Lecture4 (1) - Gia PDF

Chapter-4: Map Generation and Analysis NPTEL Web Course (12th Aug.
2011)
Chapter 4
MAP GENERATION AND ANALYSIS
Keywords: Digitization, Map layers, map algebra, route building, map accuracy
4.1 Creating maps in GIS
The process of representing an analogue signal or an image by a discrete set of its points is
known as Digitizing. This data after conversion is in the binary format, which is directly
readable by computer. The data to be converted can be a text, an image, audio or a video. The
analogue signals are variable whereas the digital format is the discrete one. These discrete
units are called as bits. These bits organized in groups are known as byte. The digital signals
are mainly represented in the form of sequence of integers. These integers can be converted
back to analogue signal that are approximately similar to the original analogue signals.
Digitizing is done by reading an analogue signal „A‟, and at regular time intervals,
representing the value of „A‟ at that point by an integer. Digitizing is the process where
coordinates from a map, image or other sources are converted into digital format in a GIS.
Often, digital data for a GIS project is not available, so it must be created from other existing
sources like paper maps. Points, lines and polygons represent real-world entities or
phenomena. There are two primary methods for digitizing spatial information: Manual
method, Vectorization.
4.1.1 Manual Methods
Manual digitizing (Figure 4.1) using a digitizing tablet has been widely used in past. With
this method, the operator manually traces all the lines from his hardcopy map using a pointer
device and create an identical digital map on his computer. A line is digitized by collecting a
series of points along the line. Although this method is straight forward, it requires
experienced operator and is very time consuming. For a complex contour map, it can take a
person 10 to 20 days to get the map fully digitized. Another major drawback of this method is
its low accuracy. The accuracy of manual digitizing merely depends on how accurate the
hardcopy map is duplicated on a computer by hand. The spatial accuracy level the human
hand can resolve is about 40 DPI (dots per inch) in the best case and will be lower while the
operator is tired and bored after working on it for a period of time. One experiment was done
at a university, a group of geography students were asked to digitize the same map and the
65
Course Title: Geo-informatics in Transportation Engineering
Course Co-ordinator: Dr. Ashish Verma, IISc Bangalore
Chapter-4: Map Generation and Analysis NPTEL Web Course (12th Aug. 2011)
final digitized maps were overlaid on top of each other to create a new map. The result is not
surprising; the new map is heavily distorted as compared to the original map. Manual
digitizing is supported by most GIS packages with direct link to a digitizing tablet through a
computer I/O port.
Figure 4.1: Manual Digitization

There are two methods of manual digitizing:-
a) Hardcopy Digitizing
b) On-screen Digitizing (Heads-up digitizing)
4.1.1.1 Hardcopy Digitizing
Hardcopy digitizing (Figure 4.2) requires a person to enter coordinate information through
the use of a digitizing tablet and digitizing puck.
1) A digitizing tablet is a surface with a fine electrical wire grid under the surface.
66
2) A digitizing puck is an electrical device with cross hairs and multiple buttons to
perform data entry operations.
3) An operator then enters the information using the puck.
Manual digitizing is quite accurate when performed with care. Regardless of its popularity in
entering spatial information into GIS, it is slowly being sent to history by new automated
methods.
Figure 4.2: Hard copy Digitization using Puck
4.1.1.2 On-Screen Digitizing
On-screen digitizing is an interactive process in which a map is created using previously

scanned information. This method of geo-coding is commonly called "heads-up" digitizing
because the attention of the user is focused up on the screen, and not on a digitizing tablet.
This technique may be used to trace features from a scanned map or image to create new
layers or themes. On-screen digitizing may also be employed in an editing session where
there is enough information on the screen to accurately add new features without a reference
image or map.
The process of on-screen digitizing (Figure 4.3) is similar to conventional digitizing. Rather
than using a digitizer and a cursor, the user creates the map layer up on the screen with the
mouse and typically with referenced information as a background. The main steps in on-
screen digitizing typically include:
Scanning the map
Registering the map
Digitizing the map
67
Figure 4.3: Onscreen Digitization

Scanning the map:
Scanning (Figure 4.4) converts paper maps into digital format by capturing features as
individual cells, or pixels, producing an automated image. Scanning automatically captures
map features, text, and symbols as individual cells, or pixels, and produces an automated
image. A document is scanned using a digital scanner, Light is emitted onto the document,
and the reflected light is read in by a sensor, the sensor then records the reflected brightness
to create an image.
Figure 4.4: Scanning the Topo Sheet (Map)
68
Registering the map:
Geo-registration is the process of adjusting one drawing or image to the geographic location
of a "known good" reference drawing, image, surface or map. For brevity, this topic and
other geo-registration topics use images as examples. However, the same procedures apply
when geo-registering drawings or surfaces (Figure 4.5).
The drawing, image, surface or map being used as a reference is called the
reference component.
The drawing, image or surface being adjusted is called the target component.
Figure 4.5: Registering the map
Control points are used to geo-register images, surfaces, drawings and label components.
During geo-registration the target image will be re-projected to match the reference drawing
using the control points as a guide. The image above shows conceptually how control points
in a reference drawing are matched up with equivalent control points in a target image.
Control points are matched by their name. For example, the spot marked by a control point
named "ControlPoint2" in the drawing will be matched to the location in the image marked
by a control point that is also named "ControlPoint2." Control points may be called by any
names so long as the names used for control points within the reference component or target
component correspond to the same location. For example, we could use the name "San Mateo
Bridge East" for control points in both the reference component and the target component.
These two points with the same name will be matched during the geo-registration process.
69
The choice of names is up to the user. Some users prefer long, descriptive names while others
prefer short names.
Digitizing the map:
Digitizing in GIS is the process of “tracing”, in a geographically correct way, information

