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Child Care Arrangements, Division of Household Labor and Other

Employment Based Familial Predictors of Marital Adjustment Among
Husbands of Employed Females in Pakistan

Article  in  Marriage & Family Review · May 2018

DOI: 10.1080/01494929.2018.1460005

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ISSN: 0149-4929 (Print) 1540-9635 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wmfr20

Child Care Arrangements, Division of Household

Labor and Other Employment Based Familial
Predictors of Marital Adjustment Among
Husbands of Employed Females in Pakistan

Arooj Sikandar, Saeed Ahmad, Sidra Maqsood & Fauzia Maqsood

To cite this article: Arooj Sikandar, Saeed Ahmad, Sidra Maqsood & Fauzia Maqsood (2018):
Child Care Arrangements, Division of Household Labor and Other Employment Based Familial
Predictors of Marital Adjustment Among Husbands of Employed Females in Pakistan, Marriage &
Family Review, DOI: 10.1080/01494929.2018.1460005

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MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW
https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2018.1460005

none defined

Child Care Arrangements, Division of Household Labor

and Other Employment Based Familial Predictors of
Marital Adjustment Among Husbands of Employed
Females in Pakistan
Arooj Sikandar, Saeed Ahmad , Sidra Maqsood, and Fauzia Maqsood
Department of Sociology, University of Gujrat, Gujrat, Punjab, Pakistan

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The primary purpose of the current study was to investigate the child care arrangements;
influence of division of household labor, child care arrange- division of household labor;
ments, wife’s financial contribution, work-schedule of wife, husband’s perception;
marital adjustment; Pakistan;
perception of wife employment and wife’s work preference
women employment; work
were contributing to marital adjustment of husbands of preference; work schedule
working married women. Additionally, it explored the role of
wife’s financial contribution, perception of wife’s employment
and wife’s work preference in formation of marital adjustment
among husbands of working women. The data were collected
through a self-structured questionnaire from 283 husbands of
employed married women with one year of marital duration
and at least one child. The data were collected from the city of
Gujrat, province of Punjab, Pakistan. Factor analysis was run for
reliability and validity analysis was executed to examine the
validity of the existing scales used in the current study. Multiple
linear regression analysis was used for model fit. Division of
household labor, child care arrangements, wife’s financial
contributions, wife’s work-schedule, the perception of wife’s
employment, and wife’s work preferences contributed to the
marital adjustment of husbands of working married women.
Our results seemed to reflect fluctuating dimensions of gender
role ideologies among families. Incorporating new predictors of
marital adjustment into literature of marriage and family has
been a sociological significance of the current study.

Introduction
In patriarchal society, gender-based roles, household work labor and child
care arrangements are culturally assigned female responsibilities. In case of
female employment, women are overburdened with the household chores
along with jobs (Tripathi & Bhattacharjee, 2012). Gender role research has
often focused on the transformation of roles of women, with a little academic
argument on how the relocation of “traditional” role expectations of men as
the solitary breadwinner in the family may be distinctively connected to

CONTACT Saeed Ahmad Saeed.mashaal@uog.edu.pk Department of Sociology, University of Gujrat,

Gujrat, Pakistan.
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
2 A. SIKANDAR ET AL.

marital satisfaction of husbands (Perry-Jenkins & Crouter, 1990). The primary

purpose of the current study was to find out employment based familial
predictors in marital satisfaction among husbands of married women.
There is a burgeoning literature in the areas of employment and marital
adjustment in the Western countries (Feinauer & Williams-Evans, 1989;
Hostetler, Desrochers, Kopko, & Moen, 2012; Staines, Pleck, Shepard, &
O’Connor, 1978), but similar literature in developing countries such as
Pakistan is lacking. There are important contextual differences between
these places. Here, a description of how the Pakistani case is different to
the Western countries for which there is more research would help. Pakistani
men and women have more traditional gender-role ideologies and low labor
force participation rates as compared to international standards, etc. revise to
Therefore, the current study will examine the extent to which factors that
predict marital adjustment in other cultures also predict marital adjustment
in the Pakistani culture.
Work within the social institution of family has been a significant facade of
the life of individuals (Gerson, 2004; Xie, Shi, & Ma, 2017). The division of
labor in the traditional society has made the husband as the sole breadwinner
of the family. On the other side, the wife holds the responsibility for house-
hold chores, upkeep of the home, and taking care of the children. Some
women work in fields outside the home and may also be involved in unpaid
work elsewhere. The American sociologist Parsons (1964) described a division
of labor whereby men had a social obligation for instrumental tasks related to
being wage earners while women oversaw the expressive tasks of caring for chil-
dren and providing emotional sustenance, a division of labor that was functional
for both the larger society in general and for family solidarity in particular.
Over the passage of time, the abovementioned simple division of labor in the
society has become more and more multifaceted. With the increase in level of
educational attainment and economic pressures, females have been contributing
to paid labor force. Although, female labor force participation rate in Pakistan
has been very low. Perhaps, in Pakistan, the rate is at the abyss as compared
to the other South Asian nations. Labor force participation rate (80%) is highest
in Nepal in the South Asian region. Pakistan has witnessed a steady upsurge in
female labor force participation as the rate of female labor force participation
has increased from 13.4 to 24.8% during 1990–2014, over the span of past two
decades (The World Bank, 2013). According to NIPS (2013), the rate of female
labor force participation was 29% in Pakistan in 2012-13.
Due to the rise of female participation in the labor force, modern
workplaces have become more multifaceted, dynamic and significantly
crowded with women and dual-career couples. Research on the struggle
between the diverse role domains of work and family has drastically increased
in the last few decades (see Kulik, Shilo-Levin, & Liberman, 2015; Lee,
Zvonkovic, & Crawford, 2013; Noor, 2004). Couple roles, for both men and
 MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW 3

