CECW-EI Department of the Army EC 1110-2-6052

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Washington, DC 20314-1000
Engineer Circular 1 January 2001
1110-2-6052
EXPIRES 31 DECEMBER 2002

Engineering and Design

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PRECAST

AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE FOR
OFFSITE PREFABRICATED
CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES

Distribution Restriction Statement

Approved for public release;
distribution is unlimited.
 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EC 1110-2-6052
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
CECW-EI Washington, DC 20314-1000

Circular
No. 1110-2-6052 1 January 2001

EXPIRES 31 December 2002

Engineering and Design
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
FOR OFFSITE PREFABRICATED CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

1. Purpose. This EC provides interim guidance for structural engineers in the design and construction
of precast and prestressed hydraulic concrete structures. The primary emphasis is on float-in and lift-in
type structures.

2. Applicability. This circular applies to USACE Commands having responsibility for Civil Works
projects.

3. Distribution. This document is approved for public release, distribution is unlimited.

4. References. Required publications are listed in Appendix A.

5. Action Required. This EC should be used as interim guidance pending publication of the final
EM. Any comments regarding improvements or clarification should be submitted to HQUSACE
(CECW-EI), Washington, DC 20314-1000, within one year of the publication of this EC.

FOR THE COMMANDER:

3 Appendices:
Appendix A: References DWIGHT A. BERANEK, P.E.
Appendix B: Specification Requirements Chief, Engineering and Construction Division
Appendix C: Design Example Directorate of Civil Works
 CECW-EI Department of the Army EC 1110-2-6052
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Washington, DC 20314-1000
Engineer Circular 1 January 2001
1110-2-6052
EXPIRES 31 DECEMBER 2002

Engineering and Design

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PRECAST

AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE FOR
OFFSITE PREFABRICATED
CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES

Distribution Restriction Statement

Approved for public release;
distribution is unlimited.
 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EC 1110-2-6052
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
CECW-EI Washington, DC 20314-1000

Circular
No. 1110-2-6052 1 January 2001

EXPIRES 31 December 2002

Engineering and Design
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
FOR OFFSITE PREFABRICATED CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

Table of Contents

Subject Paragraph Page

Chapter 1
Introduction
Purpose...................................................................................................................... 1-1 1-1
Applicability.............................................................................................................. 1-2 1-1
Distribution ............................................................................................................... 1-3 1-1
References ................................................................................................................. 1-4 1-1
Background ............................................................................................................... 1-5 1-1
Scope ......................................................................................................................... 1-6 1-1
Mandatory Requirements .......................................................................................... 1-7 1-2

Chapter 2
Precast Concrete Applications, Components, Manufacture,
and Structure Erection
Applications .............................................................................................................. 2-1 2-1
P/C Components: Manufacture and Classification .................................................. 2-2 2-2
Permanent Structures................................................................................................. 2-3 2-3
Erection of Prescast Members................................................................................... 2-4 2-3

Chapter 3
Materials for Precast Concrete
Concrete for P/C Units .............................................................................................. 3-1 3-1
Concrete Materials and Mix Design for In-Fill Placements...................................... 3-2 3-1
Reinforcement ........................................................................................................... 3-3 3-2
Embedded Metals...................................................................................................... 3-4 3-3
Lifting Devices, Couplers, and Connection Devices ................................................ 3-5 3-4
Grout ......................................................................................................................... 3-6 3-5

Chapter 4
Materials for Prestressed Concrete
Concrete .................................................................................................................... 4-1 4-1
Components for Prestressed Concrete (Pretensioning) ............................................. 4-2 4-1
Components for Prestressed Concrete (Posttensioning)............................................ 4-3 4-2
Materials Selection.................................................................................................... 4-4 4-3

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Subject Paragraph Page

Chapter 5
Loads
Introduction ............................................................................................................... 5-1 5-1
Stripping Loads ......................................................................................................... 5-2 5-1
Handling and Storage Loads ..................................................................................... 5-3 5-1
Transportation Loads................................................................................................. 5-4 5-3
Erection Loads........................................................................................................... 5-5 5-6
Ballasting................................................................................................................... 5-6 5-8
Lifting Loads ............................................................................................................. 5-7 5-8
In-Service Loads ....................................................................................................... 5-8 5-9
Progressive Failures .................................................................................................. 5-9 5-9
Floating Stability ..................................................................................................... 5-10 5-10

Chapter 6
Connections
Structural Functions .................................................................................................. 6-1 6-1
Monolithic Action ..................................................................................................... 6-2 6-1
Water Stops ............................................................................................................... 6-3 6-1
Watertightness Requirements.................................................................................... 6-4 6-2
Joint Preparation........................................................................................................ 6-5 6-2
Underwater Connections ........................................................................................... 6-6 6-2
Match Casting ........................................................................................................... 6-7 6-4
Bracing ...................................................................................................................... 6-8 6-5

Chapter 7
In-Fill Concrete Placement
Tremie Placement...................................................................................................... 7-1 7-1
Placement Equipment................................................................................................ 7-2 7-1

Chapter 8
Details
Cover Requirements.................................................................................................. 8-1 8-1
Minimum Reinforcement for Beam, Plate, and Shell Elements ............................... 8-2 8-1
Spacing Requirements for Reinforcement ................................................................ 8-3 8-2
Detailing Requirements for Prestressing Reinforcement .......................................... 8-4 8-2
Surface Treatments for Composite Action................................................................ 8-5 8-3

Chapter 9
Strength and Serviceability Requirements
Relation to EM 1110-2-2104..................................................................................... 9-1 9-1
Strength and Serviceability Requirements ................................................................ 9-2 9-1
Load Criteria ............................................................................................................. 9-3 9-1
Serviceability............................................................................................................. 9-4 9-10
Prestressed Concrete Design Criteria ........................................................................ 9-5 9-12
Reinforcement Requirements .................................................................................... 9-6 9-14
Ultimate Strength Design .......................................................................................... 9-7 9-14
Strength Design of Composite Members .................................................................. 9-8 9-15
Fatigue Design........................................................................................................... 9-9 9-16

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Subject Paragraph Page

Appendix A
References

Appendix B
Specification Requirements

Appendix C
Design Example

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Subject Paragraph Page

Appendix A
References

Appendix B
Specification Requirements

Appendix C
Design Example

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Chapter 1
Introduction

1-1. Purpose

This engineer circular (EC) provides guidance for structural engineers in the design and construction of precast
and prestressed hydraulic concrete structures. The primary emphasis is on float-in and lift-in type structures.

1-2. Applicability

This circular applies to USACE Commands having responsibility for Civil Works projects.

1-3. Distribution

This publication is approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

1-4. References

Required publications are listed in Appendix A.

1-5. Background

Traditional construction methods used in navigation projects include construction of cofferdams and placement
of cast-in-place and mass concrete. These methods result in extended construction schedules and disruption
to navigation traffic with corresponding large costs. Other construction methods have been investigated to
reduce costs and to alleviate impacts to navigation and the environment. Prestressed and precast float-in
construction has been successfully used in the construction of offshore oil drilling platforms for several years
and recently in the construction of bridge foundations. This type of construction has also seen limited use in
USACE navigation projects. However, USACE has not previously published specific criteria for designs of
this type.

1-6. Scope

a. This circular references industry standards, primarily ASTM, AASHTO, and ACI, for the basic design
requirements for prestressed concrete. These standards are then modified herein to make them applicable to
the hydraulic structures typical for Civil Works projects including float-in and lift-in construction. Guidance
is provided for the selection of materials, determination of loads, design for strength and serviceability, and
the development of details.

b. Specification requirements and three design example calculations are presented in Appendixes B
and C, respectively.

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1-7. Mandatory Requirements

This circular provides design guidance for the design of USACE structures. In certain cases guidance
requirements, because of their criticality to project safety and performance, are considered to be mandatory
as discussed in ER 1110-2-1150. In this circular, the following requirements are mandatory: the multipliers
of Table 5.1, the coefficients of Tables 5.2 and 5.3, the amplification factors of Table 5.4, the minimum
concrete cover of Table 8.1, the allowable crack widths of Tables 9.3 and 9.4, the allowable stresses for crack
control of Table 9.5, the multipliers of Table 9.6, and the allowable stresses of Tables 9.7 and 9.8.

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Chapter 2
Precast Concrete Applications, Components,
Manufacture, and Structure Erection

2-1. Applications

Sophisticated design and innovative construction techniques are becoming common practice within
USACE to minimize project costs while maintaining or improving project quality, durability, and
operability. Use of precast concrete (P/C) construction can result in lower costs by more effective
material usage and reduced onsite labor. New designs are likely to combine precasting with cast-in-place
concrete to provide composite action or to develop continuity.

a. Definition. P/C is concrete that has been cast into the desired shape prior to placement in a
structure. P/C components can be designed and used to serve as dual functions: forms for cast-in-place
concrete and as a durable exterior finish. P/C construction involves concrete forming, placing, finishing,
and curing operations away from the project site and then erecting the P/C components as part of a
completed structure.

b. Advantages. There are several advantages with P/C construction. Precasting operations generally
follow an industrial production procedure that takes place at a central precast plant. Thus, high concrete
quality can be reliably obtained under the more controlled production environment. Since standard
shapes are commonly produced in precasting concrete, the repetitive use of formwork permits speedy
production of P/C components at a lower unit cost. These forms and plant finishing procedures provide
better surface quality than is usually obtained in field conditions. P/C components may be erected much
more rapidly than conventionally cast-in-place components, thereby reducing onsite construction time.
P/C components can be designed as in situ forms for underwater construction so that the use of
cofferdams may be eliminated or substantially limited. The precasting process is also sufficiently
adaptable so that special shapes can be produced economically.

c. Combination of methods. The combination of precasting conventionally reinforced flat panel

members joined with second placement concrete and posttensioning has proved economically
advantageous for several USACE projects. For example, this type of precast construction has been
successfully used for re-facing lock walls, tainter gate pier construction, and guide wall construction.

d. Previous successes. The so-called “in-the-wet” or “offsite prefabrication” construction is an

extension of marine construction methods that have been successfully used. This innovative method
utilizes P/C modules as the in situ form into which tremie concrete or other infill material is placed
directly without use of a cofferdam. The precast elements may contain all or much of the primary
reinforcement. The tremie concrete is designed to work in composite action with the P/C modules.
Numerous investigations have been conducted and designs considered by several USACE districts to
evaluate the feasibility of the in-the-wet method at various potential sites of U.S. waterways. These
studies have shown that the “offsite prefabrication” method can provide substantial benefits in cost,
construction schedule, risk reduction, facility utilization, river traffic alleviation, and environmental
impact.

e. Special requirements. P/C construction has its special requirements. First of all, additional
engineering effort is generally required to detail P/C components, develop construction sequences, special
construction tolerances, and specifications, and to optimize the design. Secondly, special labor crews and
equipment may be needed to erect the P/C units. Where underwater erection and joining of P/C

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assemblies are involved, special efforts and techniques are required for positioning, installation, tolerance
control, inspection, and quality control.

2-2. P/C Components: Manufacture and Classification

a. Components. All P/C components are fabricated offsite as modules and erected onsite to become
part of a completed structure. Individual P/C members may be prestressed or conventionally reinforced.
The manufacture of P/C primarily involves three steps: (1) the assembly and installation of reinforcing
and prestressing steel, (2) the production and placement of concrete and the subsequent curing, and (3) the
lifting, storage, and loading-out of the completed component. P/C production is basically an industrial
manufacture process. It is appropriate to require more rigorous control on cleanliness, temperature, and
moisture of the aggregates and on accuracy of batching and mixing time, and on tolerance.

b. Manufacture.

(1) P/C normally requires more thorough curing than conventional cast-in-place concrete, because
P/C sections are generally thinner and more highly stressed during handling, transportation, and erection.
Therefore, adequate means of curing must be specified and enforced. Steam curing at atmospheric
pressure is widely employed in P/C manufacture to accelerate the early-strength gain and permit daily
turnover of forms. The adoptions of a proper cycle of steam curing and subsequent water curing is
essential for good quality P/C. When P/C products are removed from steam curing, the moisture
extraction from the concrete is accelerated due to the change in temperature and humidity, so the products
must be covered for protection from wind and rapid changes in temperature and moisture.

(2) External vibration is useful in eliminating surface defects but generally cannot extend its effects
more than 6 to 8 in. into concrete. For thicker concrete panels, external vibration is not effective to
consolidate the inner portion of the concrete. Internal vibration is required for adequate consolidation of
concrete.

c. Classification. In terms of their functionality and structural characteristics, P/C components used
in hydraulic structures can generally be classified into two categories: (1) P/C panels and (2) P/C
assemblies.

(1) Panels. P/C panels are the basic elements that can be used either individually as resurfacing
panels or used as structural components in a large precast assembly. During the construction stage,
individual precast panels are mostly subjected to loads from lifting hoists and erection bracing. Design
considerations for precast panels should follow the relevant guidelines in PCI MNL-120 “PCI Design
Handbook” and ACI-ASCE Joint Committee Report 550.

(2) Assemblies. P/C assemblies refer to large prefabricated concrete modules for “in-the-wet”
construction of hydraulic structures. These assemblies are typically boxlike structures ranging from a
dozen feet to several hundred feet in length and width. They are erected at project sites, often underwater,
as in situ forms into which tremie concrete can be directly placed without use of a cofferdam. For float-in
construction, the P/C assemblies must have bottom plates to allow flotation and contain several
compartments to allow sequential ballasting. For lift-in construction, the P/C assemblies normally do not
contain any bottom plate but are fitted with a lifting frame to distribute lifting loads.

(3) Precasting similar components. In P/C construction, substantial economy can be achieved
through repetition of precasting numerous precast components of the same or similar shape and size.
Although prefabrication of P/C assemblies can be carried out in several ways, the most common

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prefabrication method is to assemble a large P/C module by erecting smaller pieces of P/C panels/shells
and making closure pours at the junctions of these panels/shells. Sometimes, the individual panels are
pretensioned and the assemblies are posttensioned to meet the strength and serviceability requirements.

(4) Analysis of critical loads. Due to their special transportation and erection process, the P/C
assemblies used for “in-the-wet” construction usually experience much more complex loads than those
for P/C panels for smaller projects. To design large P/C assemblies, thorough engineering analysis must
be conducted for all the critical load cases during their fabrication, outfitting, transportation, erection, and
under the service condition.

2-3 Permanent Structures

a. Prestressed members. Completed structures built from P/C components may be conventionally
reinforced, prestressed, or both. Prestressed concrete may be constructed by either the pretensioning
method or the posttensioning method. Pretensioning is the imposition of prestress by stressing the
tendons against external reactions before placement of fresh concrete in the forms, then allowing the
concrete to set and gain a substantial portion of strength before releasing the tendons so that the stress is
transferred into the concrete. Posttensioning is the imposition of prestress by stressing and anchoring the
tendons against already hardened concrete.

b. Reinforced members. Conventionally reinforced P/C members and systems shall be designed in
accordance with EM 1110-2-2104 except as modified herein. Prestressed concrete members and systems,
whether they are cast-in-place or precast, shall be designed in accordance with this EC.