from images/maps.
4.1.2 Vectorization
Vectorization is the process of making explicit, information in the raster image, by defining
objects within the image using lines, arcs, closed polygons, etc. Vectorization of contours
from a scanned topographical map is a complex procedure, requiring identification of
features, rigorous image classification strategies and manipulation of spatial data structures
like direction of line, boundaries and nodes, polygon, vertices chain, etc. The automatic
extraction of contour lines from a scanned topographical map and its subsequent
vectorization is one of the major research problems in computer cartography and GIS.
The industry practice of manual vectorization using CAD software is time consuming and
usage of automatic vectorization schemes is desirable. There are many commercial software
packages available to carryout automatic or semi-automatic vectorization of maps. However
they are not custom made for contour vectorization. Developing a robust automatic contour
vectorization schemes is the research topic that has been in focus. This is evident from the
volume of active research works carried out in the past 30 years towards designing an
automatic scheme for tracing contour lines.
4.2 Concept of Map Layers
GIS stores information about the features and events in a collection of thematic map layers or
coverage. Thematic maps are maps which are created as per the planner‟s requirement to
enable him to get an overall view with respect to a particular theme. Such maps are very
helpful at various stages of transportation planning to present results or for doing preliminary
analysis.
70
A layer is a group of features of the same type. In transportation a layer may represent a
particular thematic map. So multilayer will consist of many layers where each layer refers to
a particular theme. The main motivations behind creating a multiple layers are flexibility in
data modeling, and efficient processing of data. Multi layers are used for over lay analysis,
collating single point data and for map algebra.
Consider the schematic diagram (Figure-4.6) below, that the GIS allows us to arrange
information about a given region or city as a set of maps with each map displaying
information about one characteristic of the region. In the case below, a set of maps that will
be helpful for urban transportation planning have been gathered. Each of these separate
thematic maps is referred to as a layer, coverage, or level. And each layer has been carefully
overlaid on the others so that every location is precisely matched to its corresponding
locations on all the other maps. The bottom layer of this diagram is the most important, for it
represents the grid of a locational reference system (such as latitude and longitude) to which
all the maps have been precisely registered. Once these maps have been registered carefully
within a common locational reference system i.e., after conversion information displayed on
the different layers can be compared and analyzed in combination. Transit routes can be
compared to the location of shopping malls, population density to centers of employment.
Figure 4.6: Transportation planning data in map layers (1)
71
Figure 4.7: Transportation planning data in map layers (2)
In addition, single locations or areas can be separated from surrounding locations, as in

Figure-4.8, by simply cutting all the layers of the desired location from the larger map.
Whether for one location or the entire region, GIS offers a means of searching for spatial
patterns and processes.
Figure 4.8: Information of a Single point from all layers
72
Not all analyses will require using all of the map layers simultaneously. In some cases, a
researcher will use information selectively to consider relationships between specific layers.
Furthermore, information from two or more layers might be combined and then transformed
into a new layer for use in subsequent analyses. This process of combining and transforming
information from different layers is sometimes called map "algebra" insofar as it involves
adding and subtracting information (Figure-4.9). If, for example, we wanted to consider the
effects of widening a road, we could begin with the road layer, widen a road to its new width
to produce a new map, and overlay this new map on layers representing land use.
Figure 4.9: Concept of Map Algebra
4.3 Land Cover Analysis
Land cover refers to the physical and biological cover over the surface of land, including
water, vegetation, bare soil, and/or artificial structures. Land cover is a fundamental
parameter describing the Earth‟s surface. This parameter is a considerable variable that
impacts on and links many parts of the human and physical environments. Land use is a more
complicated term. Natural scientists define land use in terms of syndromes of human
activities such as agriculture, forestry and building construction that alter land surface
73
processes including biogeochemistry, hydrology and biodiversity. Social scientists and land
managers define land use more broadly to include the social and economic purposes and
contexts for and within which lands are managed (or left unmanaged), such as subsistence
versus commercial agriculture, rented vs. owned, or private vs. public land. Land use can be
inferred but not explicitly derived from satellite and aerial imagery. There is no spectral basis
for land use determination in satellite imagery. All surfaces reflect, absorb, or transmit
incident light. Different materials reflect and absorb different amounts and wavelengths of
light along the electromagnetic spectrum. This is the basis for identifying surface components
with remote sensing.
High-resolution analog aerial photography can be used to delineate geographic themes of

