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Article history: An Air Transport System has become an indispensable part of Europe’s economic infrastructure. The Com-
Received 31 July 2012 mercial Aeronautics Sector is well aware that it has to find an acceptable balance between the constant
Received in revised form 11 October 2012 fierce competitive pressures upon it and the public’s expectations of cheaper fares but reduced environ-
Accepted 24 October 2012
mental impact including community noise around airports and global warming. In order to achieve such
Available online 30 October 2012
a balance in the future, a strategy is required for competitive excellence dedicated to meeting society’s
Keywords: needs.
Aerodynamic efficiency The realization of this vision cannot be achieved without significant technology breakthroughs in the
Flow control area of aerodynamics and other disciplines such as materials and structures. Improved aerodynamic de-
Drag reduction signs and the introduction of new aerodynamic technologies should play not only a key role in improving
Innovative configurations aircraft performance but, also, contribute strongly to product cost and operability. Substantial R&T explo-
Flow separation technologies ration and development require to be conducted in order to provide the required technologies.
In this work, a review of those technologies which show a potential to deliver breakthrough improve-
ments in the aerodynamic performance of the aircraft is shown. The focus of this report is on new aircraft
configurations to reduce induced drag and noise, laminar and turbulent drag reduction technologies and
flow control devices, which aims to improve the performance of the airplane under separated flow con-
ditions of unsteady nature, and to reduce the complex high-lift devices. Most of these works have been
exposed in previous KATnet conferences (Key Aerodynamic Technologies for Aircraft Performance Im-
provement), although a general overview of the current status of these technologies is included.
© 2012 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2. Aircraft configuration technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.1. Blended wing body (BWB) and boundary layer ingestion (BLI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.2. High aspect ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2.3. Engine concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.4. Forward swept wings (FSW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3. Drag reduction technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.1. Drag reduction by extended laminar flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.1.1. Laminar flow technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.1.2. Laminar flow on nacelles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.1.3. Hybrid laminar flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.1.4. Alternative laminar flow technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.2. Turbulent skin friction reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4. Separation control technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.1. Passive flow control devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.2. Active flow control devices (AFC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.2.1. Blowing method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.2.2. Vortex generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.3. Other applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5. System and certification issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.1. Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.2. Performance and flight handling characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.3. Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.4. Industrial issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
1270-9638/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2012.10.008
A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100–132 101
Table 1
Aerodynamic objectives.
Reduce emissions Reduce drag Reduce vortex drag
Reduce wave drag
Environmental goals
Reduce friction drag
Reduce pressure drag
Reduce weight Reduce critical loads
Reduce community noise Increase structural efficiency
Reduce source noise Reduce airframe source noise contribution
Reduce engine noise contribution
Increase airport capacity Increase landing & take-off rates Reduce separation distances
Improve affordability Reduce airframe cost Reduce complexity
Table 2
Design concepts.
main conclusions and works presented in these series of confer- the other hand, there are large geometrical modifications over clas-
ences. However, the paper tries not to be limited to KATnet and, sical aircraft configuration or other innovative configurations which
in taking advantage of this forum, it will give a general overview are aimed at improving aircraft performances substantially by re-
of the recent developments in these technologies. In any case, this ducing drag and/or weight. This section is dedicated mainly to this
paper does not aim to describe separately each of these technolo- point.
gies in detail. Outstanding reviews can already be found in the Different lines of action can be addressed.
literature [24,38,91,98] and, although it is always possible to up-
date those works (some of them are more than 10 years old), a 2.1. Blended wing body (BWB) and boundary layer ingestion (BLI)
detailed and throughout description of all those technologies illus-
trated in KATnet is beyond the objectives and the extension of this In 1994, NASA sponsored one of the first attempts to study
work. Also, the authors wish to point out that this review is bi- the feasibility of BWB configurations (Fig. 2). Liebeck’s prelimi-
ased unavoidably in favor of KATnet activities. As such, we may nary results [63,64], showed potential savings in: fuel burn (27%);
have omitted unintentionally important studies pertaining to flow takeoff weight (15%); operating empty weight (12%); total thrust
control technologies. It is important, also, to highlight the difficulty (27%); and a higher lift/drag (20%). The study was performed in
associated with this task. Most of these works were presented only a 800 passenger BWB for a 7000 miles design range compared to
in series of KATnet conferences and internal reports, and we found a conventional aircraft. Despite these promising results, an impor-
no further publications in journals or international conferences. tant number of drawbacks had to be solved in order to make this
Whenever possible, we included the reference to a journal paper aircraft technically viable. A new field of study, related to fuselage-
or conference proceedings but, many times, the work which is ex- wing integration, is identified: structural integration; aerodynamic
posed here, is unpublished. stability; the elimination of the conventional empennage; and the
presence of a non-circular fuselage etc.
2. Aircraft configuration technologies Additionally, the engines in the considered configuration are
mounted near the trailing edge on the upper surface of the wing.
This general topic comprises of two main different strategies. Initially, aircraft designers used pylon-mounted nacelles to avoid
On the one hand, there are small modifications in the geometry problems of surface integration and inlet flow distortion resulting
which produce substantial improvements in drag reduction (fric- from ingesting the incoming boundary layer. However, recent stud-
tion and wave) and reduce detached areas. Small flow control de- ies indicate that boundary layer ingestion (BLI) offers additional
vices as synthetic jets or vortex generators belong to this category. benefits including reduced ram drag, lower structural weight and
These technologies will be described with detail in Section 4. On less wetted area than a pylon mounted configuration. Because of
A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100–132 103
Fig. 4. Spiroid loop (left) and downward pointing (right) wing tip devices from [42].
Fig. 10. Open rotor configuration studied in NACRE. Fig. 12. Open rotor configuration studied in NACRE. Acoustic interaction between
the CROR and an U-tail configuration.
for flight in the vicinity of the speed of sound, it was found that
sweeping the wings provided the most effective technique of in-
creasing the drag divergence Mach number. Aerodynamically, the
same effect can be obtained regardless of the direction of sweep.
However, current aircraft designs favor the use of aft sweeping
in order to avoid the phenomenon of structural divergence, in-
herent in FSW operating at a high dynamic pressure condition,
which cannot be solved through metallic structures without a wing
weight penalty. Today, technology advances in composite materials
are providing a promise of eliminating this problem with little or
no wing weight penalty.