2-4 Erection of Prescast Members

For the “in-the-wet” construction, erection of P/C modules can be carried out by either float-in method or
lift-in method or a combination of both.

a. Float-in method. The float-in construction method entails transportation of prefabricated large
concrete modules from their casting yard or outfitting site to the project site through floatation and/or by
means of external buoyancy tanks. Once the float-in modules are precisely positioned over the site with a
suitable mooring system, guide piles, or taut lines and winches, they are lowered down to the prepared
foundation by means of ballasting. Float-in P/C modules usually take the form of floating structures with
many compartments for sequential ballasting.

b. Lift-in method. Lift-in construction entails transportation of prefabricated P/C modules from their
casting or outfitting yard to project sites by towed barges or floating cranes. The lift-in concrete modules
themselves do not float. Heavy lift equipment must be used to control position of the modules while
lowering them down to the river bottom to acceptable erection tolerances. Auxiliary guiding systems,
such as mooring systems, tensioned guidelines, and guide horns, are often used to assist the positioning.
Installation of lift-in P/C segments is largely independent of water level but is somewhat constrained by
river flow velocity, with a normal upper limit of 2 meters per second (6 ft/sec) on basis of prior
experience. However, units have been installed in current up to 3 meters per second (10 ft/sec) where
special procedures have been implemented.

c. Selection of method. Selection of the erection method for the P/C modules is an important design
decision. Each erection method has its special implications to project cost, construction schedules, river
traffic, towing and mooring system, positioning accuracy, and level of risks during construction. In many

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ways, the erection method will at least in part determine the size and configuration of the P/C modules,
the foundation treatment, construction sequence, and schedule. In general, a thorough evaluation should
be made in the early stage of design to determine the effects of the erection methods, because the erection
method and equipment to install precast modules will affect the structural concept and layout, fabrication
of P/C components, and construction logistics.

d. Effects on cost and schedule. The number of P/C modules and underwater joints between these
components has significant effects on the construction cost and schedule. Underwater joining of P/C
components is costly and difficult to perform, and the installation of numerous small P/C modules also
has adverse implications to the cost and quality control. In principle, use of large prefabricated modules
usually provides considerable benefits in cost saving, project schedule, and construction quality control.
However, the size of the P/C modules is primarily limited by a number of factors such as the draft
requirements and the lift capacity of crane barges that are available or economically obtainable.

e. Positioning the module.

(1) For in-the-wet construction, accurately positioning the precast modules underwater is one of the
critical operations. Underwater positioning of the precast modules requires intensive onsite coordination
of several operations, including surveying, sequential ballasting and/or lift crane maneuvering, operations
of guiding devices and hydraulic rams, positioning control with flat jacks, taut lines, and winches, and
inspection by divers.

(2) Surveys carried out during the erection shall require a high degree of accuracy for vertical and
horizontal alignments of the P/C modules. Engineering specifications require multiple survey systems
such as DGPS, lasers, and underwater sonic sensors. It is more reliable and expedient for the operators to
rely on spotting and controlling targets above water than on underwater instrumentation. Therefore, the
land-based survey method and GPS should be the primary systems for monitoring the placement, while
use of underwater sonic devices and divers are supplementary methods that cross-check the other survey
readings.

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Chapter 3
Materials for Precast Concrete

3-1. Concrete for P/C Units

In general, the standard requirements, recommendations, and restrictions applicable for cast-in-place
concrete should also apply to P/C. Therefore, materials selection, mixture proportioning, and batching and
mixing of P/C should generally conform to relevant provisions of EM 1110-2-2000 and follow the
recommendation in the ACI Committee 211 reports, except for the special recommendations discussed
below.

a. Compressive strength. Precast and prestressed concrete often has 28-day compressive strengths
in the range of 28 to 55 MPa (4,000 to 8,000 psi). Such concrete can be produced with reasonable
economy, provided proper care is taken in mixture proportioning and concreting operation. With proper
use of water-reducing admixtures and pozzolanic materials, it is realistic and desirable to control the
water-to-cementitious material ratio within the range of 0.35 to 0.43.

b. Cements and admixtures. High early-strength cements and/or accelerating admixtures are
sometimes employed in P/C production in order to achieve quick form turnover and early prestressing.
Such applications may be permitted for production of thin-walled panels. In precasting thick walls or
slabs of large concrete masses, high early-strength cements and accelerating admixtures should be
prohibited due to the potential problem of thermal cracking and excessive shrinkage.

c. Aggregate size. P/C usually has a relatively high cementitious materials content. Fine aggregates
should grade in coarser ranges. The nominal maximum aggregate size should be in the range of 13 to
20 mm (1/2 to 3/4 in.). In highly reinforced components, steel congestion may exist in certain areas such
as at the end blocks of posttensioning anchorage. In such cases, use of 10-mm (3/8-in.) maximum
aggregate size is recommended to facilitate proper placement and consolidation of the concrete.

d. Advantages of lightweight aggregates. P/C made with lightweight aggregates sometimes

provides substantial advantages in handling, transportation, and erection. The aggregates are expanded
shale, clay, or slate. They are light in weight because of the porous, cellular structure of the individual
aggregate particles, achieved by gas or stream formation during processing the aggregates in rotary kilns
at high temperature. Concrete made with these lightweight aggregates usually has a unit weight between
14 and 19 kN/m3 (90 and 120 pcf) compared with about 23 kN/m3 (145 pcf) for normal weight concrete.
The strength of lightweight aggregate concrete can be made comparable to that of stone aggregate
concrete through proper materials selection, mix proportioning, and control of the water-cement ratio.
Abrasion and erosion properties of lightweight aggregate concrete are not fully understood for marine
exposure conditions. Until sufficient experimental evidence supports adequacy of the abrasion resistance
of lightweight aggregate concrete, lightweight aggregate concrete should generally not be used in
applications where the concrete is exposed to rapidly flowing water.

3-2. Concrete Materials and Mix Design for In-Fill Placements

The precautions normally applied to concrete materials should be applied to underwater concrete placed
by the tremie method. Cement and pozzolans must meet appropriate specifications. Aggregates must be
clean, sound, and evaluated for potential harmful chemical reactions. Mixing water must be clean and
free of harmful materials. Admixtures must meet appropriate specifications. All materials should be
tested to ensure compatibility.
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a. Cement and pozzolans. Selection of the appropriate type of cement and pozzolans must be based
on evaluation of service conditions, available aggregates, heat generation, and availability of the
materials. The acceptability of a particular pozzolan (workability, water demand, and rate of strength
gain) should be verified before final selection. Cementitious materials content must be adequate to
produce a flowable and cohesive concrete mix.

b. Aggregates. Well-rounded natural aggregates are preferred over crushed angular aggregates
because round aggregates generally produce concrete with increased flowability. Aggregates should be
well graded. The maximum aggregate size for reinforced concrete is usually in the range of 20 to 25 mm
(3/4 to 1 in.) and, for nonreinforced concrete, in the range of 20 to 38 mm (3/4 to 1-½ in.). Fine aggregate
content should be 42 to 50% of the total aggregate weight.

c. Desired characteristics. Tremie concrete should not be proportioned on the basis of strength
alone. Concrete for tremie placements must flow readily and be cohesive to resist segregation and
washout. Standard tests for these characteristics include the slump test, slump flow test, washout test,
bleeding test, and time-of-set test. Appropriate uses and limitations of these tests and acceptable test
results are discussed in detail in WES Technical Report INP-SL-1.

d. Testing. The proposed concrete mixtures should be tested using standard ASTM tests for
bleeding, time of set, air content, unit weight, slump loss, compressive strength, and yield to ensure
compatibility of components and suitability of the concrete for its intended purpose.

e. Final selection. Final selection of a concrete mixture should be based on test placements made
underwater. Test placements should be examined for concrete surface flatness, amount of laitance
present, quality of concrete at the extreme flow distance of the test, and flow around embedded features.

f. Temperature considerations. The potential temperature increase should be evaluated using a

simple iterative or finite-element technique. Anticipated thermal gradients should be considered. Based
upon the predicted concrete temperatures and gradients and the nature of the concrete placement, a
determination of the seriousness of the prediction may be made. Maximum temperatures and gradients
may be reduced by using a lower cement content, replacing cement with a suitable pozzolan and
limestone powder, precooling of aggregates, or lowering the placement temperature.

3-3. Reinforcement

Reinforcing steel for precast components is often prefabricated and preassembled on a template or stand,
where the location of every piece is marked and wire ties are used to hold the members in place. Except
for welded wire or bar mesh prefabricated in the steel fabricator’s plant, tying and clamping of reinforcing
bars should generally be used instead of welding. Full penetration butt weld and manual welding in
prestressed concrete production should be prohibited. Nonprestress reinforcement generally consists of
deformed bars or welded wire reinforcement (previously referred to as welded wire fabric). Reinforcing
bars should be deformed except that plain bars may be used for spirals or for dowels at expansion or
contraction joints. Reinforcing bars are generally specified to be Grade 60. In some situations, Grade 40
or Grade 70 reinforcement may be specified.

a. Reinforcing bars. The most widely used type and grade of bars conform to ASTM A 615 Grade
60 and include bars with sizes from No. 3 through No. 11, No. 14, and No. 18. When welding is required
or when more bendability and controlled ductility are required, such as in seismic-resistant design, low-
alloy reinforcing bars conforming to ASTM A 706 should be considered. It is recommended to use

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smaller bars closer together than larger bars further apart to reduce potential crack width. Reinforcing
bars should conform to one of the following ASTM specifications:

(1) A 615 Specification for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement.

(2) A 706 Specification for Low-Alloy Deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforcement.

(3) A 767 Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement.

(4) A 775 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel Bars.

b. Welded wire reinforcement. Welded wire reinforcement (WWR) is a prefabricated reinforcement

consisting of cold-drawn wires welded together in square or rectangular grids. Each wire intersection is
electrically resistance-welded by a continuous automatic welder. Pressure and heat fuse the intersecting
wires into a homogeneous section and fix all wires in their proper position. WWR may consist of plain
wires, deformed wires, or a combination of both. WWR can also be galvanized or epoxy coated. Welded
wire fabric (WWF) conforms to one of the following ASTM standard specifications:

(1) A 185 Specification for Steel Welded Wire Fabric, Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement.

(2) A 497 Specification for Steel Welded Wire Fabric, Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement.

(3) A 884 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire Fabric for Reinforcement.

c. Wire sizes. Wire sizes are specified by a letter, W or D, followed by a number indicating the
cross-sectional area of the wire in hundredths of a square inch. Plain wire sizes use the letter W; deformed
wire sizes use the letter D. Wire sizes from W1.4 to W45 and D2 to D45 may be specified. Wire spacing
generally varies from 50 to 300 mm (2 to 12 in).

d. Corrosion protection. When coated reinforcing bars are required as a corrosion protection
system, the bars may be either zinc-coated or epoxy-coated and shall conform to ASTM A 767 or ASTM
D 3363 (AASHTO M284), respectively. Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars are generally used in structures
that are exposed to a saltwater environment.

e. Splicing reinforcement. The most common method for splicing reinforcing bars is the lap splice.
The effect of congestion at lap splice to concrete placement should be considered in design. When lap
splices are undesirable or impractical, mechanical connections may be used to splice reinforcing bars.

3-4. Embedded Metals

a. Embedded metals shall be electrochemically compatible with reinforcing and prestressing steel to
avoid galvanic corrosion. Aluminum, copper, and stainless steel should not be used as embedments unless
positive measures are taken to ensure absolutely no contact between the embedment and reinforcing steel.

b. Steel embedments with exposed surfaces, such as anchor bolts, have a tendency to corrode, since
they become the anode and the reinforcing steel becomes a large cathode to fuel the corrosion potential.
Exposed steel anchor or other embedments should be epoxy coated or separated from reinforcing steel
with plastic spacers.

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c. There are other important considerations for both precast and prestressed concrete members
having embedded metals. During steam curing of concrete, metal embedments in precast members may
expand more rapidly than the surrounding concrete. Any significant thermal change in configuration
during steam curing may lead to the local cracking of concrete, which has little tensile strength when
steam is first applied. Provision of sponge rubber gaskets can be effectively used to eliminate the
problem.

d. Prestressed concrete components usually experience substantial dimensional changes due to

elastic shortening and plastic deformation of concrete. The deformation may lead to cracking at the
corners of the embedments. Design considerations should be given to these dimensional changes, and
measures should be taken to prevent stress concentrations at the embedments.

3-5. Lifting Devices, Couplers, and Connection Devices

A lifting device consists of two parts: the anchorage element embedded in the P/C and the attachment
element, which is attached to the anchorage to fasten the lifting line to the component. To provide
adequate strength, the anchorage should bear against the reinforcement. A simple and common device is
to embed several loops of prestressing strands in the concrete, leaving the loop exposed for attachment of
the crane hook. Selection of the correct lifting devices depends on a number of factors concerned with the
type, weight, configuration, thickness, and strength of the precast component.

a. Location. The location of lifting devices in the components should be carefully considered,
taking full account of the special loading that will be imposed on the concrete as a result of tilting, lifting,
or moving the component, including an allowance for impact. For example, raising a horizontally cast P/C
panel to a vertical position may induce stresses in the concrete that exceed any loading that may be
imposed on the panel after it has been installed in a structure.

b. Selection. Selection of the lifting device and its location should be based on the manufacturer’s
recommendation and an engineering analysis of the proposed installation. The locations and details of
lifting and handling devices should be shown on the shop drawings. When requested, the engineering
analysis should be reviewed and approved by licensed engineers with sufficient experience with P/C
construction.

c. Couplers. Lap splice can be used for splicing of reinforcing bars #11 or less. Mechanical
couplers should be used to splice larger bars. The splicing couplers include threaded bars with couplers,
hydraulically forged couplers, and swaged couplers. As in all mechanical items, their use requires proper
care in storage, protection in transport and erection, cleanliness, and precision in installation.

d. Mechanical connections. Mechanical connections can be categorized as compression-only,

tension-only, and tension-compression. Various types of mechanical connections are available that will
handle both tension and compression forces. These connectors use a variety of couplers that may be cold
swaged, cold extruded, hot forged, grout filled, steel filled, or threaded. In most compression-only
mechanical connections, concentric bearing transfers the compressive stress from one bar to the other.
The mechanical connection then serves to hold the bars in concentric contact. Tension-only mechanical
connections generally use a steel coupling sleeve with a wedge. This is only effective when the
reinforcing bar is pulled in tension. In general, a mechanical connection should develop, in tension or
compression, at least 125% of the specified yield strength of the bars being connected. This is to ensure
that yielding of the bars will occur before failure in the mechanical connection. Most mechanical
connection devices are proprietary and further information is available from individual manufacturers.
Some have been tested and approved for cyclic fully reversible action and endurance against fatigue.

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Descriptions of the physical features and installation procedures for selected mechanical splices are
described in ACI Report 439.3R.

3-6. Grout

When P/C components are placed adjacent to each other, load transfer between adjacent members is often
achieved through a grouted keyway. The keyway may or may not extend for the full depth of the member.
The keyway is grouted with one of several different grouting materials, which are described below.

a. Site mixed or prepackaged grout. Either site-mixed grout or prepackaged grout may be used to
join precast members. Site-mixed grout shall generally conform to the performance requirements
specified in ASTM C 1107 in terms of compressive strength, early expansion, and shrinkage. Site-mixed
grout shall also meet specific project requirements in consistency, unit weight, and air content through the
relevant tests specified in ASTM C 1107.

b. Grades. ASTM Specification C 1107 covers three grades of packaged dry hydraulic-cement
grouts (nonshrink) intended for use under applied load. These grouts are composed of hydraulic cement,
fine aggregate, and other ingredients and generally only require the addition of mixing water for use.
Three grades of grout are classified according to the volume control mechanism exhibited by the grout
after being mixed with water:

• Grade A - prehardening volume adjusting in which expansion occurs before hardening

• Grade B - posthardening volume adjusting in which expansion occurs after the grout hardens

• Grade C - combination volume-adjusting which utilizes a combination of expansion before and

after hardening

c. Performance requirements. Performance requirements for compressive strengths and maximum

and minimum expansion levels are given in ASTM C 1107. Although these grouts are termed nonshrink,
the intent is to provide a final length that is not shorter than the original length at placement. This is
achieved through an expansion mechanism prior to any shrinkage occurring.

d. Cementitious materials. Different cementitious materials may be used to produce grout. These
include portland cement, shrinkage-compensating cement, expansive portland cement made with special
additives, epoxy-cement resins, and magnesium ammonium phosphate cement.

e. Epoxy resin grouts. Epoxy-resin grouts can be used between P/C members where increased
bonding and tensile capacity are required. When these are used, consideration should be given to the
higher coefficient of thermal expansion and the larger creep properties of epoxy grouts.

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Chapter 4
Materials for Prestressed Concrete

4-1. Concrete

Concrete used for prestressed construction is characterized by high strength, because prestressed concrete
is generally subjected to higher forces and high strength concrete results in more economical designs. It is
common practice that the 28-day compressive strength of prestressed concrete ranges between 35 and
55 MPa (5,000 and 8,000 psi). Use of high strength P/C permits substantial reductions in member sizes
and dead load, allowing lighter members to span longer distance. High strength concrete has a higher
elastic modulus than low strength concrete, so that loss of prestress force resulting from elastic shortening
of the concrete is reduced. Creep losses, which are roughly proportional to elastic shortening, are also
reduced.