information, such as wetlands etc. Digital sensors, such as most satellite-based sensors, can
collect multiple wavelengths of light in regions of the electromagnetic spectrum not possible
with an analog photographic medium. It is possible to manipulate and statistically analyze
these wavelengths of light to determine unique characteristics of the landscape and ground
surface. These characteristics can be turned into information such as land cover.
Digital raster images are analogous to spreadsheets. They are cells filled with meaningful
numeric observations and in this case, digital values representing the intensity of light
reflected from surface materials. Therefore, it is possible to statistically analyze digital
imagery to determine land cover. The spectral signatures are developed from the reflective
characteristics of each cell and the cells are compared and clumped together to form land
cover classes. In a perfect world, each spectral signature would represent a unique landscape
component. This is rarely the case. So, many processes and applications have been designed
to extract information from digital imagery.
4.3.1 Applications of Land Cover Analysis
The various applications of land cover analysis include selecting conservation areas, keeping
wetlands healthy, controlling runoff, habitat management, managing coastal estuaries, saving
open space (to identify the best lands to protect), tracking wetland change, water resource
management protecting fragile environments etc. The main application of land cover analysis
with respect to transportation lies in identifying the urban sprawl with respect to the land use
74
pattern of a particular study area. But as already mentioned it cannot be explicitly done from
satellite or aerial imagery. Satellite or aerial imagery has to be combined with conventional
ground data for this.
4.3.1.1 Land Cover Analysis for Measuring Urban Sprawl
Rapid urban development and increasing land use changes due to increasing population and
economic growth in selected landscapes is being witnessed of late in India and other
developing countries. The measurement and monitoring of these land use changes are crucial
to understand land use cover dynamics over different spatial and temporal time scales for
effective land management. Today, with rapid urbanization and industrialization, there is
increasing pressure on land, water and environment, particularly in the big metropolitan
cities. The complexity of a dynamic phenomenon such as urban sprawl could be understood
with the analyses of land use changes, sprawl pattern and computation of sprawl indicator
index. The term urban sprawl generally has negative connotations due to the health,
environmental and cultural issues associated with the phrase. Residents of sprawling
neighborhoods tend to emit more pollution per person and suffer more traffic fatalities.
Sprawl is controversial, with supporters claiming that consumers prefer lower density
neighborhoods and that sprawl do not necessarily increase traffic. Urban sprawl (Figure 4.10
and Figure 4.11) may be defined as the scattering of new development on isolated tracts,
separated from other areas by vacant land. It is also often described as leapfrog development
as observed in all the major cities across the world. There is a demand to constantly monitor
such changes and understand the processes for taking effective and corrective measures
towards a planned and healthy development of urban areas. In the recent times, Remote
sensing data is being widely used for mapping and monitoring of urban sprawl of cities. The
spatial patterns of urban sprawl over different time periods, can be systematically mapped,
monitored and accurately assessed from satellite data along with conventional ground data.
4.4 Transportation Network Creation and Linear Route Building
A transportation network in GIS is a mathematical graph that is an abstract representation of

the transportation system. The network model of GIS built around the concepts of arc and
75
node plays the most prominent role in transportation because single and multi – modal
infrastructure networks are vital in enabling and supporting passenger and freight movement.
Figure 4.10: Land use map of Hyderabad
Figure 4.11: Map showing Urban sprawl
Many transportation applications only require a network model to represent data. Network
model in GIS include detailed characteristics such as: Turn delays or restrictions, overpasses,
underpasses, and one-way links, intersection and junction attributes, intermodal or interline
terminals, transfer points, and delay functions, zonal centroid connectors, link classifications
and performance functions, transit access, egress, and walk transfer links. So they have to be
76
extremely efficient and compact data files that hold essential information for analysis in
transportation.
Networks (Figure 4.12) are special data structures that stores important characteristics of
transportation systems and facilities. Networks are used to analyze the way people and goods
flow from one location to another. The information contained in and derived from networks
is critical for many different applications, including routing and scheduling, mode choice
modeling and traffic assignment models. Though we create our network models primarily for
transportation analysis, many of these models are applicable to many different disciplines,
including telephone and computer communications, hydrology, critical path scheduling, and
manufacturing systems. We will study much about the creation of a transportation network in
the subs sequent chapters.
Figure 4.12: A typical rail network created in TransCAD
Routes and Route Systems (Figure 4.13) in a network indicate paths taken by trucks, rail,
cars, buses, or individuals traveling from place to place. GIS includes tools to create, display,
edit, and manipulate routes, and unique display technology for mapping routes in a clear and
compelling fashion. You can organize a set of related routes into a single route system layer,
and include route attributes, stop locations, and vehicle schedules.
77
Figure 4.13: A typical bus route map in TransCAD
A matrix is an essential and powerful data structure in GIS for storing transportation data in
form of rows and columns. In most matrices each row and column corresponds to one feature
in a map layer (Figure 4.14). Matrices hold data such as distance, travel times, and origin-
destination flows that are essential for many transportation applications. GIS tools provide
functions for creating and manipulating matrices, and tools for spatial analysis and advanced
visualization of matrix data. This combination lets you see and understand transportation
flows and network characteristics in new and different ways.
4.4.1 Linear route building