Some of the benefits of FSW include spin resistance; extended
high angle of attack and lateral control; and lower transonic ma-
neuvering drag. Generally, The FSW separation pattern starts from
the root and propagates gradually outboard. This allows attached
flow to be maintained over the outboard wing, and retains aileron
effectiveness at high angles of attack where, in lateral control, con-
ventional (backward) wings may exhibit degradation in lateral con-
trol. Other additional benefits of FSW are theoretical lower profile
Fig. 11. Comparative study between open-rotor and turbofan technologies. drag due to lift and induced drag (for the same lift) [105]. Be-
tween the disadvantages, larger trailing edge sweep can strengthen
a range of 3000 NM are shown in Fig. 11. These studies obtained a separation problems at inner wing, (worse with turbulent flow),
promising 23% reduction in mission fuel burn and 8% reduction in leading to pitch up, which can be avoided by using vortex gener-
MTOW. ators, wing fence, vortilons (under-wing fences) or slotted airfoil.
Compared with its equivalent turbofan, one of the main draw- There is a tendency for static divergence, provoking an unfavor-
backs of CROR relates to vibration and acoustic problems, in which able gust behavior which can be alleviated by aero-elastic tailoring
the nacelle acts as an efficient noise shield. Due to the airframe and unfavorable root mid size effect for laminar pressure distribu-
surfaces, the acoustic propagation can be alleviated by adopting tion.
shielding and/or reflection. An example is NACRE [60]’s study of More recently, one of the main motivations for using FSW re-
the U-tail configuration (Fig. 12) In any case, significant develop- sides in the fact that transition on swept wings is strongly affected
ments are required to integrate this engine into an aircraft. by leading edge sweep angle. Turbulence transition at lower lead-
Another important issue is the necessity to develop specific ing edge angles can be dominated by Tollmien–Schlichting (TS)
design tools. A Contra-Rotating Open-Rotor shares some basic fea- waves, whereas higher sweep angles by cross flow instabilities
tures with the classic propeller, for which various numerical tech- (CF). Different studies have investigated the regimes and effect of
niques exist. However, it is the vortex and viscous wake interaction sweep on wing turbulent transition. One the main conclusion is
between the pylon and the rotors and between the front-rotor and that transonic FSW, because of its lower leading edge sweep an-
the aft-rotor which make the picture more complex. To understand gle for the same 50% chord line angle (the typical location of the
the underlying physical phenomena specific to a Contra-Rotating shock (Fig. 13)) presents less CF [84], which theoretically can de-
Open-Rotor, it is required to solve accurately the tip vortices and lay transition until 25% of chord at a Mach = 0.8 configuration,
viscous wakes which emanate from upstream stage and interact doubling the laminar extension for its equivalent backward swept
with the second. wing (Fig. 14).
In this line, an optimization study of forward swept wings
2.4. Forward swept wings (FSW) (FSW) was performed as part of the novel configuration work
package in NACRE activities. The design point was defined for a
The concept of FSW is not entirely new. In the investigation of civil aircraft of 180 pax of payload; 3000 nm of range; and cruise
the different methods of delaying the onset of the increase of drag Mach number 0.76 at 35.000 ft (Reynolds = 23.7 millions). After
A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100–132 107
Fig. 14. Dominan laminar turbulent transition effect for FSW and BSW. Because of its lower leading edge sweep angle FSW configuration presents less CrossFlow instabilities.
108 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100–132
Fig. 16. TELFONA PATHFINDER Model in ETW wind tunnel test section from [99].
• Mach = 1.6;
amplification N-factors in the range 5 < N CF < 8, 6 < N TS < 10 • Reynolds = 51.8 millions;
with linear chord-wise variation. Parallel isobars were obtained for • Length = 6.27 m;
a region which, at least, extended from 30% to 70% of the span, • Wing Area 50.0 m2 ;
with transition occurring between 30% and 50% of the chord. In the • CL = 0.182;
experiment, pressure taps were located on diagonal sections which • CM = 0.05; and
were located roughly at normalized semi-span positions η = 0.33, • Maximum trailing edge angle 6◦ and minimum leading edge
0.67 (Fig. 17). The results were compared, also, with the Tempera- radius 0.15 mm.
ture Sensitivity Paint (cryoTSP [33]) measurements obtained in the
ETW, showing good agreement with the computations [75,99], The optimization loop returns a damping of pressure peaks and
which proved this methodology to be valid in transition predic- mid-chord shocks and an important enhancement of laminar flow
tion (Fig. 18). (from 2% to about 10–12% of wing surface). This proves the feasi-
Attachment-line contamination can be controlled by an ade- bility of using optimization tools in the design of laminar wings.
quate design of an anti-contamination device (ACD). ACD is a TsAGI [23,24] studied experimentally the receptiveness of the
passive re-laminarization device which is placed at the wing’s boundary layer to free stream turbulence levels and noise studied
leading-edge at a close distance to the fuselage which, firstly, aims at. A LV6 laminarized airfoil with 1 m chord and 35◦ of sweep was
at stopping the span-wise propagation of contaminated flow of measured at free-stream velocity of around 80 m/s. The experi-
the fuselage boundary layer since it reaches the wing and, sec- ments (Fig. 21) showed that, for very low free stream turbulence
ondly, at initiating a new healthy, laminar attachment line flow level (0.064%), the transition could be delayed as far as 62% of the
on the other side of the device. In SUPERTRAC project (Supersonic chord. On the contrary, acoustic perturbation in the range of 2.0–
transition control [7]), a Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS)- 2.8 Hz and a noise level of 91–108 dB reduced the laminar region
method was considered for the numerical investigation of different to 55%. More dramatic was the effect of the free stream turbulence,
ACDs [56]. The change in turbulence state of the flow and the re- which for a 1% level limit, reduced the laminar region to only 10%
laminarization process were monitored through different param- of the chord. Although, in this case, the acoustic receptivity of the
eters. These were: shape-factor; viscosity ratio; streamlines; and boundary layer was very low, when 3D effects were considered,
pressure distribution. Since leading edge contamination is a local the cross flow instability mechanism dominated.
problem, a simplified geometry of a circular half-cylinder, followed
by a thick flat plate, was considered to be the leading-edge. It was 3.1.2. Laminar flow on nacelles
fixed to a solid cylindrical representing the fuselage at a sweep an- Recently, the NLF concept focused on nacelle applications. There
gle of 65◦ . The flow computations were carried out for the Mach were a number of investigations carried out in the past on the
110 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100–132
Fig. 19. Anti-contamination devices studied in SUPERTRAC. Lower, mesh details. Upper, flow details from [56].