4-2. Components for Prestressed Concrete (Pretensioning)

a. Casting bed. Pretensioned concrete members are commonly produced in plant conditions. The
tendons, usually multiwire-stranded cables, are stretched between abutments. With the forms in place,
concrete is cast around the stressed tendons. High-early-strength concrete is often produced with steam
curing to accelerate the hardening of concrete. After sufficient concrete strength is attained, the jacking
pressure is released. The strands tend to shorten but are prevented from doing so because they are bonded
to the concrete. The prestress force is transferred to the concrete by bond and no special anchorage is
needed. Tendon eccentricity can be varied along the length of the member by holding down the strands at
intermediate points and holding them up at the ends of the span. Pretensioning is generally suited to mass
production of standard shape members.

b. Jacking and load-measuring equipment. In addition to the casting bed, pretensioning operations
require a number of special devices. Formwork should be designed with consideration of thermal
expansion and compression during concreting and curing. Jacking abutments should be designed for
maximum jacking loads with an appropriate safety factor of 4 or above. All jacking and load-measuring
equipment shall be calibrated according to the standard industry practice in PCI MNL-116 and AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Specifications.

c. Stress measurement devices. Stress measurement devices include pressure gauges on hydraulic
jacks, dynamometers, and/or load cells connected into the stressing system. Under all circumstances,
stress induced in the tendons shall be determined by two independent measurement methods: direct stress
measurement by pressure gauges or dynamometers or load cells, and force computed from the actual
elongation of the strand based upon its physical properties and compensation adjustment.

d. Strand and splice chucks. Strand chucks and splice chucks should be capable of anchoring
jacking loads positively and with a minimum of differential slippage.

e. Hold-down devices. For pretensioned concrete with deflected strand profiles, a hold-down device
should be fastened in such a way as to permit the necessary longitudinal movement and angular rotation
due to shortening of the pretensioned concrete member under release of prestress.

f. Pretension in load. The pretensioning load shall be applied in two increments. An initial load is
applied to the individual strands to straighten them and provide a reference point for measuring
elongation of the strands. The final load is then applied.
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g. Jacking force release. For all but lightly pretensioned concrete, jacking forces shall be gradually
released by hydraulic jacks after concrete reaches adequate strength. For lightly pretensioned concrete,
release of jacking forces by burning the strands with low heat may be permitted.

4-3. Components for Prestressed Concrete (Posttensioning)

a. In order to prestress concrete by the posttensioning method, usually hollow conduits or duct
containing the unstressed tendons are placed in the member forms, to the desired profile before pouring
the concrete. The tendons may be stranded wires or solid steel rods. The conduit is fastened to auxiliary
reinforcement to prevent accidental displacement. After the concrete has gained sufficient strength, the
hardened concrete itself is used to provide the reaction for the stressing jack. The tendon is anchored by
special fittings at the far end of the member, stretched, and then anchored at the jacking end by similar
fittings. Tendons are normally grouted in their ducts after they are stressed. The grout bonds to the
tendon and to the inner wall of the duct, permitting transfer of force. Grouting improves corrosion
resistance and increases ultimate flexural strength. Use of unbonded tendons is permitted only for special
cases such as temporary structures or transport condition.

b. A complete posttensioned system includes tendons (bars or strands), anchorage devices or

bearing plates, ducts, end caps, grout tubes, couplers, and a corrosion protection system. A brief
description of these components is provided below. Additional valuable information can be found in Post-
Tensioning Institute Post-Tensioning Manual and AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.

(1) Tendons and anchorage. Tendons can be high-strength low-alloy steel bars or strands. Tendons
pass through ducts placed within the concrete and sometimes terminate at embedded bearing plates or
anchorage devices (dead end). The embedded ends of the prestressing steel are anchored by a positive
means rather than by gripping devices, which are vulnerable to slippage resulting from penetration of
grout into the anchorage device. Tendons are anchored at the dead end with embedded bearing plates that
range in thickness from 25 to 63 mm (1 to 2-1/2 in.). Stress is introduced by stretching the tendons at the
live end by a hydraulic jack. Live-end anchorage devices may consist of a wedge, bell, or flat plate
system. The dead-end termination points of individual tendons can be staggered from one another to
distribute the transfer of load from the tendons to the concrete. Where there is considerable curvature of
the tendons, the tendons are often stressed at both ends. Strands may also be continuous extending from
the live end to a fixed loop or 180-degree bend (that acts as the dead-end anchorage) back to the live end.

(2) Tendon ducts or sheathing. Ducts encase the tendons to separate them from the surrounding
concrete for tensioning. The ducts also function as protection for tendons during placement of concrete
and act as a part of the corrosion-protection system. Ducts shall be rigid or semirigid, either galvanized
ferrous metal or polyethylene. Polyethylene ducts are corrugated to increase crushing resistance and to
interlock with surrounding concrete. After the prestressing operation is completed, the ducts enclosing
the tendons are filled with a portland cement grout. The exposed ends of the prestressing tendons (live
end) are encapsulated in concrete for corrosion protection. Polyethylene-sheathed strands, prefilled with
grout, are increasingly being used in posttensioning operations to provide a second barrier against
corrosion.

(3) Anchor accessories and corrosion-protection systems. The concrete surrounding the anchorage
system provides a level of corrosion protection for the tendons but, because of its porous nature, allows
some penetration of moisture that eventually leads to corrosion. Corrosion of tendons must be avoided
because it can lead to pitting, stress corrosion, and potential failure of the tendons. Since replacement of
tendons is not an economical solution to address corrosion, special measures such as proper selection of
duct material and associated hardware are required to prevent or deter initiation of corrosion. A proper

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duct system prevents moisture penetration to the tendons, and the proper grout system provides the
necessary environment that inhibits the corrosion process. The anchorage system shall be, at a minimum,
doubly protected against corrosion with the duct system providing one level of protection and the grout
providing the other. The duct system, including sheathing and all connections, shall be watertight or
gastight. The grout system shall ensure that tendons are completely encapsulated and no air voids are
present. Where aggressive chemical environments are encountered or where corrosion is of great
concern, anchor plates and anchorage ends can be encapsulated in plastic. Nonmetallic sheathing is less
susceptible to corrosion than metallic sheathing and provides better corrosion protection for the tendon
when properly installed. End caps are placed over the live end of the anchors and anchor nuts or wedges
after stressing is complete and excess tendon removed. End caps shall be filled with grout or anticorrosion
compound and should be fitted with a sealing device. Grout tubes extend from the sheathing to allow
access for grouting. Couplers are available to splice tendons; however, tendons are produced in sufficient
lengths to make the use of couplers less frequent.

(4) Epoxy-coated strands.

(a) An organic epoxy-coating over seven-wire prestressing strands can vary in thickness from 0.64 to
1.1 mm (25 to 45 mils). Two types of coatings are available. A smooth type has low bond characteristics
and is intended for use in unbonded posttensioned systems, external posttensioned systems, and stay
cables. An epoxy-coated strand with particles of grit embedded in the surface is used in bonded
pretensioned and posttensioned systems. In addition to the strand having an external coating, it can also
be manufactured with the interstices between the individual wires filled with epoxy. This prevents the
entry of corrosive chemicals, either by capillary action or other hydrostatic forces. This type of strand
should be specified when there is risk of contaminants or moisture entering at the ends of tendons. Epoxy-
coated strand should comply with ASTM A 882 and ASTM A 416.

(b) For pretensioned applications with epoxy-coated strands where accelerated curing techniques are
employed, the temperature of the concrete surrounding the strand at the time of prestress transfer should
be limited to a maximum of 66 !C (150 !F). The epoxy coating will not be damaged if the concrete
curing temperature is limited to the recommended value. PCI Report JR-383 provides more specific
information on the use of epoxy-coated strands.

4-4. Materials Selection

a. Concrete. The minimum compressive strength (28 day) of the concrete in the anchorage zone
shall be 35 MPa (5,000 psi.). Concrete strengths higher than 55 MPa (8,000 psi) shall not be used without
approval from USACE (CECW-E). Higher concrete strengths may be considered if required and when
controls over materials and fabrication procedures can ensure the required strength. The maximum
concrete aggregate size should be selected based on reinforcing bars placement.

b. Tendons. Posttensioning bars shall be of high-tensile alloy steel, conforming to the requirements
of ASTM A 722. Strands shall be ASTM A 416 with a minimum strength of 18.62 MPa (270 ksi).

c. Steel for reinforcement. Reinforcing steel shall be deformed bars conforming to ASTM A615,
Grade 60. Welded bars and bars subjected to dynamic impact loads shall conform to ASTM A 706, Grade
60.

d. Ducts. Galvanized steel pipe ducts shall conform to ASTM A 53 and the requirements specified
in AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Division II, Article 10.3.3. To provide corrosion
protection, ducts for tendons shall be mortar-tight and nonreactive with concrete, tendons, and filler
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material. Ducts shall have an inside diameter at least 3 mm (1/8 in.) larger than the tendon diameter.
Ducts shall be stiff enough to retain their profile and shape during concreting. Ducts shall also be strong
enough to avoid rupture or cracking by accidental contact of the vibrator. In aggressive environments, the
wall thickness of the metal ducts should not be less than 2.0 mm. Elsewhere, the minimum thickness of
metal ducts may be 0.8 mm (black) or 0.6 mm (galvanized). Anchorage devices shall be encapsulated
within second placement high quality concrete.

e. Grout. Grout for bonded posttensioned tendons shall be made of Type I or II portland cement,
pozzolans, potable water, and chemical admixtures described in (f) below. Fine aggregates with a
maximum size of less than 300 μm may be used in the grout. However, the common practice is to use
neat grout without aggregates. The ratio of water to cementitious material (w/cm) specified in the grout
shall be below 0.43 and less than the w/cm ratio used to make the P/C. Adding pozzolanic additives as
partial replacement of cement is generally beneficial in terms of reduction of permeability and bleeding.
Fly ash used in the grout shall conform to ASTM C 618. The dosage of fly ash is generally controlled in
the range of 10 to 25 percent by weight of cement.

f. Admixtures.

(1) The types and performance requirements of chemical admixtures that may be used in grout for
posttensioned members are as follows:

(a) Water-reducing and retarding admixtures shall conform to ASTM C 494 standards for Type B,
Type D, Type F, and Type G admixture. In addition, compatibility of these admixtures with the cement,
mineral additives, and other admixtures used shall be established during the grout trial tests.

(b) Air-entraining admixtures shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C 260. Air entrainment
not only enhances durabilty in a freeze-thaw environment but also increases cohesion and reduces
bleeding of the grout. Typically fine aggregates are needed to develop a stable air void system.

(c) Antibleeding admixtures shall be tested for effectiveness in accordance with ASTM C 940.
Resistance to bleeding is a very important consideration for grout in long and curved posttensioning ducts
and vertical ducts. Antibleeding admixtures have a proven record in eliminating detrimental bleeding and
enhancing the thixotropic property of the grout.

(d) Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures may be considered if the structure will be exposed to

aggressively corrosive environments. Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures are currently not covered in
ASTM specifications. Approval of the admixtures shall be based upon independent laboratory testing and
past project experience.

(2) In the past, certain gas-forming expansion admixtures, such as aluminum powder and coke
breeze, were used in grout in an attempt to reduce voids in the hardened grout in posttensioning ducts.
However, there has been no evidence to date to show that the use of gas-forming expansion admixtures
contribute to volume stability in the grout. In general, expansion admixtures shall not be used in any grout
material.

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Chapter 5
Loads

5-1. Introduction

P/C components are fabricated offsite and then transported and erected onsite to make part of a completed
structure. Under various construction and service conditions, they are subjected to different loads that
vary in magnitude, direction, and duration. This chapter identifies various loading conditions that are
unique to P/C designs. General structural design load criteria for precast/prestressed concrete structures
are described in Chapter 9.

5-2. Stripping Loads

Stripping loads are determined by self-weight of the P/C member, the orientation of the member, impact,
and suction between the precast product and the form, the number and location of handling devices, and
any additional items that must be lifted such as forms that remain with the member during shipping. In
checking the strength of a P/C component against concrete cracking when it is lifted off the form, form
suction should be added to the self-weight of the member as an external load. Form suction can be
calculated by using a multiplier on the member’s self-weight as defined in Table 5-1. A more accurate
method is to establish a suction load that is independent of the member’s self-weight and apply this load
over the form’s contact area with the P/C component.

Table 5-1
Equivalent Static Load Multipliers to Calculate Stripping Loads
Product Type Smooth Mold Multiplier (form oil only)

Flat, with removable side forms, no false joints or reveals 1.3

Flat with false joints and/or reveals 1.4

Fluted, with proper draft 1.6

Sculptured 1.7

5-3. Handling and Storage Loads

Handling and storage loads are mainly influenced by the orientation of the member, locations of
temporary supports, and location with respect to other stored members.

a. Member orientation. The most critical time in handling a precast member is when it is initially
lifted from the form. The concrete strength is lower and, in pretensioned members, the prestressing force
is higher than at any other time in the life of the member. To minimize concrete stresses due to the
eccentricity of prestress, pretensioned flexural members are handled with lifting devices as close as
practical to the location where the member will be supported in the structure. With the exception of
members with pretensioned cantilevers, lifting devices are located near the ends (Figure 5-1).

b. Handling points. Concentrically prestressed or conventionally reinforced members are handled at

two or more points in order to restrict the concrete tensile stresses below the cracking limit. Normally, a
factor of safety of 1.5 is applied to the concrete modulus of rupture. In addition, an impact factor is
applied to the dead weight of the member. Optimum lifting locations equalize positive and negative
moments in members of constant cross-section where the section modulus is the same at the top and
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EC 1110-2-6052
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Figure 5-1. Lifting device for precast concrete members

bottom. For example, members lifted at two points will have equal positive and negative moments if the
lifting points are located at the 1/5th point (0.2 times the member length) from the ends. The use of
optimum lifting locations is not always necessary, as long as the concrete stresses are within allowable
limits. In many cases, available handling equipment determines the lifting locations.

c. Lateral stability. Long, slender sections can become unstable when handled with lifting devices
located near the ends. The most important parameter for lateral stability during handling is the lateral
bending stiffness of the member. Inclined slings, such as shown in Figure 5.1(b), may introduce
significant compression in the P/C member that should be included in calculation of buckling loads. The
simplest method to improve lateral stiffness is to move the lifting devices in from the ends. However,
doing so normally increases the concrete stresses at lifting and, sometimes, the required concrete release
strength.

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5-4. Transportation Loads

A float-in P/C module is subjected to several significant loads during its transportation from its
prefabrication yard to the project site. The module should therefore be analyzed for its global responses,
local responses, and stability. The global responses address stresses and deflections of the entire module
in response to external forces as a beam. The local responses include stresses in concrete plates or shells
between bulkheads or stiffeners under hydrostatic and hydrodynamic pressures. The floating stability of a
floating module is addressed in paragraph 5-6.

a. Global responses.

(1) The first type of global loads on a floating structure is the still-water bending moment and shear.
The buoyancy force distribution usually varies very little along the length of the structure, but the weight
distribution is often much more uneven along its length with presence of concentrated weights, such as
those due to pier walls, bulkheads, baffle blocks, and heavy equipment. The disparity between the weight
and buoyancy distributions causes the still-water moment and shear in the module. To calculate these
forces, the module may be divided into about twenty segments. The net load distribution is obtained by
taking the difference between the cumulative weight and the buoyancy forces from these segments. The
shear and moment distributions are then the first and second integrals of this net load.

(2) Besides the still-water condition, the sagging and hogging conditions caused by passage of waves
can also induce significant forces in float-in modules. When the weight distribution of a floating structure
is closely matched by the buoyancy force distribution, dynamic wave and wind loads may constitute 80%
or more of the design loads. Figure 5.2 is a sketch of a floating module in the still-water condition, a
sagging wave condition, and a hogging wave condition. The lower part of the figure shows the weight
distribution and buoyancy distribution correspondence to the three cases. The sagging condition usually
exacerbates the load effects of the still-water condition, while the hogging condition reverses the load
effects of the still-water condition.