women, are going through a transformation in the family sphere. Parenthood

is combined with full-time paid work for the most of men and women who
are participating in the labor force. These changes can bring forth widespread
and dramatic implications for family life. Both, men and women may need to
redefine their marital roles due to the participation of wives in the labor
market. The cultural role of breadwinner no longer exclusively belongs to
men because women are increasingly taking on a larger portion of the familial
obligations for financial well-being.
In developing countries like Pakistan, participation of women in the paid
labor force is on the rise (The World Bank, 2013). The current study
examined the consequences of married women’s employment on the attitude
of their husbands and consequently on their marital relationship in Pakistan.
The primary purpose of the current study was to scrutinize the husbands’
perception of employment of wife. Additionally, it investigated the influence
of the division of household labor, child care arrangements and wife’s work
schedule on husbands’ marital satisfaction. Furthermore, it examined the role
of the financial contributions of the wife, work-preferences of the wife, and
perceptions of the wife’s employment in the state of marital satisfaction
among husbands of employed women.
The current research contributes to feminist theory and research as the
inequitable division of household labor and child care arrangements has been
a prominent subject matter in the family sphere. Exploring the employment
based familial factors of marital adjustment is an important area of research
in the sociology of family and intimate relationships. Additionally, the current
study augments the existing academic scholarship on work-family struggles
of couples within the social institution of marriage, the consequences of
employment for married women and the implications of females’ labor force
participation. Previous academic literature on female’s participation in paid
labor force has only fixated implications for women, especially their work-
family struggles and health consequences. The current study has focused on
husband’s satisfaction in marital life as among the consequences of of married
women’s employment. The current study will will seek new insights into
husbands’ perceptions of the changing gender-based roles in today’s cultures.
In addition, empirical evidence of the current study would be accommodating
might be useful for policy makers in planning elastic work-schedules for
married and employed women so that women’s life at home may be less affected
by their, hectic and chaotic work-schedules.
The current research used the perspective of social exchange theory to
explain the development of marital adjustment. Literature has indicated the
viability of the theoretical framework of social exchange in examination of
relational processes in marital sphere (Nakonezny & Denton, 2008). An equi-
table perception of the marital exchange leads to marital adjustment
among couples. As the division of household labor, child care arrangements,
4 A. SIKANDAR ET AL.

work-schedule of wife, wife’s financial-contribution, perception of wife’s

employment and wife’s work preference can be seen in terms of rewards
and costs in a marital relationship. Equitable childcare arrangements, a wife’s
flexible work schedule, her work preferences and financial contributions may
enhance marital trust, commitment, and solidarity. Trust, commitment, and
solidarity are the effective outcomes of the exchange orientation in the marital
sphere (Collett, 2010).

Literature review
In this portion of the article, the researchers have discussed different aspects
of marital adjustment such as the work-schedule of the wife, child care
arrangements, division of household labor, the financial contributions of the
wife, work-preferences of the wife, and perceptions of wife employment for a
broader understanding of the phenomenon. Academic scholarship has focused
on categorizing the pathways through which employment of wife may influence
marital quality (McHale & Crouter, 1992; Vannoy & Philliber, 1992).