Fig. 21. The measured transition locations at various experimental conditions LV6
airfoil model (semi-bold symbols transition onset; bold symbols end of transition)
Fig. 20. Anti-contamination device designed in SUPERTRAC from [56]. from [24].
aerodynamic interactions of the nacelle, pylon and wing. These can 3. Access panels on external cowls for maintenance purpose
be broken down into four areas [83]: interference effects of the (Temperature sensors, Anti-icing system, Oil tank).
nacelle, pylon and wing; the effect of different nacelle position; 4. Junction between fixed nose cowl and moveable fan cowls.
the effect of high by-pass ratio (BPR); ultra-high BPR nacelles; and
the ability of CFD to predict the interference effects. Today, the It is important to move downstream the junctions between the
nose cowl lip and the external panel; the nose cowl and the fan
larger By-pass Ratio (BPR) engines are receiving renewed atten-
cowl; and all access panels. In this context, the nacelles designer,
tion. Larger BPR engines have better fuel efficiency but larger na-
Aircelle, proposed to design cowl concept which integrated nose
celle diameters. Typically, current nacelles designs feature surface
cowl and fan cowls, allowing an overall improved performance,
gaps and steps configurations which can provoke laminar-turbulent
versus current nacelle design, of about 1% in SFC due to exten-
transition: sion of the laminar flow up to the 25% of the wetted area.
Recently, Bombarbier performed a numerical optimization over
1. One aluminum lip with anti-icing system and external panels an original long-cowl nacelle candidate which showed an improve-
in composite material. ment of 7 drag counts in an isolated configuration at flow condi-
2. Pneumatic anti-icing system with exhaust panel on nose cowl tion Mach = 0.8 and Re = 16 millions. The optimization was per-
external panel. formed with Multi Objective Optimization iSIGHT software, which
A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100–132 111
Fig. 25. Stream-wise transition as a function of the suction velocity for different test
3.1.3. Hybrid laminar flow cases from SUPERTRAC project in [45].
The use of boundary layer removal through suction was a way
of maintaining extensive regions of laminar flow which, since the • Direct stabilization of secondary instability of crossflow vor-
fifties, have been the subject of experimental and theoretical inves- tices by pin-point suction reveals itself successfully with rela-
tigation [17,67]. Extensive research was undertaken to mature Hy- tively low suction rate (optimal for fixed vortices).
brid Laminar Flow by suction; the influence of swept wing effects
and suction flow rate on its efficiency; and the variation of the rel- Very few studies of supersonic velocities are available. In SU-
ative drag co-efficient [9,15,24]. The technology achieved a certain PERTRAC the laminar control by suction of CF-dominated laminar-
level of maturity. Consequently, it is being considered now within turbulent transition was studied at Mach 2. After a preliminary
the industry for future aircraft applications. The technological chal- numerical analysis, a wind–tunnel model was built based on a
lenges are mainly non-aerodynamic – dealing with the integration symmetric arc-shaped airfoil with relative thickness of t /c = 0.13;
of the complex system solutions into the wing, nacelle, fin and hor- a sharp leading edge; and a chord length of c = 300 mm. The suc-
izontal tail plane surfaces; manufacturing surface quality including tion panel was located between 5% and 20% of the chord. The hole
that of suction panels; the need for an anti-contamination system, diameter was 17 μm. The model was mounted in the wind–tunnel
weight of suction system, etc. In this respect, Boermans [13,14] test section at zero angle of attack and a sweep angle of 20◦ and
designed a suction skin which was connected by perforated honey- 30◦ (Fig. 24). The suction pressure ranged between 1.2 and 4.8 bar
comb core to structural sandwich (Fig. 23). The typical perforation for Reynolds numbers between 6 and 24 millions. The experiments
requires a diameter of 0.1 mm and a relatively low hole density were conducted in the Ludwieg Tube Facility (RWG) at DLR. As
with a porosity 1%. In order to check the maximum suction ve- shown in Fig. 25, a significant delay of laminar turbulent-transition
locity for optimal performance, the solution was tested in a glider can be obtained (typically from 20% to 60% of the chord). It was
configuration. observed, also, that, beyond a certain level of suction velocity, no
Additionally, the intensive use of the DNS (Direct Numerical further improvement was obtained.
Simulation) allowed new perspectives of the suction concept to be The HISAC project investigated the application of laminar flow
proposed: technology for a business supersonic jet. The aircraft was a swept
wing monoplane. The wing and horizontal tail were tailored in or-
• Suction can be combined advantageously with excitation of der to keep the flow laminar over a large portion of the wing/tail
useful vortices (use of holes/slots to excite and support con- area. The wing design benefited from an imposed negative pres-
tinuously useful vortices to combine the effect of suction and sure gradient over the largest possible length of local chords. The
suppression of secondary instability), securing and improving laminar wings were tested in the ONERA-S2MA wind tunnel at
suction performance; Mach = 1.6 and Re = 7 millions. By using suction and cooling,
112 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100–132
shown, also, that, although critical N-factors for linear PSE anal-
ysis differed little from classical theory for standard experimental
datasets, when the effect of the leading edge curvature was taken
into account, a different picture emerged. In this case, the leading
edge modes were influenced positively by the curvature and, com-
pared to the HLFC for the same design, resulted in a reduction of
24 suction mass flow rate and an increased benefit of 9% without
curvature effects.
As a final remark concerning the Hybrid Laminar Flow Con-
trol (HLFC) technology demonstration, a test flight was planned in
the framework of the JTI-SFWA project. The new outer wing ele-
ments of the A340 wing incorporating HLFC could be flight tested
in 2014.
Fig. 27. Critical N-factor for TS wave as a function of the Mach and Reynolds numbers from [8].
A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100–132 113
Fig. 30. MSR concept tested in the S2MA wind tunnel (SUPERTRAC project).
Fig. 31. Visualization of boundary layer transition for the NLF(2)-0415 airfoil at Re =
2.2 millions. Left uncontrolled, right controlled.
Since the potential drag reduction could be large, the possibility Now, traditional high-lift systems have evolved greatly with only
of using nano or micro scale electro-mechanical systems to control small improvements in current aircraft performance. An innovative
the development of turbulent structures in the boundary layer was step is necessary to obtain the desired improvement in L/D and
investigated also. One interesting drag reduction technique, which CLmax. This level of improvement allows an increase in payload
is conceptually simple and has the potential for a positive ener- and reduced landing speed and, therefore, reduces noise emissions
getic budget, is the cyclic span-wise movement of the wall [29, and increases aircraft safety.