(3) To assess the sagging and hogging wave loads, design criteria should specify height and length of
the design wave induced by river current, wind, and passing vessels. If the float-in module will remain
afloat during its construction and outfitting for a substantial period, the design should include the Storm
Wave condition pertinent to the construction site. Structural calculations must be performed to determine
the sagging and hogging components. These additional forces are then added to the still-water moments
and shear. The wave action must be checked in both the longitudinal and transverse directions of the
float-in module, since they depend on the orientation of the vessel as well as the wave length and height.
Any significant torsional moment induced by the design waves should also be included in structural
calculations. These wave-induced forces are, by the rules of naval architecture, applied to develop the
maximum bending moments and shears in the float-in modules.

b. Local responses.

(1) All the environmental forces should be determined and included in structural calculation. The
design loads may be based upon actual measurements at the site. In absence of field-measured data, wind,
current, wave drift, and wave force shall be calculated using the following formulae:

Wind : P = 0.6105V 2 C h C s (5-1)

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Figure 5-2. Shear force and moment distributions under still-water condition and sagging and hogging
conditions

where

P = wind pressure, Pa

V = wind velocity, m/s

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Ch = height coefficient as defined in Table 5-2

Cs = shape coefficient as defined in Table 5-3

Table 5-2
Values of Height Coefficient Ch
Height from Water Surface to Center of 0-15 m 15-50 m 30-46 m 46-61 m
Design Surface Area (0-50 ft) (50-100 ft) (100-150 ft) (150-200 ft)
Height coefficient Ch 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30

Table 5-3
Values of Shape Coefficient Cs
Shape of Components Shape Coefficient Cs

Hull 1.0

Deck house 1.0

Isolated structural shape (cranes, angles, channels, beams, etc.) 1.5

Cylindrical shape (all sizes) 0.5

Rig derrick 1.25

WV 2
Current : C = (5-2)
2g

where

C = current pressure, Pa

W = water density, N/m3

V = current velocity, m/s

g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2

Resultant environment load: F = PAwind + CAcurrent (5-3)

where

Awind = area of segment above water

Acurrent = area of segment below water

(2) The towboat will be required to overcome bow waves, effect of static drift forces, wind, and
current. The influence of the pull force and wind loading on the draft is considered negligible.

c. Mooring. Contingency mooring should be provided along the route if the transportation of the
precast module takes more than 24 hours. Contingency mooring should also be provided at the outfitting
site if the site will be exposed to flood. The contingency moorings are designed for at least 100-year
flood. Single point moorings are typically used for the contingency mooring line, along with an anchor to

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prevent yaw. The magnitude and heading of wind, currents, waves, and dynamic excursions make it
difficult and risky to rely on two mooring lines acting efficiently at the same time. Transportation loads
due to waves shall be determined in close coordination with hydraulic engineers.

5-5. Erection Loads

For in-the-wet construction, typical erection loads on a P/C module include mooring line forces,
ballasting loads and/or lifting forces, in-fill concrete pressure, thermal pressure of in-fill concrete,
concentrated loads from support points, environmental loads such as current and wave drift, and wave
surge forces.

a. Mooring line force.

(1) During erection of a precast module, a mooring system is usually used to position and hold the
segments while they are being lowered by a crane or ballasted down to the riverbed. The mooring force
should be a sum of steady (static) loads and transient (dynamic) loads. The steady loads are the wind,
current, and wave drift forces discussed in paragraph 5-4. Furthermore, there is a significant surface
wave surge when a large segment sets on the riverbed and extends over the water surface. The wave surge
is due to obstruction of wave flow by the segment. The wave surge force and the resulting overturning
moment should be included in structural calculations by using proper theories such as Molitor’s empirical
method (Quinn 1971). The resultant steady loads on mooring lines are as follows:

Fsteady = PAwind + CAcurrent + Fsurge (5-4)

where

Fsurge = wave surge force due to obstruction of wave flow.

(2) Transient loads include vertical wave load causing a vertical excursion of the modules that will
stretch the mooring lines. In general, the transient load is considered only for unusual conditions, such as
major flooding. The resultant mooring line loads are calculated without any load factors. The safety
factors are built into the mooring line and anchor pile capacities. A safety factor of 5 to 6 is usually used
on the breaking strength of mooring lines. This is assumed to compensate for wear, impact, combined
stresses at bends over sheaves, and material uncertainties.

b. In-fill concrete pressure. In-the-wet construction typically utilizes P/C modules as in situ forms
for in-fill tremie concrete. As the in-fill concrete is being placed into the forms, the hydrostatic concrete
pressures on the forms increase proportionally. The form pressures in combination with the thermal
expansion of the in-fill concrete may dictate the design of the precast modules. Tremie concrete pressure
on the precast modules should be adequately designed in accordance with EM 1110-2-2104 and Technical
Report INP-SL-1. In principle, the magnitude of the form pressures primarily depends on the rate of the
concrete placement and the rate of the tremie concrete slump loss. If placement of concrete is slow
enough to allow the concrete at the bottom to stiffen, the form pressure will correspondingly decrease. A
simple design method is to assume liquid pressure of the concrete without considering the time-dependent
reduction of the form pressure. However, in some cases, neglecting the reduction of the form pressures
can result in uneconomical design of the precast module. As an alternative, a bilinear pressure diagram as
shown in Figure 5-3 may be used as the design form pressure. In other words, the time period required
for the concrete to reach zero slump is recorded as t0. The form pressure is calculated as follows:

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p =W ∗ R ∗t when t < t0 (5-5)

p = pmax = W ∗ R ∗ t0 when t > t0 (5-6)

where

pmax = maximum form pressure

W = buoyant weight of concrete

R = placement rate

t = time lapse from initiation of the placement

t0 = time for concrete to reach zero slump

Figure 5-3. Design diagram of underwater concrete form pressure

c. Thermal loads. The thermal expansion of in-fill concrete due to heat of hydration should be
checked for “in-the-wet” construction of navigation structures. The thermal expansion of mass concrete
and steep temperature gradient in the P/C form can lead to unacceptable cracks in the P/C. Thermal loads
may be estimated with an approximate method such as the Schmidt method as described in ACI
Committee 207.1 report. For major projects, it is recommended that the adiabatic temperature test of in-
fill concrete and nonlinear incremental stress analysis (NISA) be conducted to determine the thermal load
and its effects.

d. Superimposed additional loads. Once a P/C module is set down on its supports or foundation,
additional loads, such as lifting frame, equipment, and additional P/C components, are likely to be
imposed upon the module. Unless the in-fill concrete reaches the design strength and acts compositely
with the P/C module, the module should be designed to carry all the imposed loads.
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5-6. Ballasting

a. Ballasting of a float-in P/C module may be performed at different construction stages for various
purposes. Ballasting during launch or during outfitting is usually performed to trim or to lower the center
of gravity for required floating stability. Ballasting is also performed at the project site for the purpose of
setting down the segment onto a prepared foundation.

b. Ballasting of a floating module is performed by filling its interior compartments with either solid
or liquid ballast. Concrete may be used for permanent solid ballast. During all phases of transport and
outfitting, water ballast is usually used for minor trimming of the floating modules. Water is frequently
the primary ballast material during the set-down operation. Gravel or sand may also be used for ballast.
Iron ore has been used where high density ballast is required.

c. The staging of the ballast sequence and the amount of ballast at each stage shall be specified in
the design. The layout of compartments and sequence of ballasting shall be such as to reduce the overall
stresses in the structure by filling the compartments in a pattern that results in a more uniform distribution
of the dead loads. All compartment bulkheads and keel plates as well as the entire floating module shall
be designed to withstand the ballast loads at different stages of ballasting.

5-7. Lifting Loads

a. The lift-in P/C modules cannot float by themselves. Towed barges or floating cranes are usually
used to transport and place the modules. The lifting operations of a crane do not represent one well
defined load case, but a sequence of different load cases. Uncertainties with respect to internal force dis-
tribution and possible accident loads require an adequate safety margin. The designer should in principle
consider the entire lifting sequence step-by-step and identify the most critical dynamic load case for each
structural member. The dynamic effects of lift operations can be influenced by a number of factors, such
as (1) environmental conditions, (2) motions of crane barges, (3) stiffness of lifting gear/ equipment,
(4) lift weight, and (5) whether lift is in air or water. The dynamic effects are mainly due to acceleration
of lifted objects. The dynamic effects may be significantly increased when lifting a heavy load off a barge
in a wave environment, since the barge may drop suddenly before the crane has lifted the load.

b. In lieu of refined analyses, the dynamic effects may be included in calculations by means of
dynamic amplification factors, as defined in Table 5-4.

Table 5-4
Dynamic Amplification Factor of Calculating Lifting Loads
Lift Weight < 100 tons 100 – 1,000 tons 1,000-2,000 tons >2,000 tons
Dynamic aplification factor 1.15 1.10 1.05 1.05

c. The basic design load case is the dynamic hook load. The design lift hook load shall be
calculated as follows:

F = Da ( W + Wr ) + SL (5-7)

where

F = design hook load

Da = dynamic amplification factor

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W = lift weight

Wr = weight of rigging

SL = special loads such as tugger line forces, guide forces, wind forces on the lifted object

d. To design the precast modules for the lift loads, a load factor of 1.7 shall be applied as a
multiplier to the design load in order to account for uncertainties of load inaccuracy, local dynamic
effects, and consequences of failure.

e. One of the critical components is the connection of the lifting gear to the lift-in precast segments.
The gravity loads from the segment have to be picked up by the lifting gear. Similarly, the lifting forces
need to be distributed to the precast segment. Lifting points and their attachments to the precast modules
are to be designed for the maximum lifting load plus any lateral load component. The general rule is that
the attachment points of the lifting gear to the precast segments should have an elastic capacity equal to
the breaking strength of the wire lines or rods. This is to ensure that any failure will occur only in the
slings, not the structure. Typically the maximum negative moments occur at the attachment points. To
prevent excessive cracking in the segment, additional strengthening and reinforcement confinement
around the embedment of lift device (padeyes) are often provided. For odd-shaped precast segments,
torsion must also be considered. Padeye plates should be oriented in such a direction that the possibility
for out-of-plane loading of the padeye plate and on the shackle is minimized.

f. P/C modules can be subjected to high bending stresses near the picking points during lifting
operations. Therefore, the flat plate modules can be fitted with a structural steel frame to facilitate the
lift-in operation. The steel frame is usually secured to the top of the module before launching. The frame
can serve multiple purposes. First, it distributes the lift force from the crane hoist to the concrete segment
through many picking points, thereby reducing bending moments in the segment. Secondly, the frame
may serve as a spotting tower for accurate positioning of the segment underwater. And thirdly, it may
serve as a guide frame for lowering tremie pipes into the segment at specific locations so that underwater
concrete can be placed.

5-8. In-Service Loads

The loads that are expected to be imparted to navigation dams, locks, and their appurtenant structures
include hydrostatic pressure due to differential elevations, uplift, lateral earth pressure, tow impact,
hawser loads, ice and debris, wave and wind loads, bulkhead and gate loads, seismic loads, thermal loads,
superstructure and equipment loads, sheetpile or cofferdam tie-in loads, and monolith joint loads. Design
loads on navigation dam structures should be specified in accordance with EM 1110-2-2607. Design
loads on navigation lock structures should be specified in accordance with EM 1110-2-2602.

5-9. Progressive Failures

In addition to checking stability of a floating structure, structural engineers should also check its strength
against additional forces and pressure when the structure experiences significant trim/heel or accidental
local damage. For permanently floating structures, the Progressive Collapse Limit State (PLS) should be
checked against catastrophic failure. PLS corresponds to the condition that failure of one member due to
accidental overloading leads to progressive failure of adjoining members. The PLS design is usually
achieved by a combination of the structural redundancy and ductility. At the element level, individual
members should be designed for adequate ductility. At the level of the structural system, compartments

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provide contingency against accidental flooding during float-out and transport. All designated walls
behind the external walls should be watertight. A float-in structure is commonly designed for flooding of
one perimeter compartment. A permanently floating structure is commonly designed for simultaneous
flooding of two compartments without significant impact on its stability and strength, that is, multiple
load paths are provided in all critical regions.

5-10. Floating Stability

a. Floating structures and float-in modules must meet the design requirements for floating stability.
In essence, the structures should be able to remain floating upright for all afloat conditions, including
launching and ballasting down, and under all the possible environmental conditions pertaining to the site
and the period. They should also have adequate reserves of stability when certain accidental damage
occurs.

b. A floating structure may lose its stability due to several destabilizing effects, such as flooding of
its compartments or uncontrolled lifts from a mounted crane. A stability check according to naval
architecture principles should be made against all potential destabilizing effects.

Figure 5-4(a). Center of buoyancy, center of gravity, and metacenter

Figure 5-4(b). Effect of metacentric height

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c. There are three important parameters controlling the stability of a floating structure: the center of
gravity (G), the center of buoyancy (B), and the water plane moment of inertia (I), as shown in Fig-
ure 5-4(a). A reference point is often established at midship on the keel (K). When a floating structure
heels or trims, the buoyancy force acts vertically upwards through B to intersect the axis of the structure
at the “metacentric point” (M), as shown in Figure 5-4(b). The buoyancy force also imposes a righting
moment on the structure. The righting moment is the product of the displacement and righting arm (GM)
(sin θ) (GM, θ, Figure 5-4(a)). sin θ may be replaced by θ for small angles of list. Stability of the
structure requires that the righting moment restore the structure to the upright floating position once
external forces causing the heel or trim are removed. In naval architecture, this stability requirement
implies that the metacentric height should always be positive. In practice, the metacentric height ( GM ) is
usually kept above 1 meter (3.3 feet) for all directions of inclination. This stability requirement can be
translated into the following mathematical equation:

GM = KB − KG + BM ≥ 1.0 meter (5-8)

where KB and KG are the distance from the keel to the center of buoyancy and the center of gravity,
respectively. BM is the distance from the center of buoyancy to the metacentric point. BM can be
calculated as follows:

I the moment of inertia of the water plane

BM = = (5-9)
V the displacement of the structure

b 3l
For any rectangular structure, I = and V = bld . b, l, and d are the beam, length, and draft of the
12
structure, respectively.

d. Floating stability shall be checked for all the possible cases of flooding. There are a number of
reasons for flooding a floating structure, e.g., boat impact, incorrect valve operation, or ballasting down a
float-in module. One principal method of controlling stability is to subdivide a floating structure into a
sufficient number of small compartments so that accidental flooding is limited to a small part of the
structure.

e. If one or more compartments are partially filled with water or other liquid, the internal water
planes will cause a shift of the center of gravity further away from the center of buoyancy upon heel or
trim of the structure. The net effect, often referred to as “free surface effect,” is a reduction in stability and
the metacentric height. The free surface effect can be approximately accounted for by subtracting its
contribution from BM as follows:

∑Ar
I
BM = −
2
i i (5-10)
V i

where Ai is the free surface area in a partially filled compartment and ri is the distance from the free
surface to the axis of the water plane of the entire structure in the direction of rotation.

f. Some float-in structures have partially or fully open tops during transport. Adequate
consideration must be given to the potential for overtopping, such as by waves or due to unintended list,
and even to rainwater, because even a small amount of floodwater can lead to significant free-surface
effects.

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g. To provide protection against accidental flooding, the damage control measures require that all
manholes, hatches, and bulkheads in the compartments be sealed watertight and designed to withstand the
maximum pressure head of the accidental flooding. The design also requires that all pipes and ducts be
closed off during nonusage periods so that flooding does not spread through those systems.

h. In ballasting a float-in segment down to riverbed, it is critical to check the stability when the
segment commences immersion into water. Since the waterline plane diminishes at that instance, the
moment of inertia diminishes rapidly. Special caution must be taken to ensure adequate metacentric
height (at least 1 meter) for the stability of the float-in segment in all directions of inclination. During
setdown for a float-in segment with a top deck, if the segment is ballasted down uniformly so that the
entire top deck becomes awash at approximately the same time, the segment will lose a significant portion
of the water plane and may behave unpredictably. It is, therefore, good practice to purposely tilt the
semgent in one direction (usually in the longitudinal direction) so that the water plane is reduced
gradually while the mooring lines and guide device hold the segment in place.

i. To check the stability of a float-in segment during submergence, further calculations should be
made to take into account (1) dynamic stability of the segments during final immersion, (2) effects of
sloshing of the free surface water on the overall stability, (3) effects of mooring lines, and (4) effects of
pressure reduction due to increased velocity under segments during final stages of setdown.

j. Lifting loads from a floating structure can substantially change its stability condition. In stability
calculations, the weight of the loads should be assumed to act at the height of the upper support point
(e.g., the sheave blocks at the tip of the crane boom). In such cases, the center of gravity can be very high.
The stability becomes excessively sensitive to the instantaneous transverse moment of inertia.

k. The above formulae are useful tools for quick assessment of the hydrostatic stability of a floating
structure. They are valid for small heel/trim rotational angles. If a floating structure may experience
substantial trim/heel rotation, stability calculation should be based upon the righting moment stability
criterion, as specified by American Bureau of Shipping (1980, 1985).