Many types of transportation data involve routes and route systems. A route is a series of line
segments that has at least one common attribute, such as a route number, a service frequency,
or its own attribute such as route distance, time, or cost. Highway departments assign route
names to facilities. Transit authorities schedule rapid transit and light rail routes over rail
networks and bus routes over road networks. Private transportation carriers create routes for
pickup and delivery vehicles. In many cases data is associated with routes, and there may be
stops or reference points located along each route.
78
Figure 4.14: Matrix creation in TransCAD
Each route in a route system is defines as a series of one or more line features. The route
system is one map layer, and the line features are stored in another layer in the map. Some
examples like
A designated highway route composed of a series of highway line features
A truck route based on a series of streets between delivery points
A bus route defined by the series of streets over which the bus travels
A subway route operating over elevated, surface, and underground rail line
features
In each of these cases, selected features from a regular line layer (highway, street, railroads)
are used to define a route (Figure 4.15).
When defining a route system, each line feature that is a part of a route is referred as a
segment. Every point is made up of a series of segments. Several routes in a route system
may operate on the same segment. Several routes in route system may operate on the same
segment. A route can be continuous, with all of its segments connected to each other. A route
can also have gaps or spaces in it.
79
Figure 4.15: Linear referencing with respect to mile costs in TransCAD
For example, a route covered by a snow plow, includes some stretches where the plow is in
use, but has gaps in places where the plow lifts its blade to travel to another neighborhood. A
route system can have
No stops, such as a highway inventory
Route stops, such as truck routes with delivery points
Physical stops and route stops, such as bus system or railroad with stations, time
points, etc.
Route system can contain information about stops that are along a route. When we create a
route system, we can indicate whether to include route stops or not. Stops can be place
anywhere along the route, and can be used for many different applications. The stops on a bus
route layer mark the locations where riders can board and disembark. Stops on a vehicle route
mark the locations where the pickups or deliveries occur. Physical stops are of inventory
places where route stops can occur. They are most often used for transit or rail routes and
indicate the locations of stations, junctions, or signs along the routes. Each physical stop is
attributed to one side of a segment. Physical stops shown with a purple plus symbol (+) are
80
on the right side of the segment, and physical stops shown with a green minus symbol (-) are
on the left side of the segment, based on the topological direction of the segment. If a
segment is one way, physical stops can only be created on or move to one side of the
segment.
While creating a route system, we can have plenty of options where we can store the
attributes against to each option. For instance linear referencing, where it is provided space to
store and display milepost values, route table to add extra attributes to the table that describes
the routes etc. Data on transportation and utility networks are often stored without geographic
co-ordinates, but with linear referencing system. Linear Referencing identifies the location of
transportation features as a distance from a fixed point along a route. It can display and
analyze these data sets without conversion, and includes dynamic segmentation functions to
merge and analyze multiple linear-referenced data sets. The data sets can include facility
infrastructure and operations data, accident locations, pavement or rail condition ratings,
traffic flows and transit rider ship data, facility alignments capital project data, mapping and
data visualization etc.
4.5 GIS Limitations in Transportation
Even though GIS provide an excellent tool for routing and logistics, there are some
limitations:
1) Sometimes the complexity of the schematic network may affect the performance of
the routing. In these case simplified schematic network may be preferred
2) It is very difficult to represent transportation features when they are connected in
violation of real world conditions such as when an over pass is connected to an
underlying road.
3) GIS software does not provide robust functions for optimizing with time constraints.
4) The most complex routing problems are not addressed in GIS because the routing
constraints in junctions may be more problematic to specify.
5) The performance of GIS programs may be slower than that of non GIS programs.
This is since GIS carry spatial topology along with it.
81
4.6 Map Accuracy and Location Expression
A quantitative analysis of maps is done in GIS, but GIS brings accuracy issues into focus.
Moreover, machines used to make measurements in GIS (digital computers) are inherently
far more precise than the machines of conventional map analysis. The bitter truth is that all
geographical data are inherently inaccurate, and these inaccuracies will propagate through
GIS operations in ways that are difficult to predict.
Error analysis in spatial databases is very important and with a direct bearing on the accuracy
of GIS, it requires a due consideration. Map accuracy is an important issue consisting of two
aspects viz. (i) Attributes, and (ii) Spatial position, whether relative or absolute. The accuracy
of spatial database is a derivative of the map and all results obtained are compared to the
accuracy of the map. The map data, raster data and vector data requires to be compared for all
the three graphic primitives viz. Point, Line and Area. One of the major requirements in the
Digital Topographic Data Bases (DTDB) of a large country is consideration of a variety of
features. These features may vary according to the topographical conditions of the regions of
the country; and, in a large country, there could be many types of topography. As in the case
of India, there could be three different types like snow-clad high hills, vast plains, and
deserts. The scale of a map is a very important aspect since the information content depends
mainly on the scale of the map. It has been found that 1:50,000 maps are the most suitable for
making DTDB in Indian conditions as these maps are readily available and the information
contents in such maps are sufficient to serve many purposes. In order to digitize the maps, the
easiest method was found to be scanning of paper maps.
4.6.1 Map accuracy
Map accuracy should be determined by the intended use of the map. Historically, map
accuracy determined the scale at which the map would be drawn. Until recently it has been
customary to specify the scale of aerial photography for digital orthophotos, planimetric
features, and topographic features, and then apply the National Map Accuracy Standard or
other similar standard to determine the accuracy of the map. Resolution is a property of an
image that describes the level of detail that can be discerned from it. Since the smallest
element in a satellite image is a single pixel, resolution describes the area on the Earth's
82
surface represented by a single pixel. For example, in a weather satellite image that has a
resolution of 1 km, each pixel represents the average brightness value over an area that is 1
km by 1 km. Features smaller than 1 km will be difficult to discern clearly in an image with 1
km resolution. Much detail can be seen as the resolutions of an image increases (Figure 4.16).
Figure 4.16: Resolution concepts and comparison
The resolution of a particular satellite sensor must be optimized for the intended use of the
data. Weather satellites generally monitor weather patterns that cover hundreds or even
thousands of miles, therefore there is no need for resolution higher than about 0.5 km.
„Landsat‟ and other land-use satellites, however, need to distinguish between much smaller
items, such as a corn field and a forested area or between a road and a protected wetland.
Therefore, a higher resolution is required. The trade-off for higher resolution, however, is that
the amount of data produced by the satellite is much greater, which increases transmission
times and burdens the mission with a tremendous amount of data to store.
4.6.2 Manipulation and Enhancements
In the first step, simple image pre-processing is carried out including image enhancement,
and geometric correction. Enhancement techniques were applied to satellite image in order to
increase visual distinctions between features and increase the amount of information that can
be visually interpreted from the data. Image enhancement includes the following options:
Edge Detection, Contrast Manipulation, Histogram Equalization. At the last stage of image
83
processing, accuracy assessment of classification is performed. Accuracy assessment is an