81,82]. In this active technique, the wall moves sinusoidally creat- Separated flows can appear in at least two different conditions.
ing a traveling wave which alters substantially the near-wall flow These are progressive boundary layer separation (PBLS) such as
structure. The main features of the oscillating wall technique are trailing edge separation, which displaces progressively upstream
the existence of an optimal frequency to maximize significantly when the angle of attack is increased, and very localized bound-
drag reduction, which can be as high as 45% when the amplitude ary layer separation (LBLS) such as those generated by geometrical
of the oscillation is comparable with the flow center line veloc- discontinuities. These two flow separation types can be found on a
ity. Following this idea, Tardu and Doche [101] showed how the wing in high lift configuration. For instance, the PBLS type can be
reaction of the near wall turbulence and the drag were sensitive observed either on a slotted flap leeward side or on the leeward
to the temporal waveform of the localized time periodical blow- side of the main body trailing edge near the pre-stall angles of at-
ing. The injection velocity is periodical and asymmetric in time, tack. LBLS type flow separation can be observed near the leeward
with a rapid acceleration phase followed by a slow deceleration leading edge of the main body at stall and post-stall angles of at-
one. Mainly in the deceleration phase, the flow is re-laminarized tack, and, also, near the hinge line of a strongly deflected aileron.
during 70% of the oscillation period. Induced by the blowing, the The use of flow control devices to control flow separation has
latter maintains the stability pf the vorticity layer and prevents its very attractive properties; at high speed, they can delay the onset
rollup contrary to a sinusoidal time periodical blowing. Therefore, of buffet, and enable more aggressive low-drag designs or lighter
a time mean drag reduction of 50% is obtained in the region recov- structures with the same aero-performance. At low speed, they can
ering 200 wall units downstream of the blowing slot. This is 40% enable simpler configurations and mechanisms, e.g. fixed leading
greater than the drag reduction obtained by a steady blowing with edge; short chord slat; simple hinged flap; and improve take-off
the same time mean severity parameter. lift to drag ratio or recover performance for alternative platforms –
Unfortunately, the effectiveness of these method decreases as e.g. increased sweep or taper. In term of flow control actuators,
the Reynolds number increases [22]. To overcome this constraint, a PBLS type separated flow can be controlled with sufficiently up-
Pamies et al. [74] proposed the use of a simple modification of Op- stream mechanical or pneumatic discrete vortex generators (VG).
position Control (OC) to increase the performance at high Reynolds A LBLS type separated flow can be controlled by a pulsed synthetic
numbers and, thereby, showing a significant improvement on drag jet slot (located very near to the separation onset) (Kroo [58];
reduction when performing a blowing-only opposition control. The Wygnanski [108]; McCormick [71]; and Courty et al. [26]), by a
analysis was performed by a LES numerical simulation in a spa- pulsed blowing jet slot or pulsed pneumatic VGs (Kilbens and
tially developing flat plate (fully turbulent flow) at Mach = 0.1, Bower [50]).
Reτ = 1100 and Reθ = 3300. This showed a local drag reduction Numerous research activities on Separated Flow Control were
of up to 61% in the area of control and, in the analysis, approxi- undertaken in the USA and Europe, with many wind tunnel
mately five times the boundary layer thickness. demonstrations. These works allows the assessment of the effec-
The physical realization of this surface waves can be done by tiveness of various actuators and various kinds of actuation, as
using Electro-Active Polymer (EAP) [28]. EAP, also referred to as well as the optimal parameters of such devices (geometry; size;
Maxwell Stress, is based on the compression, by electrostatic pres- orientation; flow rate; and frequency). A particular problem with
sure, of an elastomer film, which is applied by compliant elec- this approach is that the use of wind tunnel models requires the
trodes upon the application of an electric field. By virtue of in- use of smaller actuators than needed for in flight demonstrations.
compressibility, the compression of the elastomer results in an Moreover, in pneumatic pulsed actuators, for instance, actuation
elongation of the membrane which is used for actuation. This frequencies are usually an order of magnitude which are higher in
allows continuous surface deformation, both in-plane and out-of- wind tunnel demonstrations than during flight demonstrations.
plane. With this material, it is possible to create an array of active Flow control technologies can be divided into passive, active
dimples which act as time dependent depressions and which al- and reactive. Passive systems do not require a power input for their
low changes in frequency and amplitude. These inject local flow operation but have, in general, a drag penalty during cruise oper-
disturbances capable of interacting with structures existing in the ation. Examples are vortex generator (VG) or sub-boundary layer
turbulent boundary layer. A similar effect can be obtained by using vortex generator (SBVG). An active system requires some power in-
energy deposition (plasmas). put to work. Between them, we can find fluidic vortex generators,
pneumatic – synthetic jets, electrical – or plasma actuator or mag-
4. Separation control technologies netic. Finally, a reactive system possesses some kind of intelligence
and actuates according to the information supplied by the sensor.
Separation is a continual source of nuisance for the aircraft. As described in previous sections, these kinds of systems are usu-
At low speed, maximum lift, it is related directly to the exis- ally more suitable for boundary layer stabilization processes.
tence of flow separation. For highly deployed high-lift devices, the
maximum lift is obtained immediately before an extended flow 4.1. Passive flow control devices
separation region appears. Additionally, highly detached and un-
steady flows in gaps, slots and cavities in landing gear are the main Passive VG are simply small aspect ratio airfoils mounted nor-
sources of aero-acoustic noise. In a high speed regime, the causes mally to the lifting surfaces ahead of the flow separation point in
of concern come from reducing the influence of the shock with order to energize the boundary layer and to prevent separation.
the upper surface boundary layer and delaying the Mach number The only difference with SBVG, also known as low-profile vor-
at which this interaction leads to flow separation and buffet. tex generators, is that SBVG are submerged below the boundary
The control of high lift induced separation on an airfoil may layer to reduce the drag penalty. VG and SBVG can be classified as
improve the flight envelope of current aircraft or even simplify PBLS flow control actuators. Typical applications of these devices
the complex and heavy high-lift devices on commercial airframes. are the control of low-speed separated flows in adverse pressure
116 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100–132
Fig. 36. 0.2δ (0.8 right)-high vane-type counter-rotating VGs at 10 h (6 h-right) upstream of baseline separation from [66].
Fig. 37. Flap separation controlled by VG. Stow inside the flap well.
