on Espirito Santo in Vanuatu. This study also
describes the incorporation of the use of raw copra oil in a small number of modified taxi
engines [25].

The use of Biodiesel in unmodified engines

Biodiesel is a standardised fuel that consists of vegetable oil Methyl Ester. It is a product of
crude vegetable oil that reacts with an alcohol and a catalyst, such as sodium hydroxide. This
process generates two products: glycerine, which can be used in soap production, and Vegetable
Oil Methyl Ester also called biodiesel.
There are two fully-developed standards of biodiesel, ASTM-D6751 in the United States and EN
14214 in the European Union. If these standards are followed, the validity of all manufacturer
guarantees remains sound if used up to 5% . Individual manufacturers have declared certain
models can be run with remaining guarantee up to 20% and some even 100%. Positive impacts
on engines include increased lubricity and a reduction of visible particles in the exhaust. Some
engines need replacement of rubber hoses and O-rings, as biodiesel can be slightly abrasive
[27,19,28].
The use of biodiesel is becoming more mainstream practice in the US and the EU Total
production in the EU grew 35% in 2003 to 1.44 million tonnes and in the US to 83,270 tonnes. It
is mostly mixed in regular diesel in low blends. In Germany only, there are already 800 biodiesel
refuelling stations. In Hawaii, 1,2 Ml of biodiesel is produced annually from used vegetable oil
and sold as B1 (1%) B20 (20%) or B100, 100 % biodiesel. In winter time, blend ratios have to be
decreased as biodiesel has a higher cloud point than regular diesel.
The major disadvantage of biodiesel is that it has to be prepared in a chemical facility. The
production cost per litre is estimated to be three times as high as the selling price of regular
diesel. Because of return on the associated by-products, a Canadian study has estimated that
biodiesel cost tend to be equal to the price of the original vegetable oil [27]. If the biodiesel is
produced from waste vegetable oil or beef tallow in large volumes, the price might come down
to twice the cost of regular diesel. There are also options to produce biodiesel on a very small
scale, as has been done in the Philippines [29] – however it does not appear to be attractive for
small island communities because of the use of potentially dangerous chemicals in a high-
hygiene working environment.

11
EXPERIMENTAL WORK

For the transesterification of coconut oil, first 20 ml methanol was mixed with 15 ml (1 N)
NaOH. As this is an exothermic reaction, so the mixture would get hot. This solution is known as
sodium methoxide, which is a powerful corrosive base and harmful for human skin. So, safety
precautions should be taken to avoid skin contamination during methoxide producing. Next,
sodium methoxide was added with 100g of coconut oil, which was preheated about 65°C. Then
the mixture was shaken for 5 minutes in a glass container. After that the mixture was left for 24
hours (the longer is better). For the separation of glycerol and ester this mixture then gradually
settles down in two distinctive layers. The uppermost transparent layer is 100% biodiesel and the
lower concentrated layer is glycerol. The heavier layer is then removed either by gravity
separation or with a centrifuge. sometimes coconut oil contains impurities, then a thin white
layer is formed in between the two layers and this thin layer composes soap and other impurities.
Then the biodiesel is washed with distilled water in order to remove waste. Biodiesel produced in
the above process contains moisture (vaporization temperature 100°C), methanol (vaporization
temperature 60°C) and usually some soap, heating the biodiesel at temperature above 100 °C
would cause the removal of both the moisture and methanol as well.

Washing was done in two steps. In the first step, the collected biodiesel after transesterfication
reaction is taken into a beaker. Hot water (40°C) is poured into the biodiesel slowly. Then the
mixtures are shaken slowly and the solution was kept 4 hours in stable position. Then a layer of
soap has formed in the bottom of beaker. Then the biodiesel is collected by a pipe followed by
siphoning method. the process had been repeated 4 times and gradually soap formation is
reduced. This process is known as wet wash process.
In other step, an air stone is used for producing bubbles in the solution for dry wash. Dry wash
confirmed the formation of glycerol and soap rest in the mixture.A heater was used which had
been kept always 35°C for removing the water from biodiesel. After the process finally the
biodiesel was collect.