important feature of land-cover and land-use mapping, not only as a guide to map quality and
reliability, but also in understanding thematic uncertainty and its likely implications to the
end user. Many manipulation techniques like color and false color method, enhancement
curves, transformations and classifications are done for analyzing the image and to conclude
the type of signature.
Although it is several years, even decades since the advent of digital maps, global positioning
systems (GPS) technology, and machine-searchable street names and coordinates; it can be
surprisingly difficult for the average person to describe a location, even one limited to the
discrete confines of a street network. This problem is faced daily by people reporting
accidents and vehicle breakdowns, and by the emergency service personnel receiving and
servicing those calls.
Recent technological development in intelligent transportation systems (ITS) allows vehicles

and pedestrians to be tracked in real time, using GPS, cellular phone tower triangulation,
inductive loop detectors embedded in highway pavement, or closed circuit television (CCTV)
cameras; even satellite imagery is being proposed as a tracking option. The methods have
applications in emergency servicing, real-time highway information provision (e.g.
congestion, construction, fog) and traffic management, hazardous material management,
travel demand studies, law enforcement and criminology. They are certain to generate a large
volume of geographically referenced data in the coming years. But given the inherent
difficulty in describing location, the positional references in such data could be ambiguous or
erroneous, and the errors could propagate through subsequent processing of the data.
4.6.3 Location Expression
For transportation purposes, location referencing is the description of location of a static or

dynamic object, in one, two or three dimensions. In the case of dynamic objects there may be
reference to a fourth dimension. The object may be a disabled vehicle, which is static and has
relatively easily defined location. Alternately, it may be an incidence of congestion, the
boundaries of which are not easily defined, though if modelled appropriately, congestion can
be sampled using loop detectors and CCTV. A toxic plume is an example of an object that is
84
dynamic, that may have poorly defined boundaries, and whose location is not easily
measured.
We use the term location expression (LX) to mean the description of location by coordinates,
street names or other means. The process of communicating an LX is location expression
exchange, or LXX. An object that changes location over time, such as a moving vehicle, is
described by multiple pairings of an LX with a time expression, (TX) (note that time is also
subject to uncertainty and variation in expression, e.g. ``1430 h PST'', ``yesterday'' or ``every
Tuesday in the summer'').
The first is the accuracy of the initial position capture and expression. A highway incident is
typically reported to emergency services by several cellular phone callers, their descriptions
perhaps pointing to different locations. Police often record accident data at the nearest
intersection to an incident, because they do not have the means to measure the distance from
the intersection. Even if the incident location were reportedly GPS coordinates, the 10±100 m
GPS error could position the incident on the wrong highway ramp or on an adjacent service
road. The second problem is the error in the reference map with which the location is
interpreted.
4.6.4 Data Base and Position Errors
To understand the extent of the spatial interoperability problem, one must appreciate the
types and degree of error in digital map databases. In general there are errors in position,
classification and inclusion, names and other descriptive attributes, linear measurement and
topological relationships.
Although digital maps are sometimes thought to be exceptionally precise, there is no reason
why they should be better than hardcopy products. Whether paper or digital, a map is an
iconic representation of a reality that can be interpreted in different ways. That reality itself
may not be constant. For example, street centrelines and intersections are defined precisely at
the time of construction planning, but once the survey stakes are removed and the asphalt lay,
the centreline is represented by a stripe of paint, which wanders slightly each time there is
construction activity or re-striping. Consequently there is about + or - 0.5 m of lateral
85
uncertainty in a centreline, and + or - 2 to 3 m in the definition of a large intersection. A gore