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Chapter 6
Connections.

6-1. Structural Functions

In terms of their structural functions, joints in hydraulic structures may be divided into moment
connections, hinged connections, expansion/contraction joints, and isolation joints. Offsite prefabrication
and underwater installation of P/C modules implies that loads are generally transferred through a discrete
number of connections which may be more critical than those in the conventional cast-in-place
construction. Connections to tie superstructures into pile foundations and to join precast segements into a
monolith are of paramount importance. Both temporary and permanent connections must be designed
with careful attention to details and construction procedure to ensure the critical load paths and durability
performance.

6-2. Monolithic Action

Each structural unit that incorporates P/C components shall be designed to act as a monolithic structural
system. Specific joint details shall be developed to accomplish monolithic action. Connection details for
moment connections shall assure full transfer of moment, shear, and axial forces across the joints between
adjacent components. Connection details for hinged connections shall assure full transfer of shear and
axial forces. Connection details for expansion/contraction joints shall assure full transfer of shear.
Connection details for isolation joints shall assure no transfer of force and moments across the joints and
allow free movements of adjacent components. This design approach requires the structural engineer to
coordinate the joint design with cost estimators and construction field personnel to develop cost-
optimized P/C systems. Energy-absorbing designs for P/C structural systems (non-monolithic joint
details) may have economical applications in seismically active regions. Designs based on this
philosophy require approval from HQUSACE.

6-3. Water Stops

a. Materials. Water stops can be classified as rigid or flexible. Suitable rigid water stops are made
of copper or stainless steel. These water stops are costly and require special handling care to avoid
damage. For these reasons, flexible water stops are generally preferred. Flexible water stops can be made
of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), butyl, neoprene, and natural rubber. PVC water stops are thermoplastic and
can be easily spliced on the jobsite.

b. Reasons for failures. Most joint deterioration problems can be traced to failure of water stops.
Improperly installed or damaged water stops permit seepage through monolith joints which in turn
accelerates penetration of deleterious agents into concrete around the joints. Water leakage also causes the
concrete to become critically saturated and thus susceptible to freeze-thaw damage. Past experience
shows that failures of water stops are primarily due to the following reasons: (1) excessive movement of
the joint which ruptures the water stop, (2) honeycomb in concrete adjacent to the water stops due to lack
of consolidation, (3) contamination of the water-stop surface which prevents bond to the concrete,
(4) puncture of the water stop or complete omission during construction, and (5) breaks in the water stop
due to poor or no splice.

c. Criticality of selection and installation. Proper selection and installation of water stops are
critical to durability of hydraulic structures. In general, water stops must be capable of accommodating
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the anticipated movements of the adjacent concrete as the joints go through thermal movements.
Adequate attention shall be paid in design and construction to allow sufficient consolidation of concrete
around water stops. Engineering specifications shall require rigorous quality control and inspection for
installation of water stops. A high degree of workmanship and special attention to splicing, intersection,
and supports of water stops are essential. Conventional water stops shall not be used for underwater
connection as discussed in paragraph 6-6.

6-4. Watertightness Requirements

a. Watertightness requirements shall be based on project-specific requirements. Joints for permanent

floating structures such as floating guard walls shall be watertight. Water-tightness of float-in structures
is less critical due to their temporary float condition.

b. Leakage through concrete walls and slabs is an important design consideration if there is a
substantial differential hydrostatic pressure on two sides of a concrete wall. In addition, water flow
through the joints and cracks could cause long-term durability deterioration, such as leaching and
reduction in corrosion resistance and freeze-thaw resistance.

c. In general, a partially cracked concrete section with a compression zone of no less than 30 mm
(1.2 in.) is essentially free of leakage. Any section of a watertight component should be designed to have
a compression zone no less than 30 mm (1.2 in.) and 0.25h in thickness (h is the overall thickness of the
components), whichever is less. For permanently floating structures, the watertight components are
generally required to maintain a minimum compressive stress of 0.5 MPa (70 psi) across the section under
service loading conditions. The compression should take thermal strains into account. For temporary
loading conditions during construction and installation, tensile stresses up to 2 MPa (300 psi) are
acceptable. Crack widths are generally checked at critical locations against static loads plus 40 percent
dynamic loads.

6-5. Joint Preparation

a. Precast panel joints generally receive a light sandblast prior to assembly. Other methods such as
a moderate pressure wash have been used successfully.

b. For underwater joints, exposed P/C mating surfaces could be severely contaminated with
alluvium settlement that prevents bonding of underwater concrete or grout with the precast surface. Thus,
wherever is possible, the joint surface should be immediately sealed from flowing water once the
segments are lowered to their final positions. Any exposed joint surface shall be cleaned with underwater
jetting prior to grouting or concreting.

6-6. Underwater Connections

a. Underwater construction of structural connections usually entails joining two or more P/C
segments and filling the voids between the segments with concrete, cement grout, or polymer grout. For
isolation joints, the filling materials may be rock, gravel, or polymer foam covered with concrete paving
blocks. In essence, construction of underwater connections entails three essential steps: (1) positioning
two or more P/C segments to prescribed tolerances, (2) sealing the joint space between the segments, and
(3) grouting or concreting the sealed joint space to make it a monolithic connection.

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b. The key to construction of underwater connections is the joining of two P/C sections through
underwater grouting or concreting. Since the underwater operations have to be carried out in adverse
conditions, with poor visibility and difficult accessibility, construction operations should be carried out
above water as much as possible. It is important that connection detail design facilitates simple and
reliable construction. The design of underwater connections shall include or take into account the
attainable tolerances, position-guiding system for mating the adjacent precast segments, sealing of the
joints, performance requirements of grout or concrete mix, grouting procedure, grouting system, and vent
system.

c. Conventional water stops are generally not suitable for construction of underwater connections.
To seal a joint, primary considerations should be given to preformed compression seal, Omega seals, Gina
seal, or J-seal so as to confine a space in the joint prior to filling the void with suitable materials.
Selection of proper material and type of seals depends on the joint design details, installation procedure,
and environmental exposure condition.

d. Strict onsite enforcement of engineering requirements and quality control is paramount for good
quality underwater connection. Under most circumstances, the effectiveness of divers’ inspection is very
limited due to the poor visibility. Divers’ inspection should be limited to such activities as checking the
joint seal and outflow from vents. In principle, onsite monitoring and quality control should be mainly
carried out above water. The critical items that need careful monitoring include (1) positioning of adjacent
P/C segments, (2) sealing of the joints, (3) rate of grouting or concreting placement, (4) grout or concrete
delivery system (leakage, plug, or spill-over), (5) venting system, and (6) complete grouting of the joints.
Field trial testing and post-construction coring shall be considered as a part of the QA/QC program

e. In essence, design of underwater connections shall meet the following requirements:

(1) Durability requirements. Past experience shows that joint deterioration is the most common
durability problem in hydraulic structures. Common causes of joint failure include leakage-induced
freeze-thaw damage and corrosion, spalling of monolith joints due to impact, and abrasion. Underwater
joints are especially vulnerable to physical and chemical attacks. In principle, underwater connections
shall be designed for durability against freeze-thaw deterioration, chemical attack, abrasion, erosion,
cavitation, spalling due to reactive aggregates, and corrosion of reinforcing steel. Careful design
considerations should be given to accommodate the special conditions for underwater construction.

(2) Strength reduction factors. Because of the poor visibility and difficult accessibility of underwater
work, there is a higher degree of uncertainty associated with the quality and integrity of underwater
connections than those of above-water connections. To take full account of the increased uncertainty in
underwater works, structural design of underwater connections shall use a strength-reduction factor of 0.6
for flexure and axial tension and 0.57 for shear and torsion. There is no change in the load factors for
underwater connections.

(3) Required characteristics.

(a) Construction of underwater connections entails joining P/C modules, sealing the joints from
external water, and grouting or concreting the voids with suitable materials. The first requirement of the
connection design is to ensure simple and reliable execution of these three steps underwater. To this end,
the selection of the seal, the grout mix, the sequence and rate of grouting, and the vent system shall be an
essential part of the design.

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(b) All the design forces and moments shall be adequately transferred through the connection by
means of shear keyways, reinforcement splicing, and composite action of P/C and underwater grout or
concrete.

(c) Underwater connections shall have durability characteristics at least equivalent to those of above-
water connection.

(4) Common details. At this writing, most existing connection details were developed for the
traditional, in-the-dry method. Precaution shall be taken in using these details for the in-the-wet
construction, because these connection details may not be suitable or constructable underwater or may not
have the required characteristics for underwater connections.

(5) Current research. Reference to ongoing research at the U.S. Army Engineer Research and
Development Center is recommended.

(6) Monitoring. Instrumentation for monitoring construction and performance of underwater

connections is recommended.

f. In general, underwater connections are more costly and more complex to construct than above-
water connections. It is often beneficial to minimize the number of underwater connections without an
increase in overall project costs.

6-7. Match Casting

a. Match-cast precast products are typically used in segmental construction to ensure the proper fit-
up of mating surfaces between precast segments while providing for the profile grade and horizontal
alignment required by design. For hydraulic structures, match casting applies to horizontal joints (e.g.,
stacking one element on top of another) and to vertical joints where one element fits tightly against an
adjacent element.

b. Two basic techniques are used to match-cast P/C segments, one employing a stationary form, the
other involving a form that is moved for every casting. With the stationary form, the first segment is cast
with endplates at both ends of the form. After this segment has been cured to a concrete strength adequate
for stripping, it is lifted out of the form and positioned adjacent to the form so that one of its ends serves
as the endplate for the match-cast end of the second segment. The other end of the second segment is
formed with one of the original endplates.

c. The positioning of the first segment relative to the form is critical, since it dictates the alignment
of the two segments in the completed structure. Sophisticated surveying techniques, together with
adjustable screw jacks and stops, are normally used to accurately position the segment. Prior to casting,
the match-cast end of this segment is coated with a debonding agent to allow separation of the segments
after casting. After the second segment achieves stripping strength, both segments can be stripped from
the form. The first segment is moved to storage, while the conventionally formed end of the second
segment assumes the role of the endplate for the third segment to be cast.

d. The “moving form” technique begins in a similar manner. However, after the first segment is cast
and cured, it is left stationary on the form pallet. The form is stripped, moved longitudinally, and
positioned adjacent to the first segment. The second segment is then match-cast against the first in the
same manner as described above. This approach has the advantage of decreasing segment handling but
requires multiple form pallets and significantly more space.

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e. A common method of joining match-cast segments is by “cementing” them together with a thin
layer of epoxy bonding agent, approximately 0.5 to 1.0 mm (0.02 to 0.04 in.) in thickness. Because the
epoxy coat is thin, it is essential that the member ends be properly matched. The normal construction
sequence begins with the application of a slow-setting epoxy to the mating ends. The epoxy should be
applied in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. The ends are then assembled, and an
initial posttensioning force is applied across the interface. The best bonds across joints are obtained when
the epoxy cures under a compression stress of about 0.27 MPa (40 psi). This is done progressively for
each pair of match-cast segments. Once a predetermined number of segments have been joined, and the
epoxy in all joints has cured, a final posttensioning force is applied to the superstructure (or a portion of
the superstructure).

6-8. Bracing

Bracing and guying methods shall be designed to support all construction loads including wind.
Selection of connections shall give due consideration to the size, location. and capacity of the precast
panel and dead man.

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Chapter 7
In-Fill Concrete Placement

7-1. Tremie Placement

a. Basic assumptions. These recommendations are based on the procedure by which concrete is
placed underwater using gravity flow through a tremie pipe. The concrete that is first placed into the
tremie pipe is protected from water by a mechanical device (“pig” or “plug”) until a mound of concrete
has developed at the mouth of the tremie and a seal is developed. The mouth of the tremie pipe is
thereafter maintained within the mass of fresh concrete. The tremie pipe is normally not moved
horizontally while concrete is flowing. Horizontal distribution of concrete is accomplished by the flow of
concrete from the tremie mouth or by stopping placement and repositioning the tremie and resuming
placement. Multiple tremies may be used to place larger areas.

b. Placement considerations. Several basic concepts are important when planning the layout and
configuration of precast components that are filled with either structural or nonstructural tremie concrete.
First, the chambers or voids to receive tremie concrete should not contain abrupt changes in section,
openings, or pockets where laitance could accumulate. Second, reinforcement or embedded metals
should be detailed to minimize restrictions to the flow of concrete. Lastly, the placement size (chamber
dimensions) must be compatible with concrete production rate, equipment placement capacity, and the
depth of the concrete placement. Tremie spacing is based on the flow distance of the concrete. Flow
distances ranging from 5 to 20 m (16 to 66 feet) have been used with success.

7-2. Placement Equipment

a. Tremie pipe. The tremie pipe should be fabricated with structural steel pipe. A jointed tremie
pipe configuration is recommended where deep placements are made to allow removal of upper sections
of pipe as the placement depth increases. These joints shall be watertight, either bolted flange plates or
threaded screw are commonly used. The pipe and appurtenant features are designed for anticipated
handling forces. The diameter shall be sufficient to prevent aggregate blockages; typical diameters vary
between 200 and 250 mm (8 to 10 in.) for the aggregate sizes given in paragraph 3.2.b. A suitable end
closure device or go-devil is provided to seal the tremie at the beginning of placement. A funnel or
hopper is provided to direct concrete into the tremie. The tremie pipe should be marked to allow the
depth from the water surface to the concrete to be determined quickly.

b. Placement platform and other equipment. A stable platform must be maintained to provide
adequate controlled support to the tremie pipes, since any movement of a supporting platform will cause
excessive disturbance to concrete, resulting segregation, and laitance. Thus, floating supports and crane
booms should not be used to hold the tremie pipe. A separate hoist system is required for controlled
vertical tremie movements; a crane is usually not suitable for this purpose. A crane is needed to move the
tremie pipe or to lift the tremie pipe out of the water. Airlifts or pumps are required onsite to remove
unsuitable materials from low areas during placement.

c. Restrictions. Tremie concrete should not be vibrated. Divers should never be allowed to walk on
a tremie concrete surface until it has achieved final set. After the concrete has reached a compressive
strength of 7 Mpa (1,000 psi) or higher, water jetting may be used to remove laitance left over the
concrete surface.

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Chapter 8
Details

8-1. Cover Requirements

Minimum concrete cover requirements vary with the application of P/C components, as specified in
Table 8-1.

Table 8-1
Concrete Cover Requirements
Application Minimum Concrete Cover
Surfaces exposed to cavitation or severe abrasion and erosion. 100 mm (4 in.)

