Chapter 6

📌 Quantum theory - explain behavior of electrons in atoms

📌 Quantum Mechanics - "new" physics that had developed to describe atoms correctly

📌Electronic structure
� number of electrons in an atom as well as the distribution of electrons around the nucleus
and energies

📌 Electromagnetic radiation (radiant energy)

� radiation carries energy through space
� E.g Vissible light (can see with our eyes) - Rainbow
� all types of electromagnetic radiation moves through vacuum at a speed of light (3×10^8
m/s)

Wavelength - distance between two adjacent peaks

frequency - number of complete wavelengths or cycles that pass a given point each second
� expressed in cycles per second (hertz, Hz)
amplitude - relates to the intensity of radiation; maximum extent of oscillation of the wave
✏ the shorter the wavelength the higher the frequency √
c= √
✏ Electromagnetic spectrum - arrangement of various electromagnetic radiation in order of
increasing wavelength
✏ wavelength of gamma rays are similar to diameter of atomic nuclei

📌How electromagnetic radiation and atoms interact

1. Blackbody radiation - emission of light objects from hot objects ( objects appear black before
heating)
2. Photoelectric effect - emission of electrons from metal surfaces on which light shines
3. Emission spectra - emission of light from electronically excited gas atoms

📌 Max Planck
� assumed that energy can either be released or absorbed by atoms only in discrete "chunks"
of some minimum size.
� gave the name quantum (meaning fixed amount) - smallest quantity of energy that can be
emitted or absorbed as electromagnetic radiation.
� proposed that energy, E, of a single quantum equals a constant times the frequency of the
radiation.
E = h√
h= Planck's constant = 6.626 × 10^-34 J-s, E= energy
� aacording to Planck's theory, matter is allowed to emit and absorb energy only in whole
number multiples of h√.
✏ because the energy can be released only in specific amounts, we say that the allowed energies
are quantized; values are restricted to certain quantities
 � Albert Einstein - used Plack's quantum theory to explain pghoteoelectric effect
Photoelectric effect - when photons of sufficiently high energy strike a metal surface, electrons
are emitted from the metal
� photon - energy packet, behaves like tiny particles
Energy of photon = E = h√
� work function - work required for an electron to overcome the attractive forces that holds in the
metal

📌 Niels Bohr
� explanation of line spectra

📌 monochromatic - radiation composed of a single wavelength

📌 Spectrum - produced when radiation from such sources is separated into its different
wavelength components
📌 Continuous spectrum - rainbow of colors, containing light of all wavelengths (e.g rainbow)

neon gas - emits red-orange glow

sodium vapor - yellow light

✏ line spectrum - spectrum containing radiation of only specific wavelengths.

📌 Johann Balmer - showed 4 wavelengths of hydrogen ; extended his equation to Rydberg

Equation
Wavelengths:
�violet - 410nm
� blue - 434nm
�blue-green - 486nm
�red - 656nm

Rydberg Equation : (1/ ) = (Rh) [(1/n1²) - (1/n2²)]

Rh: Rydberg constant = 1.096776 × 10^7 m^-1

📌 Energy states of the hydrogen atom

E = ( -h•c•Rh)(1/n²) � h, Planck's constant, c, speed of light, Rh, Rydberg constant
E= ( -2.18 × 10^-18 J) (1/n²) � n principal quantum number

☝ in principal quantum number, n, - the lower the energy is (negative), the more stable the atom.
☝ as n gets larger, the energy becomes successively less negative and therefore increases
☝ lowest energy state (n=1) - Ground state ; when electron is in a higher senergy (less negative)
orbit, n=2 or higher, atom is in excited state.
� radius increases as n increases, when E= 0, electron is completely separated from the nucleus.
� Zero energy state (reference) - state in which electron is removed from the nucleus
📌Jumping of electrons
∆E = h√ = (hc)/ = ( - 2.18 × 10^-18 J) [ (1/nf²) - (1/ni²) ]
( 1/ ) = [ ( -h•c•Rh)/(h•c) ] [ (1/nf²) - (1/ni²) ] = Rh [(1/ni²)-(1/nf²)]

📌 Ideas in Bohr model

1. Electrons exist only in certain discrete energy leevls ,which are described by quantum
numbers
2. Energy is involved in moving an electron from one level to another