point (the ``V'' at a highway exit, where the right shoulder stripe of the highway and the left
shoulder stripe of the exit meet) may wander about 10 m due to striping imprecision and this
is not immediately evident from the vantage point of a moving vehicle. These are examples
of uncertainty in a real-world object; in addition there is error in the measurement and
representation of that object. The earth‟s frame of global references itself subject to some
uncertainty due to wobbling, tectonic movement and tides, and true sub-metre accuracy is
achievable only in relation to local monuments. Digitization of a centreline from aerial
photographs or older maps inevitably introduces error and generalization, the amount
depending on the source scale. The cumulative effect of these sources of uncertainty and
error is that road alignments can differ as much as 100 m in urban areas, and 200 m on
winding mountain roads. An incident at a freeway interchange can therefore appear to be on
the wrong ramp (Fig. 4.17(a)), or in an adjacent neighbourhood (Fig. 4.17(b)). It is unlikely
that a third coordinate (elevation) can resolve this reliably, for two reasons: first, current
databases do not contain the third dimension; secondly, error in GPS elevation readings is
generally twice as high as horizontal error.
Figure 4.17: Positional error.
A coordinate from a vehicle on a ramp or highway in map A (star on solid line) snaps to the
wrong ramp or street in map B (dot on broken line): (a) shows a freeway interchange in Santa
Barbara; (b) is a highway and adjacent neighbourhood on the outskirts of the city.
86
4.7 Generation of Themes and charts

GIS can assemble information about map features to create a map that illustrates the pattern
in the data. This is called a thematic map. Thematic maps use distinctive colors, symbols and
fill styles to portray data such as population, transit ridership, mode split or income. Here
themes can be created in single layer and also several themes can be created in a single layer.
Themes can be represented in different forms like:
Color themes
Pattern themes
Dot- density themes
Pie and bar chart themes
Scaled symbol themes
prison maps
Here figure 4.18 uses a color theme to represent employment distribution in Mumbai. The
features in the map layer are grouped based on the value of the data field. Each class contains
all the features with similar values for the chosen field. When the map is drawn classes are
represented using various color patterns. Figure 4.19 shows a bar chart theme which uses bar
chart to illustrate the data which goes with each feature. Here bar chart is used to represent
the base year planning variables. Figure 4.20 shows the slums in Mumbai where again a color
theme is used. The slums are given a darker shade to separate itself from other areas.
Legend
MCGM
TOTAL EMPLOYMENT
159 - 2041
2042 - 3923
3924 - 6619
6620 - 10829
10830 - 19674
19675 - 41706
41707 - 101098
101099 - 151883
Figure 4.18: A colour thematic map showing employment distribution

87
Figure 4.19: A bar-chart thematic map
SLUM MAP OF GREATER MUMBAI
505
497
486 502
504 C HAWLS
KE TKI P ADA 498
SH AST RI NAG AR C HAWLS # GH ATANP ADA C HAWLS
Dahi sar
506
PAR AS N AT H D U BE Y C H A W L E
PR ASH ANATH DUB EY CHAWL S
501 499
503
487
YO G I NAG AR C HAWLS
485 494 495
484
481 483
493
482 492
480 479 Boriv li 500
# 491
490
477 475
MHADA CHAWL S 489
DE VI P ADA CHAWL S
476
496
JAI J AWAN NAG AR S LU M
488
474 BHI M N AG AR S LUM
478
507 JAN AT A NAG AR SL UM OS I AR S LU M