A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100–132 117
time scale of the flow about the airfoil or injection of mass and Pulsed AJVG injection was supposed to achieve the same aerody-
momentum. A very interesting, historical and in-depth review of namic performance gains (same VR and jet geometry) and steady
flow separation by periodic excitation including the parameters in- air jets but at considerably reduced mass flows (C ν ). However, the
volved, underlying physics and multiple applications can be found authors gave no additional details supporting this fact. In the same
in [38]. The studies, most of them about simple configurations like context, the 2nd EUROPEAN FORUM on FLOW CONTROL (Poitiers,
flap and single airfoils, show that the use of active flow control 2006) [94] proposed to study the effects of different fluidic ac-
methods is not new and, even in the Sixties, some works could tuators on the same NACA0015 airfoil. The competition was fol-
be found for steady blowing. However, the increasing environmen- lowed by different groups in Poitiers; Monash; Florida; Tel Aviv;
tal awareness of the civil society, together with the maturity of and Manchester Universities. The NACA0015 model had a chord of
the technologies required for these devices (actuators; sensors; 0.35 m and a span of 2.4 m. The analysis was conducted at a free-
pneumatic systems; etc.), led to a renewed interest in these tech- stream velocity of 40 m/s and a Reynolds number of 0.96 millions.
nologies. Here, we reveal their most recent advances, mainly in the Table 3 summarizes the mode and means of deployment; jet ori-
context of KATNET activities, and, in particular, their application to entation; position and number of orifices.
real high-lift systems. This is quite challenging for the aeronautical The following conclusions were obtained:
industry since, for multi-element airfoils, effective control requires
extensive optimization to apply the system to a complex airfoil. • Angled Steady Jet with diameter of 1 mm (0.27% < C ν < 0.36%,
This involves the joint consideration of the detailed geometry of 2.5 < V R < 3.5)
the airfoil; Reynolds number; and the parameters of the excitation – C L improves by 5–16% depending upon incidence;
such as amplitude, frequency and the location from which the os- – C D reduced 30% to 50%;
cillations emanate. The two more important parameters, involved – Typical time for attachment/separation at 11◦ is 0.1 s.
in the design of AFC devices, are the averaged blowing momentum • Normal Steady Jet with diameter of 1 mm (0.03% < C ν <
coefficient, defined as the ratio of the momentum and, in addition, 0.14%, 0.9 < V R < 1.8)
the free stream and the dimensionless frequency of excitation: – C L improves by 3–5% depending upon incidence;
– Tendency to increase C D for incidences above 12◦ , except at
ṁV R Uj f e Xe
Cν = , VR = , F+ = (1) 15◦ .
1 /2 ρ U ∞ S U∞ U∞ • Normal Steady Jet with diameter of 0.5 mm (C ν 0.4%,
where ṁ is the mass flow rate through the duct; U j the average V R 8)
jet exit velocity; ρ the external density; U ∞ the external velocity – C L improves by 3–8% depending upon incidence;
and S a reference area. V R is the relative velocity between jet and – C D reduced 15–22%;
free stream; f e the excitation frequency – if it is applied –; and – More effective after 8◦ incidence (no separation before this
X e the dimensionless distance between the excitation location and incidence).
the trailing edge (flap or wing).
Other parameters in play are the jet pitch, the skew angle, and For illustration, the ZNMF (zero net mass flow) was included,
jet nozzle diameter or the duty cycle (DC), defined as the portion also, in this comparison. In this case, a Reynolds number of 0.25
of the period in which the valve is open. millions and free stream velocity of 10 m/s were considered. The
Different theories about how the AFC affects the flow can be study was performed at an angle of incidence of 13◦ . The optimal
found in [4]. Most of them describe the interaction between these solution was obtained with C ν = 0.32%, V R = 3. The actuator was
jets and the cross flow over the surface, leading to the formation operated at 1.95 kHz and modulated with a sine wave at 41 Hz.
of a domain which displaces the local streamlines of the cross flow The obtained results showed better drag reduction characteristics
and, thereby, inducing an apparent or virtual change in the shape at low incidences with a lift improvement up to 4%.
of the surface; an apparent modification of the flow boundary; and Other typical applications of these devices are the reduction of
the local stream-wise pressure gradient. Herewith is a short review simplification of high-lift devices, for instance, in the design of a
of current tendencies in this technology’s development. slotless flap and a slatless profile. Alenia investigated a slotless flap
configuration which removed the standard slot between the wing
4.2.1. Blowing method and the flap by giving a wing–flap structural continuity. The slot
The blowing method, also known as fluidic VG, consists of in was substituted with a small cave where the effect of steady blow-
adding energy to the lower boundary layer by blowing air through ing was augmented by positioning a small NACA profile (Fig. 42).
slots and energizing the flow near the wall which enables it to A preliminary analysis, in a baseline profile, showed a performance
overcome a larger pressure gradient. Jet entrainment had been improvement in flap lift with almost no penalty in drag (Fig. 43).
shown to enhance the lift generated by airfoils. The used mech- The configuration was tested on an Airbus320 at a take-off Mach
anism, the Coanda effect phenomenon, allows the jet to remain number of 0.153. The design considered that there was a need for
attached even when long curvature effects are presented. A typical a blowing coefficient of C ν = 0.067 with U j = 340 m/s ( V R 6).
low-speed application is to delay the boundary layer detachment This flow rate had to be obtained by an estimated 8% of bleed-
at high angles of attack. The City University checked this concept ing from the nacelle flow (approximately 32 kg/s). The estimated
experimentally on a 35◦ swept wing, RAE5225 aerofoil section, as- aircraft mass increase due to blowing system was 430 kg with an
pect ratio of 4.5 and 0.958 m of span. 18 rectangular air jets of estimated mass decrease of 630 kg because of a reduced chord
30◦ pitch and variable skew were distributed uniformly at a 10% flap.
x/c. The free stream conditions were M = 0.1 and Re = 0.5 mil- In the slatless wing configuration (Fig. 44), the slat was sub-
lions. In this configuration, the flow was detached at a 12◦ angle stituted with a blowing device located on the leading edge. The
of attack. The pitch angle was fixed to 30◦ . The efficiency of the results were compared with the high-lift devices studied in EU-
VG depended clearly on the swept angle which, finally, was fixed ROLIFT I. The experiments were performed on a modified ONERA
at −90◦ . The experiments showed the ability to attach the flow AFV wing in the Airbus Filton low speed wind tunnel facility. Four
completely at α = 12◦ with C ν = 0.03 (Fig. 41). different positions of the jet, relative to the leading edge, were
Also, in these experiments, a pulsed VG with pulsing frequency, considered (x/c = 0.024 up BLE1, 0.01 up BLE2, 0 BLE3, 0.006 low
equal to the trailing edge shedding frequency, was tested. The BLE4). The analysis was performed at M = 0.153 and a velocity jet
A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100–132 119
Fig. 41. Efficiency of blowing methods to avoid the flow detachment for different values of the blowing momentum coefficient. Experiment performed by The City University
on a 35◦ swept wing, RAE5225 aerofoil section.