Factors of marital adjustment

Many factors influenced the marital satisfaction among couples. Emotional
expressiveness indicated a strong association with marital satisfaction, illus-
trating the significance of sharing positive emotions while subduing negative
emotions (Ingoldsby, Horlacher, Schvaneveldt, & Matthews, 2005). Addition-
ally, sex-role behaviors and sex-role attitudes were associated with marital
satisfaction (McGovern & Meyers, 2002). Spouses’ gender-based roles were
important predictors of husbands’ marital satisfaction (Falconier, 2013).
Furthermore, academic scholarship indicated the influence of work-role
demands, financial management leisure activities, child bearing, and rearing,
conflict management, and gender-based roles in marital adjustment among
couples (Manyam & Junior, 2014; Twenage, Campbell, & Foster, 2003;
VanLaningham, Johnson, & Amato, 2001).

Wife’s work schedule

A wife’s work schedule had association with marital satisfaction and stability.
An increase in work hours was related to enlarged levels of familial struggles
and strain (Voydanoff, 1988). Women employment more than 35 hours per
week had more than twice the probability of marital dissatisfaction than that
of women employed 20–35 hours per week (Greenstein, 1990). Additionally,
gender ideology moderated the effects of their hours employed per week on
marital stability (Greenstein, 1995). It was the late hours of work (night),
but not the days of work (weekdays) that exacerbated marital dissatisfaction
 MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW 5

(Presser, 2003). Similarly, all types of nonstandard work schedules could

disrupt family life, resulting in heightened work–family conflict (La Valle,
Arthur, Millward, Scott, & Clayden, 2002). Working hours were positively
associated with work-family struggle, although these associations were gener-
ally weak (Spector et al., 2004).

Child care arrangements

Equally distributed child care arrangements and housework influenced the
relationship between married couples (Dempsey, 2000). Empirical evidence
suggested that the division of labor and child care obligations change with
marital duration (Miller & Yorgason, 2009). Women were responsible for
child care arrangements and household work in the majority although the
gender gap has narrowed considerably (Sayer, 2005). Married women in
dual-earner couples who regularly worked either day or evening shifts and
who had children aged 8 to 14 years, indicated that mothers spend equal
numbers of hours directly interacting with their children regardless of their
work shift schedule (Barnett & Gareis, 2007).

Division of household labor

The division of labor played a pivotal role in marital satisfaction (Grote &
Clark, 2001; Stevens, Kiger, & Mannon, 2005). Additionally, when husbands
completed male tasks with in the family sphere, spouses reported higher mari-
tal adjustment (McGovern & Meyers, 2002). The more hours husbands were
not at work while wives were at work, the more likely husbands were to do
housework that was traditionally done by women, thereby violating gender
stereotypes (Moorehead, 2003). Husbands were therefore required to take
up a much larger than the usual domestic workload (Probert, 2005). For
married women belonging to all social classes, it was not an easy doing job
and managing household activities together (Davendran, 2008). Furthermore,
the relationship between marital adjustment and female employment was
likely to be mediated by the way in which the wife and husband participated
in housework (Davis, & Greenstein, 2004).

Wife’s financial contribution and work preference

Marital quality and stability can be enhanced through women’s increasing
economic resources (Conger et al., 1990). Through provision of additional
income and reduction of husband’s financial responsibility, women’s employ-
ment may enhance the marital quality of husbands (White & Keith, 1990). In
marriages where women provided some form of wages led to increased asset-
sharing in marriage (Ono, 1998). The construct of marital satisfaction has not
6 A. SIKANDAR ET AL.

been previously examined in Pakistan (Qadir, De Silva, Prince, & Khan, 2005).
Marriage has many instrumental functions including economic
security and emotional protection (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto,
2010). In gender egalitarian societies, income has greater prominence,
ultimately, encouraged women employment, and lessened the significance
of fulfilling the traditional roles (Corrigall & Konrad, 2006). Similarly,
the consideration of the necessity of wife’s employment might
be significant to comprehend the experiences of couples (Cauce &
Domenech-Rodriguez, 2002).

Methodology
The target population of the current study comprised of the husbands of
currently married women who were working in diverse professions in the city
of Gujrat, in the province, Punjab, Pakistan. Women in the target population
were full-time employees as determined by their employers. None of them
was working on part time or a contract basis. As the researchers wanted to
examine the effect of factors in relation to wife’s employment on the husband’s
marital adjustment that was why there was no criterion for husbands regarding
employment status or the profession, working women were selected from the
sampling frame. The study population was categorized into seven professions
included administrators, husbands of bankers, lady health workers, medical
doctors, nurses, police officers, and teachers.
In inclusion criteria, marital duration was taken into account because
duration of the marital period was a very important factor for marital adjust-
ment. For this study, husbands with marital duration of at least one year and
the couples having one child at the time of data collection were selected. The
reason of the criterion of having only one child was selected because the study
aimed to assess the perception of husbands towards child care arrangements.
Couples with less than one year of marriage and without any child were
excluded from the study.
Organizations included in the sampling frame were visited by the
researchers. For lists of administrators and teachers, an updated list of
currently married female employees of the University of Gujrat and its
constituent campuses (City Campus GT Road, Fawara Chowk, Marghazar
and Railway Road, Gujrat) was collected from the software development
and maintenance cell, University of Gujrat. An updated list of currently
married police officers was gather from the office of the district police officer
(DPO), Gujrat. The recent lists of nurses, lady health workers and doctors
were taken from the office of the district health officer, Gujrat. The recent lists
of female employees of private and public-sector banks were acquired from
the Regional Office of the National Bank of Pakistan (NBP). After the
sampling frame had been developed, it was found that the population in
 MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW 7