FIGURE: 1 Biodiesel seperation

12
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The upper layer obtained in the experiment is our biodiesel that is basically an ester and lower
layer obtained is glycerine which can be used in soap formation. We can compare different
parameters of biodiesel with different related authentic reports.

Comparison of engine parameters with Diesel. The comparison of the listed engine parameters
above of the biodiesel with different amounts of blending and pure diesel is as follows

Figure 2: volumetric efficiency vs load

The plot shown in fig.2 compares the Volumetric efficiency vs Load for different blends; 25%
blend and 10% blend have higher efficiency than that of diesel at large range of loads. 20% blend
has slightly lower efficiency than diesel. Though the efficiency of 10% is less for higher loads, it
can be considered for usage since is produces lesser emission. By our experimentation; the
present 10% blend can be replaced by 25% blend thereby reducing the usage of diesel by 25%,
lesser emission and also higher efficiency.

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 25% 20% 10% diesel

2.5

BSFC
1.5

0 5 10 15
1 LOAD

0.5

Figure 3: BSFC vs Load

The plot shown in fig.3 compares

0 the BSFC vs Load for different blends. 20% blend has lower
BSFC[ brake specific fuel consumption] at lower loads when compared to diesel. At higher loads
the BSFC is almost equivalent as that of diesel. 10% blend has higher BSFC at almost all loads.
Even 25% has higher BSFC but only at higher loads. But in order to keep up to the govt. norms,
we can prefer the use of 20% blend.

25% 20% 10% diesel

0.5

0.4
BP

0.3

0.2
0 5 10 15
0.1 LOAD

0
Figure 4: BP vs Load

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The plot shown in fig.4 compares the BP vs Load for different blends. We can observe that the
BP [brake power] of 25% and 20% blend are almost equivalent to diesel while 10% blend has
lesser brake power thereby reducing the efficiency, hence it is a disadvantage. So our
experimental blend of 25% biodiesel can be used. As a whole from the comparisons, it is
possible to use 25% blend of biodiesel and can be standardized thereby saving enormous amount
of diesel usage. The other advantages include increased efficiency and reduced environmental
impact.

Comparison with other bio–diesel

Coco-diesel (coconut methyl ester or CME). CME, compared with other forms of biodiesel,
offers excellent lubricity, solvency and detergency. Studies show that the addition of biodiesel
gives better combustion, less pollution and more engine power resulting in engines running
smoothly with longer maintenance intervals. Because of its outstanding characteristics, coco-
biodiesel is considered first rate and highly adaptable. It lowers emission of nitrous oxide and
sulfur oxide, the main contributors to smog. It also significantly reduces serious air pollutants
such as black smoke and air toxics that cause lung cancer, pulmonary tuberculosis, pneumonia,
bronchitis, heart attack and stroke. Biodiesel means less emission and cleaner air.
Compared to most bio-diesels, coco-diesel is a premium product. Even with as little as a one-
percent blend with conventional diesel, coco-diesel fuel restores fuel system and engine
efficiency: Old engines with heavy carbon soot deposits and with clogged fuel nozzles are also
cleansed.
Advantages
Environmental
Coconut oil based diesel does not contribute to the greenhouse effect; when burnt in a Diesel
engine, coco diesel emits less Sulphur dioxide SO2.Coconut oil emits 50% less particle matter
(black smoke) than conventional diesel. Coconut oil is biodegradable. The remaining waste is
also degradable and can be used for other purposes.
Economic
Coconut oil based fuels yield more Km per litre used than other fuels for diesel engines.The cost
of coconut blended fuel is lower than the cost of other fuels for diesel engines. A high percentage
of the income from coconut based fuels will go to the local farmers in rural areas.
Mechanical
Coconut oil based fuels have better lubricating qualities than other fuels for diesel engines so it
causes less wear on internal engine parts and prolongs engine life.Coconut oil burns slower than
other diesel fuels so it pushes the piston all the way down the cylinder instead of a rapid
explosion at the top of the stroke resulting in an even power release, less fuel use, less engine
wear and a quieter running engine. Coconut oil-fuelled Diesel runs cooler due to less internal
friction and the slower burn rate than the other fuels. Therefore, the use of coconut oil waste can
be reused effectively and the extracted fuel will result in the above-listed benefits

