POWER SYSTEM 1 – PART 1

Professor : DR. ROGELIO B. ANIEZ, JR

POWER SYSTEM:

- is the study concerned with generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of

electric power.

Hence there exists a large network of conductors between the power stations and the
consumers.

THIS NETWORK IS BROADLY CLASSIFIED INTO TWO PARTS,

1. Transmission

2. Distribution

FOUR SECTION OF TRANSMISSION DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

•Primary Transmission. The voltage level is increased to 132 kV, 220 kV or more, high
voltage transmission .

•Secondary Transmission. At the receiving stations, the voltage level is reduced to 22 kV or

33 kV using the step down transformer. There can be one receiving stations. Then at
reduced voltage level of 22 kV or 33 kV, the power is then transmitted to various
substations using overhead 3 phase 3 wire system. This is also called feeder.

•Primary Distribution. The voltage level is reduced to 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV or 11 kV with help of
step down transformers. Also called high voltage distribution.

•Secondary Distribution. The voltage level is further reduced to 400 V or 230 V using
distribution transformer. Also called low voltage distribution.

COMPONENTS OF DISTRIBUTION

•Substation. Transmission lines bring the power up to the substations at a voltage level of
22 kV or 33 kV. At the substation the level is reduced to 3.3 kV or 6.6 kV. Then using
feeders, the power is given to local distribution centers.

•Local distribution station. It consists of distribution transformer which steps down the
voltage level from 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV to 400 V or 230 V. Then it is distributed further using
distributor. This is called distribution substation.

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•Feeder. These are the conductors which are large current carrying capacitor. The feeders
connect the substation to the area where power is to be finally distributed to the
consumers.

•Distributors. These are the conductors used to transfer power from distribution centre to
the consumers.

•Service mains. These are the small cables between the distributors and the actual
consumer premises.

TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF D.C. POWER

By transmission and distribution of electric power is meant its conveyance from the central
station where it is generated to places, where it is demanded by the consumers like mills,
factories , residential and commercial buildings, pumping stations etc.

Electric power may be transmitted by two methods.

(i) By overhead system or

(ii) By underground system—this being especially suited for densely-
populated areas though it is somewhat costlier than the first method. In over-head system, power
is conveyed by bare conductors of copper or aluminium which are strung between wooden or s
steel poles erected at convenient distances along a route. The bare copper or aluminium wire is
fixed to an insulator which is itself fixed onto a cross-arm on the pole. The number of cross-arms
carried by a pole depends on the number of wires it has to carry.

Line supports consist of

(i) pole structures and
(ii) tower
Poles which are made of wood, reinforced concrete or steel are used up to 66 kV
whereas steel towers are used for higher voltages.
The underground system employs insulated cables which may be single, double or triple-core
etc.

A good system whether overhead or underground should fulfil the following requirements :
1. The voltage at the consumer’s premises must be maintained within ± 4 or ± 6% of the
declared voltage, the actual value depending on the type of load*.
2. The loss of power in the system itself should be a small percentage (about 10%) of the
power transmitted.
3. The transmission cost should not be unduly excessive.
4. The maximum current passing through the conductor should be limited to such a value as
not to overheat the conductor or damage its insulation.
5. The insulation resistance of the whole system should be very high so that there is no undue
leakage or danger to human life.

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VOLTAGE DROP AND TRANSMISSION EFFICIENCY

Consider the case of a 2-wire feeder .

AB is the sending end
CD the receiving end
The difference in potential at the two ends is the potential drop or ‘drop’ in the cable.
Suppose the transmitting volt age is 250 V, current in AC is 10 amperes, and resistance of each
feeder conductor is 0.5 , then drop in each feeder conductor is
10 x 0.5 = 5 volt and drop in both feeder conductor is 5  2 = 10 V.
 P.d. at Receiving end CD is =250  10 = 240 V
Input power at AB =250  10 = 2,500 W
Output power at CD=240  10 = 2,400 W
 power lost in two feeders =2,500  2,400 = 100W
The above power loss could also be found by using the formula
Power loss =2 I2R = 2  102  0.5 = 100 W
The efficiency of transmission is defined, like any other efficiency, as the ratio of the output to
input

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Methods of Feeding a Distributor
Different methods of feeding a distributor are given below :
1. feeding at one end
2. feeding at both ends with equal voltages
3. feeding at both ends with unequal voltages
4. feeding at some intermediate point
In adding, the nature of loading also varies such as
(a) concentrated loading (b) uniform loading (c) combination of (a) and (b).

Example:
A uniform 2-wire d.c. distributor 200 metres long is loaded with 2 amperes/
metre. Resistance of single wire is 0.3 ohm/kilometre. Calculate the maximum voltage drop if the
distributor is fed (a) from one end (b) from both ends with equal voltages.