Surface exposed to moderate abrasion and erosion or where water 75 mm (3 in.)

velocity exceeds 8 ft/sec

Surface exposed to earth, weather, or where water velocity is less 50 mm (2 in.)

than or equal to 8 ft/sec

Surface adjacent to structural in-fill placements One bar diameter for No. 14 or larger
1 in. for No. 11 bars and smaller

8-2. Minimum Reinforcement for Beam, Plate, and Shell Elements

For P/C members, the minimum reinforcing steel area shall be the largest value of the following
requirements:

a. For rectangular flexural elements, the minimum reinforcement area shall not be less than As given
by

fc'
As = bd (8-1)
4fy

and not less than 1.4bd/fy.

where

f c′ and f y = specified compressive strength of concrete (in MPa) and specified yield strength of
reinforcement (in MPa), respectively

b and d = width and effective depth of the rectangular elements

b. For slab/wall panel elements, the minimum reinforcement ratio ρ min = 0.004 with one-half on
each face in each direction. In addition, if a P/C panel will bond to cast-in-place concrete as a composite
member in the final structure, the minimum reinforcement steel area shall be 0.0028 times the gross cross-
sectional area of the composite member, but not exceeding a steel area equivalent to No. 9 bars at 0.3 m
(12 inches) in each face.

c. For flat slab in which computed tensile stress in concrete at service load exceeds (1/6) f c' ,
reinforcing steel shall not be less than As calculated as follows:

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Nc
As = (8-2)
0.5 f y

where Nc is tension force due to unfactored dead plus live load and fy shall not exceed 420 MPa.

d. If tensile stress occurs on one face of a P/C member during construction, transportation, or in ser-
vice, the minimum steel area on the tensile face of the member shall not be less than As in Equation 8-3.

ft
As = bd e (8-3)
fy

where

ft = tensile strength of concrete

de = effective tension zone, to be taken as 1.5c+10db

c = concrete cover over reinforcement

db = diameter of reinforcement

8-3. Spacing Requirements for Reinforcement

Spacing of reinforcement at critical section shall not exceed two times the member thickness. In general,
reinforcement in P/C slabs and walls shall not be spaced further apart than three times the member
thickness, nor 450 mm (18 in.).

8-4. Detailing Requirements for Prestressing Reinforcement

a. Prestressing tendons shall be confined within the reinforcing steel stirrups in webs and between
layers of transverse reinforcing steel in slabs, walls, and flanges.

b. Curved prestressing tendons shall be adequately confined by lateral reinforcement. Spacing of the
confinement reinforcement shall not exceed either three times the outside diameter of the duct or 600 mm
(24 in.).

c. When the tendons curve away from the longitudinal member, such as at a typical intermediate
anchorage as shown in Figure 8-1, prestressing force will produce high transverse force that is radial to
the tendons. The transverse in-plane force tends to shear off the concrete cover and split the concrete at
the junction. The transverse deviation force must be calculated, and fully anchored tieback stirrups must
be provided accordingly to resist the transverse force.

d. When posttensioning ducts are spaced closer than 300 mm (12 in.) in slabs, the top and bottom
reinforcement mats should be tied together with No. 10 hairpin bars. The spacing between the hairpin bars
shall not exceed 450 mm (18 in.) or 1.5 times the slab thickness.

e. The clear spacing between straight posttension ducts shall not be less than 38 mm (1.5 in.) or
1.5 times the maximum size of the coarse aggregates. The clear horizontal spacing between post-
tensioning duct bundles shall not be less than 100 mm (4 in.). The clear vertical spacing between the duct
bundles shall not be less than 38 mm (1.5 in.) or 1.5 times the maximum size of the coarse aggregates.
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Figure 8-1. Design requirements for curved prestressing tendons

8-5. Surface Treatments for Composite Action

a. When P/C shell structures are designed to behave compositely with cast-in-place or tremie
concrete, shear must be transferred across the interface between the two concrete layers. The two
separate concrete placements are intended to act as a unit when resisting externally applied loads. The
surface treatment of the precast component influences the mechanism of shear transfer across the
interface with tremie concrete. Surfaces can be smooth formed, sandblasted, intentionally roughened,
corrugated, or patterned with shear blocks or holes. Corrugated surfaces with sufficient amplitude
develop the shear capacity of concrete.

b. Typical designs use the "shear friction" concept at the interface. Design advantages are realized
when the surface of the precast member, which will interface with cast-in-place concrete, is intentionally
roughened to full amplitude of approximately 1/4 in., although the shear friction concept does not require
roughening. Roughening of surfaces is very common in the precast industry. Methods used depend upon
whether the surface to be roughened is exposed or formed.

c. A requirement common to both exposed and formed roughened surfaces is that they must be
clean and free of laitance prior to placing the cast-in-place concrete. It is also generally desirable to
moisten the precast surface prior to the second placement.

d. The standard method of roughening exposed surfaces is to “rake” or “broom” the concrete while
it is still in its plastic state. After the concrete has been struck level, a workman rakes the surface with a
tool that creates grooves at a specified spacing and depth. These grooves normally run transverse to the

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direction of the anticipated shear force, and must be deep enough to produce the desired roughness, but
not so deep so as to dislodge individual aggregate particles near the surface.

e. Formed surfaces cannot be roughened in the same manner as exposed surfaces. Several methods
used to roughen formed surfaces include chemical surface set retarders, deep sandblasting or shot
blasting, castellations, shear keys, and corrugated surface.

f. Surface set retarders, which locally retard the setting of cement, are painted onto the form in the
desired location prior to casting the concrete. After form removal, the retarder is pressure washed from
the concrete surface, resulting in a roughened, exposed-aggregate finish. Set retarders are formulated
with different strengths to result in varying depths of retardation. Normally, the strongest formulation is
required to achieve the roughness desired for composite action. Sandblasting and shot blasting are done
manually after the product is stripped. They are labor-intensive. Shear keys and castellations are formed
into the concrete surface. Roughened formed surfaces are normally used at the interface with cast-in-place
concrete joints.

g. Bush hammering is not recommended since it may actually degrade the bond strength at the
composite interface.

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Chapter 9
Strength and Serviceability Requirements

9-1. Relation to EM 1110-2-2104

This chapter on strength and serviceability requirements of precast/prestressed concrete expands the
guidance in EM 1110-2-2104. In general, design of nonprestressed P/C members should follow the
procedures outlined in EM 1110-2-2104 except as modified herein. Design of prestressed concrete should
follow specific design procedures provided in this chapter.

9-2. Strength and Serviceability Requirements

All precast/prestressed concrete members of hydraulic structures must satisfy both strength and
serviceability requirements. In general, special consideration shall be given to effects of time-dependent
concrete strength, support conditions, and dynamic loads on structural strength and serviceability of P/C
modules during various stages of construction, service condition, and extreme environmental condition.

9-3. Load Criteria

Because all precast/prestressed concrete components of hydraulic structures experience loading stages
very different than those of conventional cast-in-situ concrete hydraulic structures, the loading cases, load
combinations, and load factors as stipulated in EM 1110-2-2104 are modified to account for the special
requirements of the precast/prestressed concrete. Thorough engineering analysis must be conducted for all
the critical load cases and combinations during the fabrication, transportation, and construction and under
the service condition. Chapter 5 describes various load conditions unique to P/C designs. This chapter
provides general load criteria for basic load cases and factored load combinations.

a. Basic load cases.

(1) Dead loads (D). For long-term operating conditions, the weight of saturated solid ballast material
shall be used. Water weight may be considered as ballast for temporary conditions such as transport,
setting, and maintenance dewatering. For preliminary design, a unit weight of 2240 kg/m3 (140 pcf) plus
the tendon/rebar weight shall be used for both prestressed and reinforced concrete. When using
lightweight concrete, the reinforced concrete is approximately 1840 kg/m3 (115 pcf) plus the weight of
reinforcement. Final designs shall be based on specific design mix weights and the design volume of
reinforcement. For draft and buoyancy analysis, an additional 3% increase in the concrete unit weight
shall be included to account for swelling, water absorption, and construction tolerances. Concrete unit
weights shall be field-verified prior to construction.

(2) Hydrostatic load (H). Vertical and horizontal loads induced by a static water head, excluding
uplift pressures, shall be considered. Buoyant pressures present during transport and setting of a float-in
segment shall also be included.

(3) Uplift (U). Vertical water pressure imposed on the base of the completed dam following
development of differential water heads upstream and downstream of the dam and/or vertical pressure due
to the underbase grouting operation shall be considered. In lieu of more accurate flow-net analysis to
determine seepage rates, a limit approach may be used. A typical structure shall be designed for the two

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uplift conditions listed below for in-service conditions as well as uplift during construction associated
with the underbase grouting operation. The two in-service uplift conditions are:

(a) Uplift condition A: Assume the upstream sheet-pile cutoff is fully effective. The uplift pressure
is constant and equal to the tailwater pressure head downstream of the cutoff.

(b) Uplift condition B: Assume the upstream sheet-pile cutoff is ineffective. Uplift pressure
distribution is determined by seepage analysis or other appropriate means. The base uplift pressures may
be reduced with drains. Guidance for drains specified in paragraph 3-3.d.(1).(c) of EM 1110-2-2200 is
applicable except that the drain effectiveness shall not exceed 33% of design. Uplift pressures shall be
applied at an assumed crack between the structure and underbase fill.

(4) Soil load (S). Lateral pressures shall be determined using the at-rest coefficient Ko.

(5) Thermal load (T).

(a) This load set includes self-straining forces and effects arising from contraction and expansion
resulting from temperature change, shrinkage, moisture change, creep in component materials, and
movement due to differential settlement or combinations thereof.

(b) If P/C modules are composed of an assembly of thin P/C slabs and walls, an in-depth analysis of
thermal stresses for shell prefabrication will not be required. However, the differential thermal load on
the shell, between cooler portions of the shell surrounded by river water and areas of the shell heated by
hydration of the cementitious in-fill material, may become significant enough to crack the shell concrete.
Performance of the shell under this loading shall be addressed in the design. The need for detailed thermal
analysis, such as a nonlinear incremental stress analysis (NISA), shall be evaluated on a case-by-case
basis. NISA shall be performed following the guidelines in ETL 1110-2-365.

(6) Settlement (S). Load effects analogous to differential settlement are expected during launching
from a land-based construction site to the river. The magnitude of uneven support shall be developed by
the designer, included in the shell design, and documented in the design documentation report and
contract drawings or specifications.

(7) Live loads (LL). Transport loads shall include towing forces. Live loads (including pressure due
to in-fill concrete placements, mooring forces, and operating equipment) shall be included in the design of
individual members. The placement of cementitious in-fill materials will produce a fluid pressure on the
P/C shell. Loads from personnel and light equipment are generally negligible and may be neglected from
the floating stability calculations.

(8) Wave load (WB). These are loads induced from a design wave when floating structures are
buoyant. Two wave sizes should be considered – a significant wave and a storm wave. The significant
wave is anticipated within a one-year construction period. The storm wave is a 50-year event and is
considered to be an extreme event. The minimum design wave height for inland waterways is typically
0.6 m (2 ft) for the significant wave and 2 m (6 ft) for the storm wave. Final design wave load analysis
shall be checked on the basis of local meteorological and hydrological conditions onsite.

(9) Dynamic wave load (WD). This load represents the lateral force of wave action that acts above
the hydrostatic pressure. The wave force can be equated to an additional static head that acts in the
freeboard area.

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(10) Current load (C). This load consists of the forces applied to structures due to river current and
flow patterns. Scaled modeling may be used to estimate the magnitude of force based on expected flow
velocity and direction. In lieu of scale model test results, the current force may be estimated using
Equation 5-2. This force can be neglected when the velocity is less than 0.6 meter per second (2 feet per
second), except when determining the towboat capacity to transport and mooring force to position the P/C
modules.

(11) Wind loads (W). Wind loads shall be considered when determining the force of the towboat,
mooring line, and, under extreme conditions, floating stability of P/C modules. Wind load shall be based
on American Bureau of Shipping’s Rules, as defined in Equation 5-1 and Tables 5-2 and 5-3. In any case,
wind load shall not be less than 1.4 KN/m2 (30 psf).

(12) Ice loads. Ice loads shall be based on EM 1110-2-1612 requirements.

(13) Impact loads. Barge impact loads shall be determined by sound engineering principles and
empirical information.

(14) Seismic loads (EQ). Seismic loads shall be determined in accordance with ER 1110-2-1806.

b. Load factors. The load factors applied to the ultimate strength design of precast/prestressed
concrete components shall follow the guidance in EM 1110-2-2104 with the following modifications:

(1) The required strength against loads or load combinations during stages of fabrication,
transportation, and erection of these members may be verified by the load factor methods without use of
the hydraulic factor Hf. However, an impact load factor Fi = 1.15 should be applied to proper loads to
include the dynamic load amplification effect during transportation and erection of these members.

(2) To check the strength of P/C members during underwater construction of hydraulic structures, the
lateral pressure of underwater concrete against P/C members may be taken as the hydrostatic fluid
pressure with a load factor of 1.4. Alternatively, time-dependent effects of the underwater concrete may
be taken into account in calculation of the lateral pressure, and a load factor of 1.7 shall be used.

(3) For nonprestressed P/C members, the hydraulic factor Hf = 1.3 shall be applied only to the
members that will be permanently exposed to abrasion/erosion action during the service life of the
structure.

(4) For prestressed concrete members, the hydraulic factor Hf = 1.15 shall be applied only to the
members that will be permanently exposed to abrasion/erosion actions.

(5) For nonprestressed precast members that are not exposed to abrasion/erosion action, the ultimate
strength design need not include the hydraulic factor.

Table 9-1 illustrates an example of appropriate load factors specified for design of lift-in P/C modules
during construction stages and during service.

c. Load combinations.

(1) The critical load combinations should be determined on a project basis through careful evaluation
of the project requirements, P/C modules (size, shape, weight, etc.), prefabrication site and method,
transportation and erection methods, river conditions, construction logistics, and schedule. In general,
precast/prestressed concrete modules shall be designed for the following general construction stages:

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Table 9-1
Load Factors for Ultimate Strength Design of P/C
Basic Load Hydraulic Minimum Dynamic
Load Description Factor Factor Impact Factor Notes

Precast Yard Loads

Dead load (on yard skids with dynamic factors) 1.4 1.0 1.15 1
Posttensioning jacking force for anchorage design. 1.2 1.0 -
Form suction. 1.4 1.0 -

Transport Loads
Dead load (rigged in water with dynamic factor) 1.4 1.0 1.15 1
Hydrostatic pressure 1.4 1.0 -
Dynamic inertial/drag (tow / current ) 1.3 1.0 1.15

Positioning Loads
Dead load (rigged in water on landing pads with 1.4 1.0 1.15 1
dynamic factor)
Ballasting loads 1.7 1.0 -
Hydrostatic pressure 1.4 1.0 -
Dynamic inertial/drag ( current ) 1.3 1.0 1.15

Construction Loads
Dead load 1.4 1.0 1.15 1
Hydrostatic pressure 1.4 1.0 -
Hydrostatic pressure of underwater concrete 1.7 1.0 - 2
Thermal load due to hydration of cement 1.4 1.0 -

Operation Loading Condition

Permanent Loads
Dead loads 1.4 1.3 - 3,4
Earth pressure loads 1.4 1.3 - 3,4

Hydraulic Loads
Hydrostatic pressure 1.7 1.3 - 3,4
Dynamic inertial added mass 1.3 1.3 - 3,4
Flood stage 1.3 1.3 - 3
Base uplift pressure 1.7 1.3 - 3,4

Impact Loads
Barge impact load 1.3 1.3 1.0 3
Ice and debris impact load 1.3 1.3 1.0 3

Environmental Loads
Wind 1.3 1.3 - 3
Flow ice 1.3 1.3 1.0 3
Notes:
1. Dead loads include any construction framing and equipment attached to the members.
2. Use load factor 1.7 when pressure accounts for slump, temperature, pour rate, mix design, and consolidation procedures. Use
load factor 1.4 when pressure is taken to be full equivalent hydrostatic head.
3. The hydraulic factor applies only to structural components that will be permanently exposed to abrasion/erosion action. For
prestressed members, the hydraulic load factor of 1.15 may be adopted. For nonprestressed members subjected to direct
tension, the hydraulic load factor is 1.65.
4. Basic load factors are reduced by 0.75 if combined with short-term dynamic loads.

• Prefabrication and handling.

• Outfitting (afloat or onshore).

• Load-out (i.e., the operation required to transfer a P/C module from land onto a vessel for
transportation) or float-out (i.e., the operation required to transfer a P/C module from a dry
construction site to a self-floating mode prior to towing).

• Lifting (onshore and offshore).

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• Transportation.

• Positioning.

• Submergence (lift-in or ballasting).

• Setting.

• Tremie placement or grouting.

(2) For both construction conditions and service conditions, distinction shall be made for usual
condition, unusual condition, and extreme condition as defined below:

(a) A usual condition is one that affects the structure for an extended period on a reoccurring basis.
This condition includes normal operation and maximum operation. Maximum operation considers the
design headwater and corresponding minimum tailwater without occasional or rare events added.