Table 3
Range of parameters studied in the 2nd European Forum on Flow Control (Poitiers, 2006).
Mode of deployment Means of deployment Jet orientation Position (x/c) Number of orifices
Steady angled jets (1 mm diameter) 30◦ pitch 60◦ skew 0.3 44
Steady normal jets (1 mm diameter) Continuous Pressurized cavity 0.3 51
Steady normal jets (0.5 mm diameter) Normal to surface 0.3 64
Normal ZNMF jet (1 mm diameter) Amplitude pulsed modulated Piezo-electric 0.3 56
of Uj = 340 m/s. A CLmax as high as 3.4 at AoA of 22◦ was ob- configuration could increase the Permissible Aerodynamic Loading,
tained compared with the original 2.5 at 15◦ . by 13% at the Design Point, and 0.5% of Compressor Inlet Mass
Within the turbo-machinery field, one important goal is the re- were sufficient to reduce vane count by 20%.
duction of the number of vanes or compressor stages. The design Also in the field of turbo-machinery, BAE Systems and Dassault
of a stator with Coanda surface makes it possible to increase the Aviation (in collaboration with LEA from Poitiers, ONERA, Snecma)
vane spacing; and, thereby, reducing the number of total vanes. evaluated the potential of fluidic thrust vectoring to determine the
The idea is to design a curved surface, near the trailing edge, which efficiency of a throat skewing concept on a generic high aspect ra-
promotes the Coanda effect. This effect can be increased further tio nozzle. It was based on a modification of the sonic line through
by blowing. The Institute of Turbomachinery and Fluid Mechan- the generation of a separated flow region on one of the lateral
ics of Leibniz University performed a study concerning this issue. walls of the divergent part of the nozzle (Fig. 46).
The new stator was slightly shorter; had the maximum thickness The flow separation control was achieved through continuous
shortly downstream; and a trailing edge thicker than the original blowing of high pressure bleed air whose mass flow rate deter-
one. The new stator’s internal plenum was designed carefully to mined the shape of the separated region. Different parameters
avoid losses (Fig. 45). The designs were carried out by a numerical were studied: The length and slope angle of the divergent part of
optimization making use of the Navier–Stokes equations. The new the nozzle; the location; angle and mass flow rate of the blowing;
120 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100–132
Fig. 47. Oil flow picture leading edge actuation (lower side) from [106].
Fig. 48. Control of separation by pulse actuation. Left-main wing, right-flap from [106].
Fig. 50. Effect of duty cycle and C ν on performance of airfoil PS03-8.27. Left, actuator located at the suction side with for fixed F + = 0.6. Right, actuator located at the
pressure side with F + = 1.44. From [89].
Fig. 51. Principal actuator system tested in the slatless configuration of [43].
Fig. 52. Effect of pulse frequency and blowing momentum coefficient in slatless configuration studied by [43].
124 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100–132
ferent locations of 12% and 30% of the chord. All of them had an
inclined angle of 23◦ with respect to the local tangential airfoil
surface (Fig. 55).
Simulations were carried out using the following conditions:
free-stream velocity of 35.7 m/s; and a chord Reynolds number
of 2.19 millions. Three different jet velocities (1–3 times the exter-
nal velocity) and three different frequencies F + = 1, 2 and 5 were
considered. The characteristic length, used in the non-dimensional
frequency, was the distance between the trailing edge and the jet
slot. A suction/blowing planar boundary condition was adopted in
this work to model a synthetic jet actuator. The base configuration
(a) showed a detached flow starting at the trailing edge at around
18◦ . At 22◦ the flow was detached completely, a large stall region
dominated the suction wing side.
As expected, for the controlled case, the enhancement of lift
and drag was proportional to the amplitude of the synthetic jet
velocity (C ν ). At lower angles of attack, higher momentums were
necessary to overcome the stall at the trailing edge. At higher an-
gles of attack (22◦ ) the three tested jet velocities produced the
desired effect and the three tested frequencies were irrelevant in
all cases. At an angle of attack of 22◦ , the maximum lift coefficient
Fig. 53. 3D high-lift configuration studied in [76]. was enhanced about 7.3%. In this case, the separation point was
very near the synthetic jet slot.
and flap. There was a sweep angle of 30◦ and a finite wing span The conditions for the maximum lift enhancement can be sum-
(Fig. 53). The investigations showed a substantial improvement in marized as follows: the approximate non-dimensional frequency
lift and drag resulting in a lift-to-drag ratio enhancement of about was 1; the location of the synthetic jet slot was equal to the base-
15% in the 3D case, compared with 20% to 25% in the equivalent line separation point; and the jet velocity was large enough to per-
2D-case. Apart from these promising results, the 3D test case was turb the surrounding separated flow. For the case of the plain flap
more complicated than appeared at a first glance. In the 3D case, separation (b), similar effects were observed and the synthetic jet
the separation process was different due to sweep effects and finite performed well at higher velocities and as long as it was located
wing span. In the separation, longitudinal vortices were generated close to the detached point. When the wing flow was detached
in addition to stream-wise vortices. The first test mimicking the 2D completely (above 16◦ ) the flap was immersed completely into the
parameters resulted in almost a 20% degradation of lift and drag detached region and the SJ lost their effectiveness.
for the 3D case (Fig. 54-left). A second experiment was carried out Although no significant differences in performance between the
by moving the excitation slot downstream by only a fraction of the frequencies were observed, the flow features were completely dif-
flap chord and tilted in the direction of the flow. The results in ferent. The low frequency jet (F + 1) produced a periodic shed-
Fig. 54-right show a strong sensitivity of the flow with the param- ding of small vortices which moved along the suction surface and
eter involved in the active flow. This is something which must be penetrated into the large leading edge separation vortex. As a
studied further. result, the size of the leading edge separation vortex decreased
Kim [51] performed a thorough numerical study of different substantially. For high frequencies, the small vortex did not grow
slatless configurations was performed by Kim in a NACA23012 enough to penetrate into the large separation vortex because the
with 20% of flap. The author considered four different configu- period of synthetic jet motion was too short. Instead, the flow near
rations: (a) a synthetic jet at 12% of chord; (b) at 81% of chord, the synthetic jet slot was attached firmly and, as a result, a more
only in the deflected flap; (c) a combination of two SJ with droop stable flow structure was developed on the suction surface (Fig. 56,
nose device; and (d) deflected flap and an array or SJ at two dif- also, these patterns were observed experimentally in [37]).