the sampling frame was 298. As the population size was small, thus the
researchers decided to study the whole population to get a better
understanding of the relationship of wife’s employment and husband’s marital
satisfaction. A self-structured questionnaire was used as the tool of data
collection for the current study. The tool was transcribed into Urdu for
convenience in the process of data collection. To enhance the reliability,
validity and robustness of the tool of data collection, it was pretested on 10
husbands of currently married employed women.
To locate female employees whose husbands were included in the sample
researchers visited the different departments of Hafiz Hayat Campus,
University of Gujrat. The researchers gave brief information regarding the
purpose of research and handed over the questionnaires to wives of
respondents. After that they were asked to hand over the questionnaires to
their husbands and get these filled from them. The questionnaires were
collected from the wives after two to three days. Similarly, the researcher
visited the constituent campuses (City Campus GT Road, Fawara Chowk,
Marghazar and Railway Road, Gujrat) of University of Gujrat, the banks,
hospitals, Basic Health Units, and DPO office. The same procedure was
followed in all other organizations for data collection.
The researchers distributed 298 questionnaires among the respondents
according to the sampling frame of the study. However, only 283
questionnaires were received by the researchers that were included in the final
data analysis in Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) (version 21.0).
Five respondents were excluded in the final analysis because wives reported
that their husbands were living abroad. 10 respondents did not return the
questionnaires to the researchers; according to the wives of respondents they
were not willing to fill the questionnaires. Researchers ran the correlation
between the perceived economic contribution of the wife’s employment and
wife’s monthly salary to relax the desirability bias concern. The research ethics
were taken into consideration for the current study. The written informed
consent was taken from the respondents for participation in research. It
was also ensured that their given information was kept confidential and will
be used only for research purpose. Factor analysis was used for reliability and
validity analysis used to check the validity of the scale used for the current
study. Multiple linear regression analysis was used for model fit.
Table 1 denoted the values of validity and reliability for the scale of wife’s
work schedule. The standardized Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of
0.645 was obtained for the scale of wife’s work schedule. Scale of wife’s work
schedule enlisted 5 items including flexibility of working hours, giving the
proper time at home and comfortable office hours. Furthermore, visiting
home during office hours in case of emergency and free communication with
the family during office hours were categories of the scale of wife’s work
schedule. Similarly, to evaluate the validity of categories of the scale of wife’s
8 A. SIKANDAR ET AL.

Table 1. Descriptive characteristics of the Factor analysis of independent variable (N = 283).

F (1) F (2)
Wife’s work schedule (Cronbach alpha = 0.645)
1. My wife’s working hours are flexible .749 .162
2. She gives proper time to her home .699 .074
3. She has comfortable regular office hours .856 .056
4. She can visit home easily during office hours in case of emergency .714 −.141
5. She can freely communicate with family during office hours .648 −.045
Child Care Arrangements (Cronbach alpha = 0.673)
1. She takes most of the responsibilities of children herself .579 −.170
2. She has hired a maid to look for children in her absence .601 .072
3. I share her responsibilities regarding child care .616 .029
4. We keep an eye on children’s performance at school .828 −.176
5. If children get sick, we share the responsibilities of taking care of them .762 −.366
Division of Household Labor (Cronbach alpha = 0.654)
1. My wife performs majority of household tasks by herself .728 −.014
2. She often asks for help in household chores .612 .224
3. I do not feel awkward when she asks me for helping in domestic work .670 .186
4. I participate in domestic work because of the reaction of family members .788 .088
5. My wife balances house and job responsibilities in a good way .754 −.210
6. Sharing responsibilities of each other is important for smooth marital life .580 −.305