Example:
A 2-wire d.c. distributor AB is 300 metres long. It is fed at point A. The various
loads and their positions are given below :
At point distance from A in metres concentrated load in A
C 40 30
D 100 40
E 150 100
F 250 50
If the maximum permissible voltage drop is not to exceed 10 V, find the cross-sectional area of
the distributor. Take  = (1.78  10–8) -m.

Example:
The resistance of two conductors of a 2-conductor distributor shown in
Fig. is 0.1  per 1000 m for both conductors. Find (a) the current supplied at A (b) the current
supplied at B (c) the current in each section (d) the voltages at C, D and E. Both A and B are
maintained at 200 V.

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Example:
A d.c. two-wire distributor AB is 450 m long and is fed at both ends at
250 volts. It is loaded as follows : 20A at 60 m from A, 40A at 100m from A and a uniform loading of
1.5 A/m from 200 to 450 m from A. The resistance of each conductor is 0.05 /km. Find the point of
minimum potential and its potential.

ASSIGNMENT:

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SYSTEMS OF AC DISTRIBUTIONS

EFFECT OF VOLTAGE ON TRANSMISSION EFFICIENCY

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Comparison of Conductor Materials Required for Various Overhead
Systems
We will now calculate the amounts of conductor material required for various systems of
a.c. power transmission. To do it without prejudice to any system, we will make the following
assumptions:
1. Amount of power transmitted by each system is the same.
2. Distance of transmission is the same in each case.
3. Transmission efficiency is the same i.e. the losses are the same in each case.
4. Loads are balanced in the case of 3-wire systems.
5. Cross-section of the neutral wire is half that of any outer.
6. Maximum voltage to earth is the same in all cases.
(i) Two-wire d.c. System and Three-phase, 3-wire System

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ii) Three-phase, 4-wire and 3-wire d.c. Systems
The neutral conductor of each system is earthed. Let E be the maximum voltage to earth and W
the power to be transmitted in both cases.

EXAMPLE:
A 3-phase, 4-wire system is used for lighting. Compare the amount of copper
required with that needed for a 2-wire D.C. system with same line voltage. Assume the same losses
and balanced load. The neutral is one half the cross-section of one of the respective outers.

EXAMPLE:
Estimate the weight of copper required to supply a load of 100 MW at upf by a
3-phase, 380-kV system over a distance of 100 km. The neutral point is earthed. The resistance of
the conductor is 0.045 ohm/cm2/km. The weight of copper is 0.01 kg/cm3. The efficiency of trans-
mission can be assumed to be 90 percent.

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EXAMPLE:
A d.c. 2-wire distribution system is converted
into a.c. 3-phase, 3-wire system by adding a third conductor of
the same size as the two existing conductors. If voltage between
conductors and percentage power loss remain the same, calcu-
late the percentage additional balanced load which can now be
carried by the conductors at 0.95 p.f.

EXAMPLE:
A 2-phase, 3-wire a.c. system has a middle conductor of same cross-sectional
area as the outer and supplies a load of 20 MW. The system is converted into 3-phase, 4-wire system
by running a neutral wire. Calculate the new power which can be supplied if voltage across con-
sumer terminal and percentage line losses remain the same. Assume balanced load.

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EXAMPLE:

A series circuit has combination of two elements , the instantaneous voltage and current are :

e = 100 sin 314 t , volts

i = 10 sin ( 314 t + 300 ) , volts

a. Determine the rms voltage and current

b. Find the complete function of impedance
c. Solve the value of parameters
d. What is the power factor and reactive factor
e. Solve the true power, reactive power , and apparent power
f. Solve the power using complex number by two methods and draw power vector diagram

TRANSFORMER

Power Transformer used in power distribution are sometimes referred as follows:

 Power transformer connected to the output of a generator and used to step its voltage up to the
transmission level ( 110 kv and higher) is called a unit transformer
 A transformer used at a substation to step the voltage from the transmission level down to the
distribution level ( 2.3 kv ……….. 34.5 kv ) is called a substation transformer.
 A transformer converting the distribution voltage down to the final level ( 110 V , 220 V ……etc)
is called the distribution transfomert.

ACCORDING TO THE PURPOSE FOR WHICH USED

a. Transmission Transformer
b. Distribution Transformer
c. Generator Transformer
d. Testing Transformer
e. Instrument Transformer
e.1 Current ( CT)
e.2 Potential ( PT)

ACCORDING TO THE METHOD OF COOLING

a. Self-cooled ( AA)
b. Forced air cooled ( FA)
c. Oil- self cooled ( OA)
d. Forced oil cooled with air or water ( OA/FA)

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As substitute for oil as a cooling medium certain synthetics fluids which do not burn and do not produce
explosive gases have been manufactured. These fluids are sold under trade names

1.Pyranol ( GE)
2.Inerteen ( Westinghouse Electric)
3.Chlorextol ( Allis-Chalmers)

BUSHING

Transformer leads are brought out from the case through bushings.