521
526
509
CHARK OP VI LLAG E C HAWLS 518
508 510 512 525
Kandivl i
51 1 # 530
519 51 3 529 531
454 GAN DHI NAG AR 514 517 528
523 527 GAN DHI NAG AR SL UM
524
520 515 522 446
453 516 427
MAHADE V N AG AR S LUM
428
KHE RW AD I VI LLAG E 437 445 577
429
436 430
U D AMAL
NIR Y NANG AR
AGAR CH AWLS
574
KHARW ADI VI LLAG E Malad 441 447 570
431 # 566
432 439
KURAR V IL LAG E CHAW LS 571
SATAR CH AWL
440 449
435 564
433 567
448 565
450 451
434 438 442 HANUM AN P ADA CHAWL569
S Mulund
#
443 SI DDH 572
ARTH 563
NAG AR
573 562
JAI BHI M N AGAR HU TME NTS
444
JAI HI575
568 ND CO LO NY C HAWL S
459
559
467
452 461
460 471 JAI BH457
IM NAG AR H UTME N TS 576
PR EM NAG AR S LU M 466 NE W R AJAN WADI S LU M
560
Goregaon
# 472 561
473 TANAJ I W ADI S LUM
468 547
PR EM NAG AR S LUM 549
462
463 469
548
BHAG AT S I NG H N AGAR S LUM 456
465 455
339 464
470 551 550
458
426 557 543
558 Bhandup
AN AND NAG AR S LU M
338 GU RU BACHH AN N AGAR S LUM #
336
303 556
321 553
KRANT I N AGAR S LUM 305 552
340 337
304
NAIK CHAW LS
Joges hwari
# 308 545
333 CHHAT RAP AT I N AGAR
JO S E P 334
H P ATI L W AD I 309 555 554
UTKAR SH NAG AR
Kanjurmarg
320 318 # 544
319 SAR VO302
DAY NAG
306
AR CH AWL 298
307 295
332 546
335 SU NDE RW ADI SL UM
538
364 537
284 301 541 536 539
329 SU BHAS H NAG AR S LU M 542
328 285 365 535
330 GAV DE287
V I DWE LL ING HO US E S HANUM AN N AG AR 532 533
S LUM
331 Andheri 297 534
322
SU NDE R WADI S LUM 327 326 # 286 GAN ES H NAG AR S L UM
540
296 Vikhroli
288 MARO L VI LLAG E #
325 300
299 424
324 290
PAR IS WADA SL UM 361
323 289 421
312 275 291 425
VAR SH A NAG AR SL UM
274 NAIR WADI S LU M
423
292 293
316 277 294
311 276
313 363
282 359 419 422
357 412
278
Vil e Parle 420
SI DDH ARTH NAG AR S LU M
279 SAN JAY G AND HI S LUM
#
310
414
280 418
281
314 417
416PR ABHAT NAG AR S LU M
283
SAN JAY N AGAR S LUM362 358 415 Ghatkopar400
360 413 411 #
LO KMANY A NAG AR S LU M 410 401
405
315 NANTA BHAI CHAW LS
245
Vidya Vihar 404
409
250 270 MANUP ADA VI LLAG E S LU M # 402
244
317 355 VAS TALAT 407 AI N AY AK NAG AR H UTM EN TS
273 354
SantacruzAG R IP ADA S LU M 353 406
268 # 408
247
246 356
243
KAJ UP ADA S LUKurl M a Terminus 403
242 #
GO V IN D N AGAR DW 257
EL LIN G HO 269
US E S 272 AD ARAS H N AGAR S LUM 248
342 341
237 34 4 370
271 345 381
234 380 369 371
Khar R d 343 Tilak Nagar 372
236 MANIK P AD A S LUM # 392
258 260 # Kurl a (Local ) 347 Chem bur
259KHE RW233 AD I SL UM 249 # #
IND IRA NAG AR S LU M
Bandra Termi nus 366 373
255 # 235 395 382 SH IV AJ I N AGAR DW EL LIN G HO US E S
262
263 239
VAS TALAT AI N AY I K N AGAR HU TME NTS 385
346 384 367
265 261AM BE DKAR NAG AR HUTM E NTS Govandi
350 348 #
240 393 383
264 349 396 386 MAHARAS 368
HTR A NAG AR CHAWL S
238
256 Bandra (Local) 394 387
266 267 # VAS ANTL ATAI NAY IK Chunna
NAG ARBhatti
H UTME NT S 390 Mankhurd 374
# 351 377 #
SH IV S HAK TI NAG AR S LU389 M
241 352 388
251 252 Sion
RAHUL NAG 391 AR CHAWL S 376
177
#
253
136
254 175 176
AM BE DKAR
192 NAG AR HO TME NT S 138
399 398
178 JI J AM ATA NAG AR S LUM
Mahim180
174 G T B Nagar
# 137
#
18 1
185 179
194 MAHUL V IL LAG E 378 LS
CHAW
133 139
193 187 183
18 4 182 134 375
Ki ng's Ci rcle
195 188 # 135 141
Matunga R186
d 127
196
# Matunga SI DDH ARTH NAG AR
140H UTME N TS
#
189
197 132
147 142
201 190 128

199 131 148
198 20 0 144LE W AD I SL UM
Dadar MAHATMA J OY TI BA P HU
191
# 129 Wadala 397
221
GAN ES H NAG AR C HAWL S 205 # Dadar # 143
MAHATMA J 130
204 146
YO TI BA P HU LE W AD I SL UM
220 203
206 166 379
202 145
168
219 210
207 169
208 209 171
Parel167 173
Elphi nstone R d# 158
217 211 # 170
218 172
M.G .S M RUTI 157