work schedule factor analysis was applied. Loadings of all the factor analysis
were near or above .60 Additionally, Table 1 represented the values of validity
and reliability for the scale of child care arrangements. The standardized
Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of 0.673 was obtained for the scale of
child care arrangements. Scale of child care arrangements enlisted 5 items
including taking most of the responsibilities of children, hiring a maid to look
after children in wife’s absence and sharing the responsibilities of wife regard-
ing child care. Furthermore, keeping an eye on children’s performance at
school and sharing the responsibilities of taking care of children in sickness
were categories of the scale of child care arrangements. Similarly, to evaluate
the validity of categories of the child care arrangements, researchers executed
factor analysis. Loadings of all the factor analysis were above 0.60 except ‘she
takes most of the responsibilities of children herself (0.579). Furthermore,
Table 1 represented the values of reliability and validity for the scale of
division of household labor. The standardized Cronbach alpha reliability
coefficient of 0.654 was obtained for the scale of division of household labor.
Scale of division of household labor enlisted 6 items including performing
household tasks, asking for help in household chores and not feeling awkward
on helping in domestic work. Furthermore, participating in domestic work
because of the reaction of family members, balancing house and job respon-
sibilities in a good way and sharing responsibilities of each other is important
for a smooth marital life division of household labor. Similarly, factor analysis
was also run to evaluate the validity of categories of the scale of division of
household labor. Loadings of all the factor analysis were above 0.60 except
‘sharing responsibilities of each other is important for smooth marital
life’ (0.580).
 MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW 9

Table 2 highlighted the values of validity and reliability for the scale of
wife’s financial contribution. The standardized Cronbach alpha reliability
coefficient of 0.796 was obtained for the scale of wife’s financial contribution.
Scale of wife’s financial contribution enlisted 5 items including wife earning a
handsome amount of money from her job, feeling fewer burdens on my
shoulders because of my wife’s earning and no contributions in household
expenditures. Furthermore, sharing expenses of children and feeling a raised
standard of living because of my wife’s income. Similarly, factor analysis was
also run to calculate the validity of constructs of the scale of wife’s financial
contribution. Loadings of all the categories of factor analysis were above
0.60 except ‘my wife earns a handsome amount of money from her job
(0.589)’. Table 2 also represented the values of reliability and validity for
the scale of wife’s work preference. The standardized Cronbach alpha
reliability coefficient of 0.812 was obtained for the scale of wife’s work pref-
erence. Scale of wife’s work preference enlisted 6 items including my wife is
a career oriented woman, work enhances her sense of self-worth and doing
job by her own will. Furthermore, not pressurizing her to do a job and no
financial burden which compel her to engage in employment were categories
of wife’s work preference. Similarly, factor analysis was also run to estimate
the validity of constructs of the scale of wife’s financial contribution. Loadings
of all the factor analysis were above 0.60 except ‘there are no financial burdens
which compel her to engage in employment’ (0.533). Table 2 also represented
the values of reliability and validity for the scale of perception of wife employ-
ment. The standardized Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of 0.714 was
obtained for the scale of perception of wife employment. Scale of perception

Table 2. Descriptive characteristics of the Factor analysis of independent variable (N = 283).

F (1) F (2)
Wife’s financial contribution (Cronbach alpha = 0.796)
1. My wife earns a handsome amount of money from her job .589 .284
2. I feel less burden on my shoulders because of my wife’s earning .811 −.005
3. She fairly contributes in household expenditures .857 −.101
4. She also shares expenses of children .720 −.299
5. I feel a raised standard of living because of my wife’s income .762 .065
Wife’s Work Preference (Cronbach alpha = 0.812)
1. My wife is a career oriented woman .771
2. She works because work enhances her sense of self worth .737
3. She works because it enhances her confidence .790
4. She is doing job by her own will .820
5. I have never pressurized her to do job .710
6. There is no financial burden which compel her to engage in employment .533
Perception of Wife employment (Cronbach alpha = 0.714)
1. I feel happy to tell others about my wife’s job .685 .234
2. I have same authority in household as compared to husbands of non-employed wives .519 .264
3. Society views my wife’s employment in a positive way .642 −.029
4. I have no objection regarding her employment .788 −.172
5. Her job has never caused any conflict between us .764 −.120
6. I have never wished my wife to quit her employment .762 −.049
10 A. SIKANDAR ET AL.