15
CONCLUSION
Technically speaking, the production of biodiesel is the best way to use vegetable
oils in compression engines. Because of the high production cost of biodiesel,
niches for modified engines and dual-fuel systems can be found, depending on the
location and the availability and quality of coconut oil. The use of straight coconut
oil in unmodified engines is not recommended without strict technical supervision.
The technological challenges can be solved and economic applications can be
found, if the supply of oil is secured. Economically attractive niches can be found
in the use of raw coconut oil in adapted engines in remote communities with an
abundant supply of coconuts and milling capacity, or the combination with
recycled waste vegetable oil to produce biodiesel for low blends in transport and
electricity generation.

Table 1: Pros and Cons of different Coconut Oil uses in Compression Engines
Advantages Disadvantages
Straight Coconut Oil in Low cost of fuel Works only in certain cases
Unmodified Engine No modification costs High Quality Oil Required
Coconut Oil in Modified Lowest-cost fuel can be chosen Continued diesel imports
Engine – Dual Fuel Flexible Extra components risk extra failure
Possible contamination of fuels
Coconut Oil in Modified 100% Dependence on local oil
Engine – Pure Renewable Low production Non-standard
cost of fuel components
Small island communities can produce Requires heating under ambient temperatures
own fuel for electricity of 250C
Biodiesel Standardised, Guarantee remains Chemical Facility required
Opportunity to co-source used oil Some rubber parts need replacement

Application
Biodiesel can be used in pure form (B100) or may be blended with petroleum diesel at any
concentration in most injection pump diesel engines. New extreme high-pressure (29,000 psi)
common rail engines have strict factory limits of B5 or B20, depending on manufacturer.[30]
Vehicular use
In 2005, Chrysler (then part of DaimlerChrysler) released the Jeep Liberty CRD diesels from the
factory into the European market with 5% biodiesel blends, indicating at least partial acceptance
of biodiesel as an acceptable diesel fuel additive.[34] In 2007, DaimlerChrysler indicated its
intention to increase warranty coverage to 20% biodiesel blends if biofuel quality in the United
States can be standardized.[35]

16
The Volkswagen Group has released a statement indicating that several of its vehicles are
compatible with B5 and B100 made from rape seed oil and compatible with the EN 14214
standard. The use of the specified biodiesel type in its cars will not void any warranty.[36]
Railway usage
British train operating company Virgin Trains claimed to have run the UK's first "biodiesel train",
which was converted to run on 80% petrodiesel and 20% biodiesel.[43] The British Royal Train
on 15 September 2007 completed its first ever journey run on 100% biodiesel fuel supplied by
Green Fuels Ltd. Prince Charles and Green Fuels managing director James Hygate were the first
passengers on a train fueled entirely by biodiesel fuel. Since 2007, the Royal Train has operated
successfully on B100 (100% biodiesel).[44]
Cleaning of oil spills
British train operating company Virgin Trains claimed to have run the UK's first "biodiesel
train", which was converted to run on 80% petrodiesel and 20% biodiesel.[43] The British Royal
Train on 15 September 2007 completed its first ever journey run on 100% biodiesel fuel supplied
by Green Fuels Ltd. Prince Charles and Green Fuels managing director James Hygate were the
first passengers on a train fueled entirely by biodiesel fuel. Since 2007, the Royal Train has
operated successfully on B100 (100% biodiesel).[44]
Aircraft use
In September 2016, the Dutch flag carrier KLM contracted AltAir Fuels to supply all KLM
flights departing Los Angeles International Airport with biofuel. For the next three years, the
Paramount, California-based company will pump biofuel directly to the airport from their nearby
refinery.[52]