(b) An unusual condition is a loading condition that occurs for a brief period of time or will be
experienced infrequently. This condition includes the prefabrication work in a precast yard, setting down
loads, maintenance dewatering, hurricane, and normal operation stage with operating basis earthquake.

(c) An extreme condition is a loading condition that is highly improbable and may happen only once
in the life of the structure.

d. Example – Load cases and load combinations for design of a float-in navigation dam.

(1) A 183-m (600-ft) long gated navigation dam structure with four tainter gate bays will be
constructed with the float-in method. The “in-the-wet” construction plan calls for breaking the dam into
two segments of 102 m (333 ft) and 81 m (265 ft) in length. The segments will be constructed as closed
bottom P/C box structures. The bottom of the boxes will be recessed to fit the pre-installed foundation
caissons onsite. As each segment module is fabricated in a casting yard, it will be launched by flooding
and towed to the site for final outfitting. It will then be positioned over the foundation caissons with a
mooring system mounted on the segment. Each module will be ballasted down onto six landing caissons
and leveled with flat jacks. The pile tops and underbase will be grouted, and 3.4-m (11-ft) thick tremie
concrete will be placed in the segment module. Each module will then be dewatered and the remainder of
the dam including tainter gates will be completed in the dry. The step-by-step construction sequence and
each critical operation are illustrated in Figures 9-1 through 9-6. For the analysis and design of the float-in
dam segments, the load cases and load combinations (LC) are presented below.

LC1 - PREFABRICATION CONDITION. Handling, launching (into the river), construction live loads,
settlement, wind, and dead loads are the loads normally considered. Thermal loads will be considered to
the extent that deems to be necessary for the specific method of prefabricating the P/C modules.

LC2 – TRANSPORTATION LOAD CONDITION. The loads occur during their transportation from the
prefabrication site to the project site. Both nonuniform weight distribution along the segments and wave
force induce significant stresses in the P/C module. Maximum wave-induced stresses are typically defined
by the hogging and sagging conditions. The wave action must be checked about both the longitudinal and
transverse axes of the float-in segment. Wave action may also induce torsion in the module. Inland
waterways transport must consider the height and period of a design wave caused by river current, wind,
and/or passing vessels. Due to the short transport duration, only the “significant” wave load is considered

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Figure 9.1 Float-in Construction Stage 1

Figure 9.2 Float-in Construction Stage 2

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Figure 9.3 Float-in Construction Stage 3

Figure 9.4 Float-in Construction Stage 4

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Figure 9.5 Float-in Construction Stage 5

Figure 9.6 Float-in Construction Stage 6

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in this project. Inland transport must consider the height and period of a design wave caused by river
currents, wind, and/or passing vessels.

LC3 – SETTING LOAD CONDITION. This load condition addresses the submergence of the module
onto the prepared foundation. Each dam segment may be partially flooded during submergence. Water
shall be used to ballast the module down, so that the segment may be refloated if proper positioning is not
obtained on the first attempt. The structural strength and floating stability of the segment shall be checked
for a set of ballasting sequence. The ballasting sequence developed for design of the segment shall be
included in the construction documents. The total weight of the set structure shall have a minimum 10%
negative buoyancy during foundation grouting and curing. The weight is calculated with the pool
elevation assumed at mean high water level.

LC4 – IN-FILL PLACEMENT. The set P/C module shall be evaluated under the pressure generated by
underbase grouting and in-fill concrete during placement operation. The magnitude of loads shall be
consistent with anticipated concrete/grout placement rate, temperature, slump, mixes, and placement and
consolidation procedures. The concrete shell shall have adequate strength to resist these loads. The
concrete/grout placement procedure developed for the design of the shell shall be included in the
construction documents. The sequence plan for in-fill placements shall reflect design assumptions.

LC5 – MAINTENANCE DEWATERING. One gate adjacent to a pier is assumed to be closed and seated
on the sill, while other adjacent gates are fully raised with maintenance bulkheads in the upstream and
downstream bulkhead slots. The two limiting uplift conditions (A & B) previously indicated shall be
applied. The gate bay analyzed shall be assumed dry between the upstream and downstream maintenance
bulkheads. Other loads include water pressures from the upstream and downstream pool, lateral soil
pressure from upstream, wind on bridge, piers, and control building.

LC6 – NORMAL OPERATION. The normal operating load condition is defined as follows: all tainter
gates are assumed to be closed and seated on the sill. The two limiting uplift conditions (A & B)
previously indicated shall be applied. Other loads include water pressure from upstream and downstream,
wind load, lateral soil pressure, and ice load.

LC7 – EXTREME OPERATION. The extreme operation load condition is defined as follows: one gate
adjacent to a pier supported just off the sill by one hydraulic cylinder while the other adjacent gates fully
raised with maintenance bulkheads in place upstream and downstream slots. The two limiting uplift
conditions (A & B) previously indicated shall be applied. The gate bay analyzed is assumed dry between
the upstream and downstream maintenance bulkheads. Other loads include water pressure from upstream
and downstream, lateral soil pressure, and wind load.

LC8 – EXTREME OPERATION. This extreme operating load condition is defined as follows: all gates
are closed and seated on the sill. The two limiting uplift conditions (A & B) previously indicated shall be
applied. Other loads include water pressure from upstream and downstream, wind load, lateral soil
pressure, and barge impact load.

LC9 – EXTREME OPERATION. This extreme operating load condition is defined as follows: all gates
are closed and seated on the sill. Failure at downstream project results in a further reduction in the lower
pool elevation on the downstream side. The two limiting uplift conditions (A & B) previously indicated
shall be applied.

(2) For load cases LC1 through LC4, the P/C segments should be designed as stand-alone
components. For load cases LC5 through LC9, the composite action of P/C and concrete in-fill should be
included in the design.

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(3) Table 9-2 shows appropriate load combinations and load factors used in design of the navigation
dam in the above nine load conditions.

Table 9-2
Factored Load Combinations for Design of a Navigation Dam by the Float-in Construction Method
LOAD FACTORS
GROUP D H U S LL WB WD C W T MISC. Hr Hf
LC1 1.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.7 1 1
LC2 1.4 1.7 0 0 1.7 1.7(1) 1.7 0 1.7 0 1 1
LC3A 1.4 1.7 0 0 1.7 1.7(1) 1.7 0 1.7 0 1 1
LC3B 1.4 1.7 0 0 1.7 1.7(1) 1.7 1 1.7 0 1 1
LC4 1.4 0 1.4(3) 0 1.4 0 0 0 0 1.7 1 1
LC5 1.4 1.7 1.7(2) 1.7 1.7 0 0 0 1.7 0 1 1.3
LC6 1.4 1.7 1.7(2) 1.7 1.7 0 0 0 1.7 0 1.7*Ice 1 1.3
LC7 1.4 1.7 1.7(2) 1.7 1.7 0 0 0 1.7 0 0.75 1.3
LC8 1.4 1.7 1.7(2) 1.7 1.7 0 0 0 0 0 1.7*Imp 0.75 1.3
LC9 1.4 1.7 1.7(2) 1.7 1.7 0 0 0 0 0 1.7*Imp 0.75 1.3
NOTES: (1). SIGNIFICANT (TYPICAL) WAVE
(2). UPLIFT CONDITION A or B
(3). UNDERBASE GROUT PRESSURE
Hr = REDUCTION FACTOR
Hf = HYDRAULIC FACTOR

9-4. Serviceability

The serviceability requires satisfactory performance and durability of the structural members during the
design life of the hydraulic structures. Requirements commonly include abrasion/erosion resistance, cor-
rosion resistance, crack control, deflection control, and general durability. Crack width and deflection
requirements shall be checked by calculations with the Working Stress Design method (WSD). Other
durability requirements shall be met by means of proper structural detailing and construction quality
control.

a. Classification. All precast/prestressed concrete components of hydraulic structures shall be

classified into three categories: (1) no cracking, (2) controlled cracking, and (3) no requirement on crack
width. The classification shall be specified in the project design criteria in accordance with the
serviceability requirements of each precast component and in consultation with CECW-E.

b. Crack control. Crack control shall be based upon either crack width calculations or allowable
stress criteria.

(1) Crack width criteria.

(a) For hydraulic surfaces that are exposed to flowing water, crack width at the concrete surface shall
be imposed to enhance the abrasion/erosion resistance and leakage control. The crack width criteria are
based on the allowable values in Tables 9-3 and 9-4 for sustained loading and temporary loading,
respectively.

(b) Calculation of the crack width shall follow Provision 10.6 of ACI 318 as follows:

W = 0.076 βf s 3 d c A (9-1)

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Table 9-3
Allowable Crack Width Under Sustained Loading
Crack Width for Sustained and Operational Loading Conditions
For Nonprestressed Concrete Components
Surfaces subjected to abrasion/erosion action of flowing water W ≤ 0.15 mm (0.006 in .)
All other exterior surfaces W ≤ 0.33 mm (0.013 in .)
For Prestressed Concrete Components
Surface subjected to abrasion/erosion action W =0
All other exterior surfaces W ≤ 0.20 mm (0.008 in .)

Table 9-4
Allowable Crack Width Under Temporary Loading
Crack Width for Temporary Loads (Construction, Transportation, and Inspection)
For through-thickness cracks W ≤ 0.3 mm (0.0118 in.)
For surface cracks W ≤ 0.5 mm (0.0197 in .)

where β is defined as the ratio of distance to the neutral axis for the extreme tension fiber to distance from
the centroid of the main reinforcement and prestressing steel. β may be approximately taken as 1.2 for
beams and 1.35 for plates and slabs. fs is working stress in reinforcement in MPa. W is in units of
0.03 mm. A is effective tension area of concrete surrounding the flexural tension reinforcement and
having the same centroid as that reinforcement, divided by the number of bars or wires, in mm2. dc is
thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of steel bar or wire located
closest thereto, in mm. fs is stress in reinforcement at service loads, in MPa. The definitions of dc and A
are illustrated in an example in Figure 9-7.

Figure 9-7. Definitions of dc and A in crack width calculation

(2) Allowable stress criteria: In lieu of the crack width calculation, the allowable stress design criteria
may be used to control cracking. If the maximum stresses in reinforcement fs and the maximum stress
increase in prestressing steel ∆fps meet the limitations in Table 9-5, the crack width of concrete need not
to be checked:
Table 9-5
Allowable Stress Design Limitation for Crack Control
Loading Condition Change in Steel Stress
At the stages of construction, transportation, installation, ∆f ps ≤ 127.6 MPa (18.5 ksi)
and inspection
f s ≤ 158.6 MPa (23 ksi)
Under normal service condition ∆f ps ≤ 75.8 MPa (11 ksi)
f s ≤ 117.2 MPa (17 ksi)
Under extreme loading at service f s ≤ 0.6 f y
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c. Deflection. Both reinforced concrete components and prestressed concrete components shall be
designed to have adequate stiffness to meet the short-term and long-term deflection requirements.
Evaluation of deflection of P/C components shall take into account effects of cracking, reinforcement, and
time-dependent factors.

(1) Calculation of both short-term deflection and long-term deflection of nonprestressed P/C
components shall follow Provision 9.5 of ACI 318.

(2) For prestressed concrete members, short-term deflection or camber shall be computed by usual
elastic mechanics formula using the effective moment of inertia Ig. The long-term deflection or camber
shall be computed by multiplying the short-term deflection by the factor C2 as follows:

As
C1 +
Ap
C2 = (9-2)
A
1+ s
Ap

where As is cross-sectional area of reinforcing steel and Ap is cross-sectional area of prestressing steel.
C1 shall be taken from Table 9-6.

Table 9-6
Multiplier C1 to be Used for Estimating Long-Term Deflection and Cambers in Prestressed Concrete Members (from PCI MNL-
120)
Multipliers C1
Deflection and Camber Without Composite Topping With Composite Topping
At erection:

(1) Deflection (downward) component – apply to the elastic deflection 1.85 1.85
due to the member weight at release of prestress

(2) Camber (upward) component – apply to the elastic camber due to 1.80 1.80
Prestress at the time of release of prestress

Final:

(3) Deflection (downward) component – apply to the elastic deflection 2.70 2.40
due to the member weight at release of prestress

(4) Camber (upward) component – apply to the elastic camber 2.45 2.20
due to prestress at the time of release of prestress

(5) Deflection (downward) – apply to elastic deflection due to 3.00 3.00

superimposed dead load only

(6) Deflection (downward) – apply to elastic deflection caused by -- 2.30

the composite topping

9-5. Prestressed Concrete Design Criteria

a. Allowable stresses.

(1) Stresses in prestressed concrete shall be computed by the Working Stress Method on the basis of
the elastic, uncracked concrete properties and strain compatibility. The calculated stress in concrete shall
be limited by the allowable values in Table 9-7.

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Table 9-7
Allowable Stress in Prestressed Concrete
Allowable Compressive Stress Allowable Tensile Stress
At transfer (before losses)
Pretensioning 0.60 f c ' 0
Posttensioning 0
0.55 f c '
At service 0.45 f c ' 1
(After prestress loss) 4 fc'
( 12 f c' under unusual conditions)
Anchorage bearing 21 MPa (3,000 psi) -

(2) The maximum tensile stress in prestressing steel at jacking and after transfer should be limited in
order to provide a margin of safety against tendon rupture, excessive inelastic deformation and prestress
loss in the steel. The maximum stresses in prestressing steel shall be limited by the allowable values in
Table 9-8.

Table 9-8
Allowable Stress in Prestressing Steel
Stress Relieved Strands and Low-Relaxation Deformed High
Plain High Strength Bars Strands Strength Bars
At jacking 0.72 fpu 0.78 fpu 0.72 fpu

At prestress transfer 0.70 fpu 0.74 fpu 0.70 fpu

Effective stress after 0.68 fpu 0.72 fpu 0.64 fpu

prestress loss

b. Loss of Prestress.

(1) Loss of prestress is the reduction of tensile stress in prestressing steel mainly due to prestress
anchorage seating loss, friction loss, elastic shortening of concrete member, concrete shrinkage and creep,
and relaxation of prestressing steel over time. The anchorage seating loss, friction loss, and elastic
shortening are instantaneous prestress loss prior to or at prestress transfer. Creep and shrinkage of
concrete and relaxation of prestressing steel result in time-dependent loss of prestress force.

(2) For bonded prestressing, prestress losses generally have no effect on the ultimate flexural strength
of a member. But the losses affect service conditions such as cracking and deflection.

(3) In general, a high degree of refinement of prestress loss estimate is not warranted in preliminary
design. For routine initial design, an approximate lump-sum estimate of prestress losses is practical.
Lump sum estimates of time-dependent prestress losses shall be calculated in accordance with Section
5.9.5.3 of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. These lump-sum loss estimates do not include
anchorage seating loss and friction loss. Anchorage seating loss is usually compensated by overjacking.
The magnitude of overjacking shall be in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations and
verified in the field during the early stage of prestressing construction, but not to exceed the allowable
stresses in Table 9-8. Prestress loss due to friction and elastic shortening shall be calculated separately in
accordance with Sections 5.9.5.2.2 and 5.9.5.2.3 of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications,
respectively.

(4) When more accurate estimates of prestress losses are required, the total prestress loss should be
the sum of each individual loss calculated in accordance with Sections 5.9.5.2 and 5.9.5.4 of AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
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9-6. Reinforcement Requirements

a. The type and grade of mild steel reinforcement shall be limited to ASTM A 615 Grade 60 steel.
Reinforcement of other grades and types may be permitted for special application subject to consultation
and approval of USACE CECW-E.

b. High strength tendons and bars shall conform to ASTM A 722 with deformation conforming to
ASTM A 615. Prestressing strands shall conform to ASTM A 416. Prestressing wires shall conform to
ASTM A 421.

c. Unbonded posttensioning and external posttensioning should not be permitted as permanent

reinforcement in hydraulic structures without approval of CECW-E. They may be used for temporary
prestressing to assist in transport and installation of large P/C segments.

d. For prestressed concrete flexural members, the maximum amount of prestressed and
nonprestressed reinforcement shall comply with Section 5.7.3.3.1 of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications.

e. For prestressed concrete flexural members, the minimum amount of prestressed and
nonprestressed reinforcement shall comply with Section 5.7.3.3.2 of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications.

f. For nonprestressed P/C members, the maximum reinforcement ratio shall comply with EM 1110-
2-2104.

g. For nonprestressed P/C flexural members, the minimum reinforcement ratio shall comply with
paragraph 8-2 of this circular.

h. For compression members, the maximum and minimum amount of prestressed and
nonprestressed reinforcement shall comply with Section 5.7.4.2 of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications.

i. For prestressed concrete members subjected to membrane tension (i.e., full section tension), the
minimum amount of prestressing shall be such as to provide an effective prestress not less than 6 MPa
(860 psi). In addition, the minimum steel area (prestressing steel and reinforceing steel) shall be checked
as follows:

f c' Ac
As + A ps ≤ (9-3)
0.9 f y

j. Transverse shear reinforcement shall comply with Section 5.8.2 of AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications.

k. Membrane shear reinforcement may be required in the wall of P/C segments and should be
checked against the critical in-plane shear force incurred under the construction and service conditions.