of wife employment enlisted 6 items including feeling happy to tell others

about my wife’s job, work enhances her sense of self-worth and doing job
by her own will. Furthermore, having no objection regarding her employ-
ment, positive view of the society towards wife’s employment, and never
wished my wife to quit her employment. Similarly, factor analysis was also
run to assess the validity of items of the scale of perception of Wife employ-
ment. Loadings of all the factor analysis were above 0.60 except `I have same
authority in household as compared to husbands of non-employed wives
(0.519)’.
Table 3 displayed the values of validity and reliability for the scale of
marital adjustment among the husbands of working women. The standar-
dized Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of 0.812 was obtained for the scale
marital adjustment among the husbands of working women. Scale of marital
adjustment among the husbands of working women enlisted 21 items includ-
ing wife’s dealing with family members in a friendly manner, liking the way
wife deals with friends and relatives, wife deals household tasks in an efficient
way and spending quality time together. Additionally, wife spending quality
time with children, wife’s efficient management of child care responsibilities,
wife’s handling of domestic work in a good manner, allowing wife for doing a
job willfully were categories of marital adjustment. Furthermore, having a
pleasant sexual relationship with each other, going out for various recreation
activities, participating in social gatherings of family, wife’s expression of love
for husband, and conflict resolution through mutual understanding were

Table 3. Descriptive characteristics of the Factor analysis of marital adjustment (N = 283).

F (1) F (2) F (3)
Categories of marital adjustment (value of cronbach alpha = 0.916)
1. She deals with my family members in a friendly manner .728 −.214 −.062
2. I like the way she deals with my friends and relatives .725 −.287 −.060
3. She deals household tasks in an efficient way .735 −.438 .044
4. We spend quality time together .698 −.353 .003
5. She spends quality time with children .693 −.407 .093
6. She manages child care responsibilities efficiently .688 −.400 .136
7. she handles domestic work in a good manner .701 −.328 .107
8. I have allowed her for doing job willfully .655 .070 .042
9. She fairly contributes in household expenditures .624 .086 .354
10. She manages the household financial matters efficiently .677 −.002 .298
11. We never had any conflict regarding religious beliefs and practices .566 .331 .197
12. We have pleasant sexual relationship with each other .668 .274 .122
13. We often go out for various recreation activities .559 .287 .289
14. We frequently participate in social gatherings in family .615 .323 .372
15. My wife often expresses her love for me .678 .426 .160
16. She stands by me through thick and thin .684 .322 .017
17. We resolve the conflicts with mutual understanding .522 .250 −.208
18. She performs all her duties that a wife is supposed to perform .706 −.004 −.142
19. I trust my wife in every matter .696 .089 −.482
20. She is a sincere and faithful wife .701 .172 −.553
21. I am happy with this relationship .699 .179 −.562
 MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW 11

listed as categories of marital adjustment. Factor analysis was also run to

appraise the validity of items of the scale of marital adjustment. Loadings
of all the factor analysis were above 0.60 except ‘We never had any conflict
regarding religious beliefs and practices (0.567), ‘we resolve the conflicts with
mutual understanding (0.522) and ‘We often go out for various recreation
activities’ (0.561). All the scales in the current study had a Likert-type
response format ranging between strongly agreed (5), agree (4), neutral (3)
to disagree (2), strongly disagreed (1).

Data analysis
Demographic statistics
Table 4 demonstrated the demographic characteristics of the respondents. In
the age of the respondents, 14.5% were in the age bracket of 21–30 years,

Table 4. Descriptive statistics of demographic variables of respondents (N = 283).

Demographic variable Frequency Percentage (%)
Respondent’s Age
21–30 41 14.5
31–40 124 43.8
41–50 79 27.9
51–60 39 13.8
Respondent ‘s Education
Below Metric 22 7.8
Metric 66 23.3
Intermediate 43 15.2
Bachelors 56 19.8
Masters and Above 96 33.9
Respondent ‘s Monthly Income
No Income 09 3.2
10000–15000 50 17.7
15001–25000 65 23.0
25001–45000 96 34.3
45001–60000 32 11.3
Above 60000 30 10.6
Wife’s Monthly Income
10000–15000 84 29.7
15001–25000 75 26.5
25001–45000 73 25.8
45001–60000 27 9.5
Above 60000 24 8.5
Duration of Marriage
1–10 years 170 60.1
11–20 years 80 28.3
21–30 years 27 9.5
31–40 years 06 2.1
Family Structure
Nuclear 122 43.1
Joint 161 56.9
Residential Area
Urban 182 64.3
Rural 101 35.7
12 A. SIKANDAR ET AL.