Future scope.
The traditional production of copra (flesh from a coconut) and its oil, an industry inherited from
colonial times, has been suffering from a period of low world market prices and high transport
costs. In a number of countries, the copra industry is nearly extinct, especially through the high
inputs of labour required, with low returns. By switching to mechanised production of local fuel
substitutes as an alternative to highly competitive exports, economic niches can be found for
locally produced vegetable oils, such as coconut oil.
The Case of EPC - Samoa
As part of a UNDP-funded project on the feasibility of coconut oil as a fuel in the diesel gensets
of the Electric Power Corporation (EPC) in Samoa, a SOPAC- lead team investigated the
economic, technical and institutional requirements that can make for a feasible utilisation of
the local coconut resource.
Samoa is currently dependent on the import of diesel fuel for a significant part of its power
generation and is looking at diversifying its choice of fuels. As coconut-based exporting agro
industries are struggling, it is also very timely to develop a new domestic market for coconuts.
Traditional copra oil production has almost ceased due to the low returns for labour.
Savai’i Power Station Blending Trials
Technically, it is possible to utilise fuel- grade coconut oil at the power station in
Savai’i, blended with diesel. This has been tested during controlled trials in one of the production
engines in Savai’I (Figure 7). A 400 kVA Cummins Engine was operated at blends of 10% and
15% coconut oil successfully1. After the trials, lube-oil sample analysis indicated no

17
contamination of the lubrication oil. It was therefore decided to continue the trials to a level of
20% coconut oil and 80% diesel.
The 15% trials indicated the same specific fuel consumption of 3.39 kWh/litre as with pure
diesel. This suggests, at least for low blends, 1 litre of coconut oil displaces 1 litre of diesel,
while theoretically a litre of coconut oil would only displace 0.92 litres of diesel, due to its lower
specific energy content in MJ/litre.
Dedicated Coconut Oil Fuel plant
As part of the feasibility study, a dedicated Coconut Oil Fuel (COF) plant was considered, that
collects nuts throughout the island of Savai’i and gives farmers a cash voucher for their coconuts.
A two-phase approach is suggested, in which first a 660,000-litre plant is built, requiring 5
Million nuts. After proof of concept and indications that further coconut supply exists, an
expansion to a 1.8 million-litre plant is suggested, absorbing an estimated 15 Million coconuts.
The feasibility study includes recommendations for the use of by-products such as husks, shells
and coconut water. This Renewable Energy source will be in addition to the proposed ADB-
funded 1.8 MW run-of-river hydropower dam in Savai’i.
Economic Feasibility
Economically, the utilisation and the production of Coconut Oil Fuel will be very beneficial for
Samoa as a whole. For EPC however, the financial feasibility of investing in a dedicated COF
currently marginal. The financial benefits for EPC are very dependent on the world market price
of diesel fuel and the world market price for coconut oil. Because of the lower energy content of
coconut oil and the 12.5% VAT to be paid, it is only recently that coconut oil became more
competitive than diesel.

Figure 5: price development of epc diesel vs cofc

Regional Implications
The findings of the feasibility study carried out for EPC in Samoa have great relevance for other
utilities in the Pacific region. Fig.5 gives an indication of the price levels of diesel and copra oil
around the region. It shows that in all cases, copra oil can compete with diesel retail prices and in
18
most countries can compete with the landed cost of diesel fuel (excluding taxes). The volumes of
coconut oil produced differ greatly per country; regional current production capacity has been
estimated at a total of 100 million litres of coconut oil per annum2.
Environmental Benefits
The widespread use of Coconut Oil to replace diesel has a range of potential environmental
benefits. First, a decrease in emissions of poisonous gases and particulate matter, through the
higher oxygen content of coconut oil. Secondly, the use of coconut oil can be considered CO2
neutral. The CO2 stored in the coconuts, husks and shells are used in the process of oil
production (husk and shells for drying the copra) and burning of the oil. This CO2 is again
sequestrated during the growing of new trees and nuts.

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