Fig. 54. Left, preliminary results in 3D configuration. Right, after adjustment of the position of the actuator from [76].
A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100–132 125
Fig. 57. Lift coefficient for different configurations (ff: fowler flap, pf: plain flap, led:
leading edge droop) from [51].
plain flap actuated (configuration (b)) the maximum lift was 52.9%
higher. In the case of the airfoil with a 20◦ leading edge droop, 30◦
deflected flap, and two synthetic jets (0.12c, 0.81c), the maximum
lift was 65.8% higher than that of baseline. Furthermore, the stall
angle was about 2◦ larger than that of baseline. Consequently, the
combination of the synthetic jet with the simple high lift device
produced almost the same maximum lift enhancement as a con-
ventional fowler flap system (although the slope of the lift curve
was small).
Also, placing different SJ in an array schedule can be beneficial.
Fig. 56. Different flow patterns depending of the SJ frequency. Left – F + 1, Right This option, as shown by [51] in configuration (d), demonstrates
– F + 10 from [51].
that, at least from the aeronautical point of view, the combination
of weaker SJ in different locations can be more beneficial than only
The question about which was the best actuation frequency re- a stronger one. Further analysis of the complexity of the systems is
mained open. When the actuation frequency F + was O(1) – the not described here. In any case a deep study of the space distribu-
characteristic (shedding) frequency of the airfoil – the natural re- tion to obtain the maximum performance has not been done. The
ceptivity of the separating shear layer to this frequency resulted in same idea was shown by [93] from Boeing company in a simple
a Coanda-like tilting of the shear layer towards the surface of the hinge flap, a conventional high lift configuration or more advance
airfoil and, therefore, in partial restoration of the lift. The forcing high-lift sections (Fig. 58). In the three cases, there is proof that an
modulated the evolution of vortical structures within the separated adequate distribution of the SJ along the slat, flap and wing, can
shear layer and promoted the formation of concentrated lifting enhance greatly the lift with smaller devices and lower jet veloci-
vortices which interacted with trailing-edge vortices and, thereby, ties.
altered the global stalled flow. In a certain range of post-stall an- In AVERT, there was performed a comprehensive study of dif-
gles of attack and actuation frequencies, the flow became periodic ferent active flow control actuators. A 2D high-lift wing of 0.5 m
and was accompanied by a significant lift enhancement. Although chord length and 1.5 m wing span with a GARTEUR AG08 cross-
this was the most extended application, it could lead to time pe- section [69] was considered as reference. Flap Gap Oscillatory
riodic vortex shedding from the top surface of the airfoil which Blowing, Fluidic VGs and Synthetic Jets Actuators were consid-
could give up to 20% oscillations in the lift coefficient. In con- ered on the flap, whereas for non-standard high-lift systems, Me-
trast, the suppression of separation at higher actuation frequencies chanical VGs, Continuous Slots/Jets, Pulsed Slots/Jets and Synthetic
[i.e., F + = O(10)] was marked by the absence of organized vorti- Jets Actuators were considered on a Droop Nose Device config-
cal structures along the flow surface [2,4]. The mechanism which uration (DND) (Fig. 59). In the AEROMEMS project, wind tunnel
led to the suppression of separation was unassociated with the demonstrations were performed by Manchester University and the
stability of the separated shear layer and resulted in more steady Laboratoire de Physique et Metrologie des Oscillateurs to test the
structures. Also, it was investigated that pulse modulated with efficiency of some pneumatic VGs on a flap (Fig. 60).
high frequencies could achieve better performances at lower mo- As an example, a DND of droop deflection and flap deflection
mentums [3]. angles with 35◦ and 32.4◦ respectively were studied. The model
Finally, the efficiency of a leading edge droop, deflected at 20◦ , was tested at 70 m/s and Re = 1 million. Numerical studies were
was studied in configuration (c). The plain flap was deflected at performed by Dassault and tested experimentally in ONERA L1
30◦ , and the synthetic jet velocity was triple the free-stream ve- wind tunnel. The reference wing configuration is a droop nose
locity. An interesting comparison is summarized in Fig. 57. The configuration, with a “standard” flap. The CFD defined the best
maximum lift of the airfoil with a 30◦ , deflected flap was al- locations and optimum pneumatic VG parameters (jet exit size,
most 33.4% higher than that of the airfoil without flap deflection jet velocity amplitude and direction, spacing). Continuous blow-
(baseline); however, the stall angle was about 2◦ , lower. For the ing showed effectiveness at 8% of the chord and C ν = 2.5–5.1%
126 A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100–132
Fig. 58. Left, lift augmentation due to distributed flow control simple hinge flap. Central, effect of AFC application on each element of the conventional high-lift wing section
(representative takeoff configuration, δ = 24). Right, AFC for advanced wing section (landing configuration, δ = 50). From [93].
Fig. 59. Low speed flow control devices considered in the European project AVERT.
Fig. 60. Micro fluidic actuators (MEMS technology from LPMO) on AFV flap in ONERA F1 wind tunnel (AEROMEMS project).
to eliminate completely the stall on a slatless DND configuration NASA and Boeing applied the same kind of control for high lift
at an AoA of 25◦ (Fig. 61-left). For this configuration, the excita- wings (with and without gaps between the different wing com-
tion with pulse blowing (70 Hz) and the same momentum did not ponents). Since 1999, studies of wings with and without gaps
perform well (Fig. 61-right). This was controversial with other pre- were undertaken and showed that the loss of performance, due
viously mentioned authors, who showed better performance for to gap suppression between main body and flap, could be reduced
pulse blowing and lower momentum injections. greatly thanks to pulsed jets actuators (Sellers et al. [92]). Simi-
Another interesting application was performed by Boeing for a larly Seiferts work (Pack et al. [73]) demonstrated the success of a
commercial aircraft configuration, the US project ADVINT (Adap- flow control on a high lift aerofoil with no gap deflected slat and
tive Flow Control Vehicle Integrated Technologies for Breakthrough flap. Several kinds of jets and synthetic slots allowed significantly
Aerodynamic Performance), in collaboration with Professor Wyg- increased performance of such aerofoils by suppressing boundary
nanski’s team which aimed at improving high lift wings for layer separation.