43.8% were in the age group of 31–40 years, 27.9% of the respondents were in
the age bracket of 41–50 years and 13.8% belonged to an age group of 51–60
years. Hence, most of the respondents (43.8%) were from the age group of 31–
40 years. In the education of the respondents, 7.8% had education level less
than matriculation, 23.3% have matric, 15.2% were intermediate as level of
education, 19.8% had bachelors level of education while 33.9% had masters
and above level of education. Hence, most of the respondents (33.9%) had
masters and above level of education.
In the monthly income of the respondents, 3.2% of the husbands had no
income, income of 17.7% of the respondents were between 10,001–15,000
Pakistani rupees (PKR), 23.0% of the respondents were earning around
15,001–25,000 PKR, income of 34.3% of the respondents was around
25,001–45,000 PKR, 11.3% of the respondents were earning around 45,001–
60,000 PKR, while income of 10.6% respondents was above 60,000 PKR.
Hence, the monthly income of majority of the respondents (34.2%) was
around 25,001–45,000 PKR. In the marriage duration of the respondents,
60.1% of the respondents had marriage duration around 1–10 years, 28.3%
had marital duration around 11–20 years, 9.5% of the respondents had marital
duration around 21–30 years while only 2.1% of the respondents had marital
duration of 31–40 years. Hence, the marital duration of a majority of the
respondents was around 1–10 years. In the family structure, 43.1% of
the respondents were living in a nuclear family system while 56.9% of the
respondents were living joint family system. In residential patterns of the
respondents, 64.3% were living in an urban area while 35.7% were living in
a rural area.

Multiple linear regression analysis

Table 5 presented the multiple linear regression analysis between dependent
and independent variables. The finding of the current study showed that
the factors of marital adjustment including wife’s work schedule, division of

Table 5. Multiple linear regression analysis of marital status and independent variables
(N = 283).
Unstandardized coefficients Standardized coefficients
Independent variables B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
(Constant) 15.486 4.353 3.557 .000
Wife’s Work Schedule .447 .194 .116* 2.305 .022
Child Care Arrangements .105 .179 .028 .588 .557
Division of Household Labor .890 .171 .240*** 5.209 .000
Wife’s Financial Contribution .494 .169 .138** 2.924 .004
Wife’s Work Preference .734 .151 .234*** 4.872 .000
Perception of Wife Employment .967 .171 .296*** 5.642 .000
(p < 0.001, F = 53.129, Adjusted R2 = 0.538)
Note: *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.
 MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW 13

household labor, child care arrangements, wife’s financial contribution, per-

ception of wife employment, and wife’s work preference were significant
predictors of husband’s marital adjustment of husband of working women
(F = 53.129, p < 0.001) and the association among the variables accounted
for 54% of the variance in the dependent variable (R = .538). The
finding explored the association of wife’s work schedule, division of
household labor, child care arrangements, wife’s financial contribution,
perception of wife employment and wife’s work preference with marital
adjustment of the husbands of working women. The factors which were
found to be significant with marital adjustment of husband of working
women were wife’s work schedule (standard beta = .194, p < 0.001), division
of household labor (standard beta = 0.171, p < 0.001), wife’s financial contri-
bution (standard beta = 0.169, p < 0.001), wife’s work preference (standard
beta = 0.151, p < 0.001), perception of wife employment (standard beta =
0.171, p < 0.001) and child care arrangements (standard beta = 0.179,
p < 0.001).

Discussion
The current study examined the relationship between wife’s labor force
participation and husband’s marital adjustment. Child care arrangements,
division of household labor, wife’s financial contribution, work-schedule of
wife, perception of wife employment and wife’s work preference were evalu-
ated as the predictors of husband’s marital adjustment with employed married
females. Wife’s work schedule (standard beta = .194, p < 0.001) was positively
associated with husbands’ marital adjustment. The positive value of standard
beta suggested that favorable wife’s work schedule resulted in greater marital
adjustment among husband of employed married female. Contrarily, stressful
and hectic nature of work was associated with lower levels of marital adjust-
ment among husbands of employed married female. The empirical evidence
of the current study corroborates some previous literature (Rook, Dooley,
& Catalano, 1991; Sears & Galambos, 1992).
Division of household labor (standard beta = 0.171, p < 0.001) was posi-
tively related to marital adjustment of the husbands of employed married
female. It suggested that highly favorable division of household labor leads
to higher level of husband’s marital adjustment. The current study validated
the findings of the previous studies that had revealed that the division of labor
around both emotional work and housework were significant predictors for
men’s marital satisfaction (Stevens, Kiger, & Riley, 2001). Additionally, hus-
bands’ and wives’ satisfaction with the division of household labor was
strongly associated with marital quality (Lennon & Rosenfield, 1994; Pina &
Bengtson, 1993). Division of household labor created situation of equity in
the familial sphere that ultimately led to marital satisfaction among employed
14 A. SIKANDAR ET AL.