156 CO L ON Y
152
216 214 213 212 150 Sew ri
149 159 #
215
Lower Parel 151
226 # 153
JI J AM162
ATA NAG AR
229
Curry Rd
#
228 227 224 163
LAX MIW AD I CHAWL S
231 155 154 161
225 160
222 164 Green
Cotton
Chinchpokali #
230 # 165
223 106
MO DI Saxmi
LUM ARE A 97
Mahal 123
232 # 105
122
96
Bycull a Reay R d
# # 98
121 126 104
124 102
91
125
JAF AL WAD I S L UM
94 Mumbai C entral
119Terminu 103 101
93 118 Dockyard R d
GO L DARW AJA 90 AW
CCH # 120
GO L D A R#W AL
J A CC
Mumbai Hentral
A W L (Local ) # 99
95 112 109 107 100
70 69
89 11113
7
11 0 108
63 71 11 6
68 114 111
92 88 Gr ant R d
66 67
11 5 Sandhurs t R d
# 64 65 25 24 28 # 27
BHAI 56
BADN 59 58 62N AGAR
AKAR 3531 33
29
60 61 34 23
82 80 32
86 38 26 22 30
57 36
81
77 7674 3739 40 20 18Masj id
78 79 7555
#
17 16
73 54 4144 45
PR IM NAG AR S LU M
87 Char72ni R d 21 19
85
#
52
53
47
43 N
51 48 42
Marine Lines
46
84 83 # 49 C S T (Local)
15
##
50 C S T T ermi nus
13 14
Chur chgate 10 11 12
#
9
8
4 4 0 4 8 Kilometers
7
BABA S AHE B AMBE DK AR N AGAR S LUM
5
6
2 1
Figure 4.20: A thematic map showing slums in greater Mumbai
88
Similarly, Figure 4.21 shows a GIS map showing locations of road crashes within an urban
area, using dots of different colour for fatal and other crashes.
Figure 4.21: A thematic map showing road crashes in an urban area (Ref: Vasudevan
V. & Nambisan S., 2011)
Exercise
1) What is digitization in GIS? Explain different types of digitization?

2) Explain the concept of map layers in GIS?
3) Explain the concept of linear route building?
4) Define map accuracy, location expression, and database and position errors?
Assignments
1) Using any GIS software geo register a map of any city and digitize the map using
important land marks (temples, play ground or river) of the city obtained from the map.
2) In the same map try creating two layers one with road network data for the city and one
with important landmarks and try overlapping those layers.
89

Lecture4 (1) - Gia PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lecture4 (1) - Gia PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter-4: Map Generation and Analysis NPTEL Web Course (12th Aug.

4.1.1 Manual Methods

Figure 4.1: Manual Digitization

4.1.1.1 Hardcopy Digitizing

Figure 4.2: Hard copy Digitization using Puck

4.1.1.2 On-Screen Digitizing

On-screen digitizing is an interactive process in which a map is created using previously

Figure 4.3: Onscreen Digitization

Figure 4.4: Scanning the Topo Sheet (Map)

Registering the map:

Figure 4.5: Registering the map

Digitizing the map:

Digitizing in GIS is the process of “tracing”, in a geographically correct way, information

4.2 Concept of Map Layers

Figure 4.6: Transportation planning data in map layers (1)

Figure 4.7: Transportation planning data in map layers (2)

In addition, single locations or areas can be separated from surrounding locations, as in

Figure 4.8: Information of a Single point from all layers

Figure 4.9: Concept of Map Algebra

4.3 Land Cover Analysis

High-resolution analog aerial photography can be used to delineate geographic themes of

4.3.1 Applications of Land Cover Analysis

4.3.1.1 Land Cover Analysis for Measuring Urban Sprawl

4.4 Transportation Network Creation and Linear Route Building

A transportation network in GIS is a mathematical graph that is an abstract representation of

Figure 4.10: Land use map of Hyderabad

Figure 4.11: Map showing Urban sprawl

Figure 4.12: A typical rail network created in TransCAD

Figure 4.13: A typical bus route map in TransCAD

4.4.1 Linear route building

Figure 4.14: Matrix creation in TransCAD

Figure 4.15: Linear referencing with respect to mile costs in TransCAD

4.5 GIS Limitations in Transportation

4.6 Map Accuracy and Location Expression

4.6.1 Map accuracy

Figure 4.16: Resolution concepts and comparison

4.6.2 Manipulation and Enhancements

processing, accuracy assessment of classification is performed. Accuracy assessment is an

Recent technological development in intelligent transportation systems (ITS) allows vehicles

4.6.3 Location Expression

For transportation purposes, location referencing is the description of location of a static or

4.6.4 Data Base and Position Errors

uncertainty in a centreline, and + or - 2 to 3 m in the definition of a large intersection. A gore

Figure 4.17: Positional error.

4.7 Generation of Themes and charts

Figure 4.18: A colour thematic map showing employment distribution

Figure 4.19: A bar-chart thematic map

SLUM MAP OF GREATER MUMBAI

507 JAN AT A NAG AR SL UM OS I AR S LU M

201 190 128

M.G .S M RUTI 157

Figure 4.20: A thematic map showing slums in greater Mumbai

1) What is digitization in GIS? Explain different types of digitization?

You might also like