📌 Louis de Broglie
� suggested that as electron moves about the nucleus, it is associated with a particular
wavelength.
characteristics of wavelength depends on mass m and velocity v: (matter waves)
= ( h)/(mv)
Where mv is momentum

📌 The Uncertainty principle By Werner Heisenberg

� proposed that the dual nature of matter places a fundamental limitation to know both the
location and the momentum of any object
∆x• ∆(mv) ≥ h/ (4π)

📌📌 Erwin Schrödinger
� proposed Schrödinger's wave equation, that incorporates both wavelike and behavior and
the particle-like behavior of the electron.
� the work opened a new way of dealing with subatomic particle, known as quantum
mechanics or wave mechanics

. wave function
Solving the Schrödinger's equation

probability density or electron density

� provides information about an electron's location when the electron is in allowed energy
state

📌Orbital
� set of wave functions and corresponding energies
� each describes a specific distribution of electron density in space, given by orbitals
probability density
orbital (quantum mechanics) is not equal to orbit (Bohr model)

📌Quantum numbers
� principal quantum number (n)
� define size of orbital
� only have positive integral value, no zero
 ✏ as n increases, orbital becomes larger, electrons spend more time farther from the nucleus
✏ an increase in n also means that the electron has a higher energy and therefore less tightly
bound to the nucleus
� angular quantum number / azimuthal quantum number ( l )
� l = n-1, can have integral values from 0 to n-1
� define the shape of orbital

Value of l 0 1 2 3
Letter used s p d f

* sharp, principal, diffuse, fundamental

s orbital
� spherically symmetry
☝ only 1 s orbital ; ml= 0
✏ radial probability density - probability that will find the electron at a specific distance from
the nucleus, mmaximum distance is 0.529 Å (Bohr radius)
📌 when electron occupies 1s orbital, it is most likely to be found 0.529 Å from nucleus
✏radial probability function - probability of that the electron will be found at any point distance r
from the nucleus; any point on sphere of radius r
✂ Node - points at which the probability is zero

p orbital
� two lobes, dumbbel -shape
☝ has 3 p orbitals; ml = -1, 0, +1
d orbital
� four-leaf clover shape
☝ has 5 d orbitals
f orbital
☝ has 7 f orbitals

📌 in a many-electron atom, for a given value of n , the energy of an orbital increases with
increasing value of l.
📌 orbitals with the same energy are said to be degenerate

� magnetic quantum number (ml)

� define orientation in space
� values between -l to +l, including zero
� allowed values of ml = (2l + 1)1
� spin quantum number (ms)
� -1/2, +1/2; two opposite direction
electron spin - intrinsic property; causes each electron to behave as if it were a tiny sphere
spinning on its on axis

Wolfgang Pauli (Pauli exclusion principle)

� no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum number
 �an orbital can hold a maximum of to electrons and they must have opposite sign

Otto Stern and Walter Gerlach (Stern-Gerlach experiment)

� experiment for electron spin

📌 Electron shell - collection of orbitals with the same value of n

📌 Subshell - same n and l values
( know the aufbau diagram)

📌 Electron configuration
� way in w/c electron is distributed among the various orbitals of an atom
☝ most stable electron configuration is the ground state

📌Orbital diagram
� denoted by box and half arrow in each electron; up arrow means +½, down arorow means -½

📌Hund's Rule
� for degenerate orbitals, the lowest energy is attained when the number of electrons with the
same speed is maximized.

📌condensed electron configuration

� electron configuration of the nearest noble gas element of lower atomic number,
represented by its chemical symbol and a bracket
noble gas core - electrons represented by the symbol for noble gas
Core electrons - inner shell electrons
outer-shell core - electrons given after the noble gas core
valence electrons - outer shell electrons include the electrons involved in chemical bonding

📌transistion elements/ transition metals

� fourth row of the periodic table
� filled in accordance with Hund's rule

📌 lanthanides (rare earth metals)

� set where new set of orbitals (4f) takes place

📌Actinides
� begins with 7s

✏ Representative elements / main-group elements - s and p block of periodic table

✏ lanthanides and actinides are f-block.

📌Radon - heaviest of all noble gas