women (Bahmani, Aryamanesh, Bahmani, & Gholami, 2013). Wife’s financial

contribution (standard beta = 0.169, p < 0.001) was positively related to hus-
bands’ marital adjustment. It indicated that highly favorable perception
regarding wife’s financial contribution lead to higher level of husband’s mari-
tal adjustment. These findings were supported by previous research where
women’s employment improved husbands’ marital quality through provision
of additional income and reducing husband’s financial responsibility (White
& Keith, 1990).
Wife’s work preference (standard beta = 0.151, p < 0.001) was positively
related to husbands’ marital adjustment. It highlighted that favorable wife’s
work preference was associated with higher level of husband’s marital adjust-
ment. These findings were consistent with previous research stating that cou-
ples whose preferences were consistent with wife’s employment status
experienced higher levels of marital satisfaction than couples in which one
or both spouse’s preference were inconsistent with wife’s employment status
(Ross, Mirowsky, & Huber, 1983). Similarly, previous academic literature
highlighted the indirect effect of hours spent in the paid labor force on marital
satisfaction (Stevens, Kiger, & Riley, 2001). The current study contradicted the
finding of the previous study that indicated the marital adjustment was not
significantly associated with wife employment alone, preference for wife
employment, or duration of work per week for employed wives (Williams-
Evans, Feinauel, Hendrix, & Stahmann, 1989). Perception of wife employment
(standard beta = 0.171, p < 0.001) was positively associated with husbands’
marital adjustment. It revealed that highly favorable perception of wife
employment lead to higher level of husband’s marital adjustment. The social
exchange perspective argued that husband’s perception about wife’s employ-
ment depended on his comparison of rewards and costs. Increase in
husband’s family responsibilities, decrease in the amount of time that couples
had together, or a threat to the husband’s role as economic provider could
lead to undesirability of husband towards wives’ employment. Improvement
in husbands’ marital quality through provision of additional income,
reduction of husband’s financial responsibility, and amelioration of family’s
standard of living could lead to favorable perception of wife’s participation
in labor force (White & Keith, 1990).
Child care arrangements (standard beta = 0.179, p < 0.01) was positively
related to husbands’ marital adjustment. The husbands with highly favorable
perception of child care arrangements had higher level of marital adjustment.
Existing literature revealed the indirect influence of the number of children
and preschool-age children on marital adjustment of employed married
couples (Stevens, Kiger, & Riley, 2001). Additionally, Marital satisfaction
has been tied to couple-level demographic traits such as duration of marriage
and number of children (Orithinkal & Vansteenwegen, 2007). Satisfaction
with domestic-labor such as household tasks, and childcare arrangements
 MARRIAGE & FAMILY REVIEW 15

interceded the association between domestic-labor performance and marital

adjustment (Stevens, Kiger, & Mannon, 2005). Employed mothers spent more
than three times the number of hours per week on childcare activities than
that of employed men (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000). Marital couples,
who received favorable reward/cost outcomes from each other in a fair ratio,
were more likely to be satisfied with their marriage (Homans, 1974).

Conclusion
The husbands of married women had favorable perception about their wife’s
involvement in the paid labor force that resulted in adjustment and satisfac-
tion in marital relationship. It negated the assumptions of gender role ideol-
ogies. It was because of the changing dimensions of gender role ideologies in
familial sphere. The boundaries of sexual division of labor between men and
women are blurring with the passage of time due to increasing level of edu-
cational attainment and gender based awareness. The traditional gendered
stereotypes seem to be changing and shifting the focus of husbands to make
rational choices about participation of wives in labor force. It seemed more
rational to marry with a working woman who not only performed her
traditional role of homemaker but also provided support and assistance to
husband by sharing the traditional role as breadwinner.

Research limitation and implication

Unit of analysis for the current study was from selected professions so its
findings cannot be generalized on all the professions. Literature suggested
the importance of examining different aspects of work-family balance in
understanding the marital adjustment among married and employed couples
(Yucel, 2017). So, the current study would be helpful in comprehending the
role of different aspects of work-family balance such as wife’s work schedule,
child care arrangements in marital adjustment of working couples from a lens
of patriarchal society.

Future research
Future research needs to investigate marital adjustment of husbands of
working women with professions (such as sports women, women of entertain-
ment industry, sales girls, receptionists, air hostesses, personal secretaries,
female politicians etc.) that are highly stigmatized for women or have not
gained acceptance in patriarchal society such as Pakistan. Future research
can explore the preferences of mate selection among males with
reference to female’s employment status. More research is needed within
patriarchal societies that are gaining in gender quality under the influences
16 A. SIKANDAR ET AL.

of increasing levels of education, global transformations, and increases in

cross-cultural and interpersonal communication with respect to marital
adjustment and its causes.

Acknowledgment
The current study is the part of MPhil dissertation of the first author that has been submitted
to the repository of Higher Education Commission (HEC), Pakistan.

ORCID
Saeed Ahmad http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6896-2722

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