MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER:

The transfer of heat occurs in three ways: (1) by Conduction, (2)

by Convection, and (3) by Radiation.
Conduction is the transfer of heat by direct contact between
bodies. The heat energy is transferred from one molecule to
those adjacent to it. The adjacent molecules can be part of the
same body, or part of another body in direct contact with it.
The rate of heat transfer by conduction depends on the
temperature difference between the high and low temperature
parts and the thermal conductivity of the material.

Convection is the transfer of heat by currents set up within a

fluid medium. The currents can be created naturally, caused by
the change in density of a heated fluid, or assisted mechanically
by a fan, a pump, or other similar device.

Radiation is the transfer of heat from one body to another in the

form of wave motion similar to light waves. There is no need for
intervening matter.

Sensible Heat
Heat added or removed from a substance which changes its
temperature but does not change its phase is called sensible heat.
Sensible heat can be measured with a thermometer.
Heat in the English system of units is measured in British
Thermal Units (Btu). The unit of heat in the International
Standard System (SI) is the joule. One Btu is equal to
1,055joules.
A Btu is the amount of heat required to raise one pound of water
one degree Fahrenheit.

For different materials, a different amount of heat is required

to raise one pound of the material one degree. This property is
called its Specific Heat.
For example, steel has a specific heat of0.12. Ice has a specific
heat of 0.5. Thus ice absorbs only half as much heat for a given
temperature change as does water.

Latent Heat
Heat added or removed from a substance which changes its
phase, but not its temperature, is called Latent Heat.
The heat involved in a change of phase from liquid to solid, or
vice versa, is called the Latent Heat of Fusion.
The heat involved in a change of phase from liquid to vapor, or
vice versa, is called the Latent Heat of Vaporization.
Water at atmospheric pressure has a latent heat of fusion of 144
Btu/lb (335 kj/kg), and a latent heat of vaporization of 970 Btu/lb
(2256 kj/kg).

Saturation Temperature
The temperature at which a substance changes from a liquid phase to the
vapor phase, or vice versa, is called the Saturation Temperature. A
liquid at the saturation temperature is called a saturated liquid, and
vapor at the saturation temperature is called a saturated vapor.
The saturation temperature of different fluids varies.
For example, at atmospheric pressure, water vaporizes at 212⁰F (100⁰C)
and ammonia vaporizes at-28⁰F (-33⁰C).
For a particular fluid, the saturation temperature varies with pressure.
For example, water vaporizes at 212⁰F (100⁰C) at 14.7 psia (101.3kPa)
and 545⁰F (285⁰C) at 1000 psia (6895 kPa).

The principle that boiling and condensing temperature of a fluid

increases with increasing pressure, and vice versa, is important to
an understanding of refrigeration systems.

Vapors which have a temperature greater than the saturation

temperature for their pressure are referred to as Superheated.

Liquids at a temperature below the saturation temperature for their

pressure are referred to as Subcooled.

Ice Refrigeration
Melting ice was not many years ago the only refrigerant available for
use in domestic and small commercial refrigerators. Ice refrigeration has
certain disadvantages: it cannot be used to maintain low temperatures;
the ice must constantly be replenished; and the water resulting from the
melting of the ice must be disposed of. However, even today, the
capacity of a refrigeration system in tons is based on the cooling effect
of melting ice. One ton of ice has a cooling effect of 288,000 Btu (144
Btu per pound
times 2000 pounds = 288,000 Btu).
One ton of refrigeration is the cooling effect of one ton of ice
melting over 24 hours, i.e., 12,000 Btu/hour or 200 Btu/minute (3.52
kw).