the Boeing’s ATT (Advanced Theater Transport Aircraft), by using To our knowledge, no flight demonstration has been performed
pulsed jet actuators to be developed and tested in flight condi- in the USA for representative aircraft (lack of high authority syn-
tions (Kilbens and Bower [50]). thetic jet actuator). Nevertheless, in the USA, a flight demonstra-
A. Abbas et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 28 (2013) 100–132 127
Fig. 61. Droop nose device with AFC tested by ONERA in the European project AVERT. Droop nose configuration, with a standard flap of a GARTEUR high-lift landing
configuration is considered as reference. Left continuous blowing. Right pulse blowing.
fly and investigate on the computer the complete aircraft. Progress plinary applications; structure interactions; and stability methods
in high performance computing (HPC) will contribute essentially for laminar design, etc. The new flow control devices and their
to achieving this goal. Considerable changes of development pro- proper calibration raise a new challenge to the numerical CFD
cesses will lead to a significant reduction in development times methods. Appropriate and complete numerical simulation of this
whilst including more and more disciplines from the early phases actuators is still not well understood; however, a high priority is
of design in order to find an overall optimum aircraft design. to model their effects in the numerical models to be included in
All aspects of simulation (physics; mathematics; algorithms; the optimization design loop.
hardware; soft-ware, computer science; information technology;
man-machine interface; overall system; data handling; and appli- 6.2. Wind tunnel testing
cations, etc.) are supposed to deliver essential contributions and
provide their input and support to a superior cooperative effort. For the foreseeable future the wind tunnel will remain the fi-
Considerable advances have been made in the prediction of nal arbitrator in the validation of aircraft design solutions ahead
drag for the full aircraft configuration. To enable better multidis- of first flight. Rapid machining techniques have enabled, also, the
ciplinary working, an improved predictive capability to determine wind tunnel to remain a key tool in supporting the development
aerodynamic loads for high maneuver conditions (typically +2.5 G of design solutions in a timely manner. The development of such
and 1.5 G) and high Mach numbers (up to 0.95) is required. These methods for metal wind tunnel components can give further bene-
include the representation of control surfaces. fit since the wind tunnel plays an important role in validating our
The ability to model correctly jet effects becomes more impor- design solutions as we step out of the box in current design solu-
tant with the introduction of closer coupled engines and nozzle tions to those that deliver the 2020 goals.
acoustic treatments. Further work is required to validate jet mod- Flight scale Reynolds number testing will play an important role
els. in determining the flight performance of a future aircraft config-
For high lift device design, where the ability to assess a num- uration. A better understanding of model support systems is re-
ber of alternative design options is essential before committing to quired and the development of low interference stings would sim-
wind tunnel testing, the role of CFD is now expanding rapidly and plify the performance prediction process. For half model testing,
evidence from the EUROLIFT and EUROLIFT2 projects show that a greater understanding is needed of the impact of the Reynolds
it is possible to use the current CFD technology good levels of number on half model mounting and test techniques. The FLIRET
prediction in maximum lift and lift to drag ratio are possible. Con- project is the main European collaborative effort aimed at devel-
tinued effort is required as the challenge of meeting noise targets oping new test techniques.
increases. Flight scale wind tunnel testing will help to support the valida-
In order to meet the low speed performance targets, an under- tion of a number of technologies for improved aircraft performance
standing of the strength of the noise source terms around landing without recourse to flight tests. This will be particularly important
gear and high lift devices will become essential in supporting so- for those technologies which are highly configuration dependent
lution down selection ahead of test. This requires the use of higher e.g. natural laminar flow on a Proactive Green aircraft.
order CFD methods than those used for today’s performance as- In the area of flow control, the wind tunnel will play an impor-
sessments. tant role in understanding the flow physics of the devices under
Speed of use will be critical both in terms of mesh genera- consideration. However, a challenge remains as to how such de-
tion and flow prediction. Given the maturity of present methods, it vices can be represented correctly on a wind tunnel model scale.
would seem appropriate to consolidate around a common toolset
to pool together the expertise in Europe. 7. Conclusions
The introduction of flow control technologies places new re-
quirements on the modeling capabilities of CFD. A pragmatic ap- This review gives an overview of key aerodynamic technolo-
proach is needed regarding the level of detail required to model gies, identified by the KATNet network, and how they are aligned
the device and the level of investment directed to realizing this. against the European aerospace 2020 vision goals. Perhaps, it is
The benefit of a number of flow control solutions remains unclear surprising that, potentially, the biggest impact aerodynamics can
and some demonstration of the benefit should be given before a make is in the area of environment since this affects directly
large-scale activity is undertaken. product performance at high and low speed. It is clear that im-
The introduction of flow control technologies places new re- provements to future aircraft, aligned to the 2020 vision goals,
quirements on the CFD’s modeling capabilities. A pragmatic ap- can be made through better multi-disciplinary working supported,
proach is needed regarding the level of detail required to model within the aerodynamic discipline, by the accurate and timely pre-
the device and the level of investment directed to realizing this. diction of drag; noise; and loads. Opportunities may be offered,
The benefit of a number of flow control solutions remains unclear also, through the adoption of novel configurations. Novel configu-
and some demonstration of the benefit should be given before a rations are outside the scope of this study. However, it is impor-
large-scale activity is undertaken. tant that the appropriate level of effort is directed at exploring
On top, intelligent means will have to be developed which novel concepts to understand what they can offer in term of the
could allow a resuction in the number of required computations. 2020 vision. Also, a number of technologies are identified which,
So-called surrogate or reduced order models, which were adapted now, have reached a significant level of maturity. They have been
to specifics of aerodynamic flow simulation, could help essentially flight tested with the AWIATOR and SILENCE projects. Potentially,
in accelerating comprehensive use of numerical simulation in air- these technologies give us a further step toward the 2020 vision
craft design and optimization. goals. However, it is clear that the 2020 vision goals will not be
To finish up, it is important to highlight the increasing impor- achieved through the adoption of these technologies coupled with
tance of simulation capabilities in the optimization loop for these the evolution of today’s standard through better optimization at a
new configurations. The number of parameters, involved in the de- multidisciplinary level. Significant improvements in drag and noise
sign of this technology, is so high that the use of optimization can be made through the adoption of a Proactive Green config-
algorithms is mandatory. Adjoint/inverse optimization methods are uration. This is optimized for minimum fuel burn and noise and
currently under development and their applications focus not only has a relatively low cruise Mach number enabling a reduced wing
on classical aerodynamic design but, also, start to cover multidisci- sweep and increased span and, therefore, low induced drag. This
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