TYPES:

1.Porcelain type
2.Condenser type
3.Oil-filled type

•In general, they look much like the insulators found on transmission lines, but they are designed
primarily to protect the windings from grounds as leads pass through the case.

•For low voltage , bushings made of porcelain

•Above 33,000 volts, condenser and oil-filled types

AUXILLIARY PROTECTIVE DEVICES

In order that transformers must last long and render the best services, there must be adequate protective
equipment that is often built directly into the machine

-For lighting protection, arrester are mounted on top the transformer

-As a safeguard against high primary current, protective links or fuses are installed

•To guard against high temperature due to copper loss, thermal relays are located below the oil level
which permit the transformer to carry heavy overloads for only short periods and lesser overloads for
longer periods.

- maximum temp allowable is 105 deg Centigrade, relays open the CB immersed in oil which in turn
open the secondary of the transformer.

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RATINGS AND STANDARDS

NAMEPLATE RATINGS: KVA rating, number of phases, high and low-tension voltages, frequency,
allowable temperature rise and cooling requirements

Since any type of load may be connected to a transformer , it is rated in volt-ampere ( VA), or kVA, that
it can provide the load under the cooling conditions stated on the nameplate

STANDARD VALUES OF TRANSFORMER VOLTAGES ARE AS FOLLOWS:

Distribution Transformer: 440V, 550V, 2,300V, 4,000V , 6,600V, 11,000V, 13,200V, 22,000V,
33,000V , 44,000V , 66,000V

Power Transformer: 2,300V , 4,000V , 6,600V , 11,000V , 13,200V , 22,000V , 33,000V , 66,000V
, 110,000V , 132,000V , 154,000V , 220,000V , 330,000V

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER

-are used in AC systems to reduce current and voltage in accurate and definite ratios for purposes of
metering and for operation of regulating and protective devices.

a.Current transformer

b.Potential transformer

Current Transformer ( CT) - is a step-up type because the secondary has more turns than the primary
which will mean that the current will be stepped down.

- always connected in series with the meters and devices that carry the low current.

CTR = Current Transformer Ratio

CTR = 1,000:5 = 1,000 /5

1,000 = maximum allowable current in the primary

5 = range of the ammeter to be used.

EXAMPLE:

A 100:5 current transformer is connected to a 5-amp ammeter. If the meter registers 4.1 amperes, what is
the line currents? ( 82 amp)

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EXAMPLE:

Its is desired to measure a current of about 1,500 to 2,000 amperes

(a)If a 5 -amp ammeter is to be used in conjunction with a CT, what should be the ratio of
line current to meter current?
(b)With this transformer, what should be the instrument deflection if the current in the line
is 1,800 amperes? ( 4.5 amp)

Potential Transformer ( PT) - a transformer with low capacity to operate the necessary
instruments on its secondary
Example:
A 100:1 potential transformer and a 150 volt voltmeter are used for high voltage
measurement. If the voltmeter reading is 145 volts, what is the voltage in the line?
ans: 14,500 volts

Constant Current Transformer

- - there are loads that require a constant current like series –connected street –lighting
systems.

Induction Voltage Regulator

- the primary connected across the line and the secondary is in series with the load the
load voltage of which is to be maintained or regulated

Tap changing transformer

- it is desirable to have a set up for changing the ratio of a transformer for different
operating conditions especially when it is to be used in a transmission network

Variable Autotransformer

REPRESENTATION OF POWER SYSTEMS COMPONENTS

Balanced Three phase Transmission Line

Let:

Is = sending end current

IR = receiving end current

R = resistance per phase

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 XL = Inductive reactance per phase

VRL = receiving end line voltage

VSL = sending end line voltage

VRN = receiving end line to neutral voltage

VSN = sending end line to neutral voltage

pfR = receiving end power factor

pfS = sending end power factor

ZL = line impedance

PR = receiving end power

Ps = sending end power

Single Phase Solution of Balanced three phase network

Per Phase basis of Computation

Per Unit ( PU ) System

Let b = base
a = actual
pu = per unit

actual value
Formula : pu value = -------------------
base value

Percent reactance
The reactance of generators , transformers , reactors , etc .. usually expressed in
percentage or PU to permit rapid short circuit calculations.

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 Sbase NEW Ebase OLD
Zbase NEW = Zbase OLD ( ----------------- ) ( ------------- )2
Sbase OLD Ebase NEW

EXAMPLE:

Given: Three Phase Generator 1 : 15000 kVA , 0.3 pu

Three Phase Generator 2 : 20,000 kVA , 0.5 pu

Two generators connected in parallel to 12 kV bus bar and supply transmission line with 1 ohm
resistance and 5 ohms inductive reactance through step-down transformer of 20,000 kVA, 0.05 pu. Draw
the impedance diagram of the system.

EXAMPLE:

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