9-7. Ultimate Strength Design

a. The strength requirements include the adequate load resistance of the structural members against
any potential loads and load combinations by means of the Ultimate Strength Design method (USM).
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 EC 1110-2-6052
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b. The strength reduction factor shall comply with EM 1110-2-2104.

c. Flexural and axial strength design of precast and/or prestressed components shall comply with
Section 5.7 of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.

d. Shear and torsion strength design of precast and/or prestressed components shall comply with
Section 5.8 of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.

e. Design of posttensioned and pretensioned anchorage zones shall comply with Section 5.10.9 and
Section 5.10.10, respectively, of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.

f. Development and splices of reinforcement shall comply with Section 5.11 of AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications.

9-8. Strength Design of Composite Members

a. Provisions of this paragraph for composite structural members shall apply to P/C and cast-in-
place concrete elements that are constructed in separate placements, but are designed to respond to loads
as a unit. Therefore, the composite members shall be designed for resisting shears and moments that will
be encountered during the service conditions.

b. In addition, P/C elements shall be designed for all the loads that will be encountered during
construction, including transportation and installation loads, thermal stresses, and hydrostatic form
pressure from in-fill concrete.

c. Composite members shall be designed for serviceability and ultimate strengths. The ultimate
flexural and shear strengths of composite members should account for different strengths of the P/C and
the in-fill concrete. In calculation of the ultimate strength of the final composite section, the strain
discontinuity at the interface of both concretes and the loading sequences can be ignored to simplify the
design. Studies show that this simplification produces satisfying design that is generally consistent with
relevant test results.

d. Serviceability requirements include crack width calculations for nonprestressed composite

members and concrete stress check for prestressed concrete composite members. The crack width may be
calculated for the service conditions only. However, the residual stresses that are locked in the P/C during
placement of the in-fill concrete shall be considered.

e. For prestressed composite concrete members, the need to control the tensile stresses on the
external concrete surface often governs the choice of the prestressing force. The Working Stress Method
shall check the stresses on the external surfaces of composite members against the permissible stress
criteria. The stress calculation must take into account the strain compatibility between both concretes and
all critical loads during the construction process, including hydrostatic form pressure and thermal stresses
of the in-fill concrete.

f. If the in-fill concrete is of different strength than that of the P/C, a composite transformed cross-
section shall be used to account for the difference in the elastic moduli of the two concretes in order to
ensure that the strains in both materials at the interface are compatible. The composite transformed
section is obtained by modifying the width of the in-fill concrete as follows:

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EC 1110-2-6052
1 Jan 01

E ci
bm = b = nb (9-4)
E cp

where E ci and E cp are the elastic modulus of the in-fill concrete and P/C, respectively. The modified
width bm shall be used to calculate composite transformed section properties.

g. Flexural strength of the composite members shall be designed using the transformed section
properties.

h. Shear strength of composite members shall be calculated in accordance Section 5.8 of AASHTO
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. The entire cross section of the composite members shall be used in
the calculation. If the in-fill concrete is of different strength from that of the P/C, the lower concrete
strength shall be assumed in the design.

i. If shear reinforcement is required to resist critical combinations of shear and torsion, the
reinforcement shall extend across the entire composite section and be fully anchored in the P/C.

j. Shear strength on the interface of the P/C and the in-fill concrete shall be checked to ensure full
shear transfer between segments of composite members. Calculations of checking horizontal shear
strength on the interface shall comply with Provision 17.5 of ACI 318. Minimum reinforcement #3 at
1.2 m (4 ft) on center shall be provided across the interface to ensure adequate shear transfer.

k. The deflection of composite members shall be estimated using the multiplier method defined in
paragraph 9-4 of this circular, except that the moment of inertia shall be calculated on the basis of the
composite transformed section.

9-9. Fatigue Design

a. When fatigue resistance is likely to be a serious problem in critical precast/prestressed com-

ponents under cyclic loads or repeated impact loads, such as on hulls of a floating guard wall, the fatigue
strength requirements shall be met by limiting the allowable stresses in steel and concrete as follows:

(1) Maximum stress range in reinforcing and prestressing steel is less than 20,000 psi (140 MPa). If
reinforcement is bent or weld, the maximum allowable stress range is 10,000 psi. (70 MPa).

(2) No membrane tensile stress in concrete.

(3) Maximum flexural tensile stress in concrete is less than 1.4 MPa (200 psi).

(4) Maximum compressive stress in concrete is less than 0.5 f c' .

(5) If maximum shear exceeds the allowable shear stress in concrete, or if the cyclic excursions
exceed 50% allowable shear in concrete, then stirrups should be designed without consideration of
strength contribution from concrete. Calculation of the allowable shear in concrete may account for the
favorable effect of prestressing.

b. If any one of the above stress values in steel or concrete is exceeded, a more detailed fatigue
analysis based on the principle of cumulative damage should then be carried out to verify the fatigue
strengths of concrete, reinforcement, prestressing steel, and bond between concrete and steel.
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Appendix A
References

ER 1110-2-1150
Engineering and Design for Civil Works Projects

ER 1110-2-1806
Earthquake Design and Evaluation for Civil Works Project

EM 1110-2-1612
Ice Engineering

EM 1110-2-2000
Standard Practice for Concrete for Civil Works Structures

EM 1110-2-2104
Strength Design for Reinforced Concrete Hydraulic Structures

EM 1110-2-2200
Gravity Dam Design

EM 1110-2-2602
Planning and Design of Navigation Locks

EM 1110-2-2607
Planning and Design of Navigation Dams

EC 1110-2-312
Engineering for Prefabricated Construction of Navigation Projects

ETL 1110-2-365
Nonlinear Incremental Structural Analysis of Massive Concrete Structures

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 1998

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. 1998. “AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications,” 2nd ed., Washington, DC.

American Bureau of Shipping 1980

American Bureau of Shipping. 1980. “Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels for Service on
Rivers and Intracoastal Waterways,” 65 Broadway, New York.

American Bureau of Shipping 1985

American Bureau of Shipping. 1985. “Rules for Building and Classing Mobile Offshore Drilling Units,”
65 Broadway, New York.

A-1
EC 1110-2-6052
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American Concrete Institute

American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI

Committee Report 207.1-R-96, “Mass Concrete”

Committee 211, “Proportioning Concrete Mixtures”

Committee Report 357.R-84, “Guide for the Design and Construction of Fixed
Offshore Concrete Structures”

Committee Report 357.1R-91, “State-of-the-Art Report on Offshore Concrete Structures

for the Arctic”

Committee Report 439.3R-91, “Mechanical Connections of Reinforcing Bars”

American Concrete Institute-American Society of Civil Engineers Joint Committee 550 1996
American Concrete Institute-American Society of Civil Engineers Joint Committee 550. 1996. “Design
recommendations for precast concrete structures,” ACI 550R-96.

American Society for Testing and Materials

American Society for Testing and Materials. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Philadelphia, PA.

Designation A53/A53M-99b, Standard Specification for Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc-
Coated, Welded and Seamless

A185-97, Standard Specification for Steel Welded Wire Fabric, Plain, for Concrete
Reinforcement

A416/A416M-99, Standard Specification for Steel Strand, Uncoated Seven-Wire for

Prestressed Concrete

A421/A421M-98a, Standard Specification for Uncoated Stress-Relieved Steel Wire for

Prestressed Cocnrete

A497-99, Standard Specification for Steel Welded Wire Fabric, Deformed, for Concrete
Reinforcement

A615/A615M-00, Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for
Concrete Reinforcement

A706/A706M-00, Standard Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for
Concrete Reinforcement

A722/A722M-98, Standard Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar for

Prestressing Concrete

A767/A767M-00, Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for

Concrete Reinforcement

A775/A755M-00, Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel Bars

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 EC 1110-2-6052
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A882/A882M-96e1, Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Seven-Wire Prestressing

Steel Strand

A884/A884M-99, Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire
Fabric for Reinforcement

C260-00, Standard Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete

C494/C494M-99a, Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete

C618-00, Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan
for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Concrete

C940-98a, Standard Test Method for Expansion and Bleeding of Freshly Mixed Grouts for
Preplaced-Aggregate Concrete in the Laboratory
C942-99, Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Grouts for Preplaced-Aggregate
Concrete in the Laboratory

C953-87 (1997), Standard Test Method for Time of Setting of Grouts for Preplaced-
Aggregate Concrete in the Laboratory

C1090-96, Standard Test Method for Measuring Changes in Height of Cylindrical Specimens
for Hydraulic-Cement Grout

C1107-99, Standard Specification for Packaged Dry, Hydraulic-Cement Grout (Nonshrink)

C1202-97, Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist
Chloride Ion Penetration

D3363-00, Standard Test Method for Film Hardness by Pencil Test

Gerwick 1993
Gerwick, Ben C., Jr. (1993). “Construction of prestressed concrete structures,” 2nd ed., Wiley, New York.

Ghorbanpoor 1993
Ghorbanpoor, A., and Madathanazalli, S. C. (1993). “Performance of grouts for post-tensioned bridge
structures,” FHWA-RD-92-095, Federal Highway Administration, McLean, VA.

Post-Tensioning Institute 1990

Post-Tensioning Institute. 1990. “Post-Tensioning Manual,” 5th ed., Post-Tensioning Institute, 1717 W.
Northern Ave., Suite 114, Phoenix, AZ 85021.

Post-Tensioning Institute 1998

Post-Tensioning Institute. 1998. “Acceptance Standard for Post-Tensioning Systems,” Post-Tensioning
Institute, 1717 W. Northern Ave., Suite 114, Phoenix, AZ 85021.

Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute 1993

Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute. 1993. “Guidelines for the use of epoxy-coated strand,” Report
JR-383, PCI Journal, Vol 38, No. 4, pp 26-32.

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EC 1110-2-6052
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Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute 1999

Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute. 1999. “Design Handbook,” MNL-120, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, 209 W. Jackson Blvd., Suite 500, Chicago, IL 60606.

Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute 1999

Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute. 1999. “Manual for quality control for plants and production of
precast and prestressed concrete products,” MNL-116, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, 209 W.
Jackson Blvd., Suite 500, Chicago, IL 60606.

Quinn 1971
Quinn, Alonzo D. (1971). “Design and construction of ports and marine structures,” 2nd ed., McGraw
Hill, New York.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1999

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1999. “Assessment of Underwater Concrete Technologies for In-the Wet
Construction of Navigation Structures, WES Technical Report INP-SL-1, Vicksburg, MS.

U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station 1949

U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station. 1949. Handbook for Concrete and Cement (with
quarterly supplements), Designation CRD-C 61-89A, Test Method for determining the resistance of freshly
mixed concrete to washing out in water,” Vicksburg, MS.

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Appendix B
Specification Requirements

B-1. Qualification of the Contractors

a. Precast concrete (P/C) fabrication shall be performed by the contractor or subcontractor who has
a demonstrated capability of producing quality precast and prestressed concrete products in a reliable and
consistent way. Contractors in charge of P/C production must (1) show that they are capable of
establishing the required plant and equipment onsite, (2) have experienced personnel, and (3) establish the
quality control procedures to fabricate the P/C products at the required rate of production. Contractors
shall show that they have successfully completed at least three projects involving P/C works for state
and/or federal agencies in the last five years. The supervisor responsible for the precast/pretensioned
concrete work shall obtain a level III P/C Plant Quality Personnel Certification from the Precast/
Prestressed Concrete Institute.

b. The contractor and each applicable subcontractor should have a minimum level of financial
strength. This may be demonstrated by sufficient bonding capacity, but this alone is no guarantee of
adequate financial strength. In addition to bonding capacity, the contractor should provide with his Q&E
Submittal an audited financial statement including balance sheet and income statement for the last three
years. If the bidder is a joint venture, then each partner should submit a financial statement. A copy of
the joint venture agreement should be provided.

B-2. Tolerances

a. Tolerances for surface leveling, horizontal alignments, and vertical alignments of the final
position of precast components shall be clearly specified in the plans and specifications. The specified
tolerances for the as-built dimensions of the structure should be established on the basis of the
requirements for operations, strength, and durability of the structure.

b. The specified tolerances of the as-built structure are dependent on dimensional tolerances of
individual precast products, erection tolerance of the precast components, and interfacial tolerance
between adjacent components.

c. In general, the dimensional tolerances should be used as guidelines for acceptance and not limits
for rejection. The engineer shall decide whether a deviation from the allowable tolerance affects safety,
service performance, and durability of the structure.

d. The dimensional tolerance of P/C components shall generally comply with the consensus
standards of the industry, as described in PCI MNL-116. For example, dimensional tolerances of a P/C
panel include length and width dimensions, thickness variation, and straightness (warping, bowing, and
tapered edges). Different temperature effects and differential moisture absorption between the inside and
outside faces of a panel should be considered in design and construction to minimize warping and
bowing.

e. The erection tolerance shall be determined in accordance with the current construction practice
and the project site conditions. The erection tolerance must be economically attainable in construction,
especially for underwater positioning of large P/C segments. It may depend on the site conditions, the
erection method, and equipment. Final erection tolerances should be reviewed and agreed to prior to the

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EC 1110-2-6052
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beginning of erection. Any change in tolerances made from the original plans and specifications shall be
approved in writing and noted in the contract documents.

f. In determination of erection tolerances, attention should be given to possible deflection and/or

rotation of the P/C component and the foundation members supporting the P/C component during
erection.

g. The dimensional tolerance and the erection tolerance are interrelated and may be additive. For
example, warping, bowing, and edge straightness of a P/C component have an important effect on the
edge match-up and joint dimension during the erection. If the accumulated tolerance exceeds the total
tolerance specified for the structure, adjustment shall be made with the interface clearance between
adjacent precast segments.

h. Interfacing tolerances and clearances are those required for joining different prefabricated
elements. The fabrication dimensional tolerances and erection tolerances must be considered in specifying
interfacing tolerances. The clearances between adjacent prefabricated elements are important details,
because they provide accommodation for adjustment of possible size variation and misalignment.

i. Typical dimensional tolerances for construction of large P/C assemblies are as follows:

(1) Fabrication of individual precast panels

• Overall dimensions of members: !1 mm per 1 m of length (1/8 in. per 10 ft), maximum 6 mm
(1/4 in.).

• Cross-section dimensions: !6 mm (1/4 in.).

• Deviation from straight line: !1 mm per 1 m of length (1/8 in. per 10 ft), maximum 6 mm
(1/4 in.).

• Bowing: L/240.

• Warpage: one corner out of the plane of the other three shall be less than 5 mm per 1 m (1/16 in.
per 1 ft) distance from the nearest adjacent corner.

• Variation in slab thickness: - 13 mm (1/2 in.), + 19 mm (3/4 in.)

(2) Erection of precast panels to construct large P/C assemblies:

• Horizontal tolerance at bottom of erected vertical panels/walls: !13 mm (1/2 in.).

• Horizontal tolerance at top of erected vertical panels/walls: !13 mm (1/2 in. ).

(3) Casting bed.

• Level tolerance of casting bed: !13 mm (1/2 in.) over entire area

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B-3. Stressing Operation

a. The contractor in charge of P/C production shall include a schedule and sequence of stressing in
the production plan. The contractor shall maintain daily records containing information regarding
materials testing, tensioning, detensioning, concrete proportioning, placing, and curing.

b. For all stressing operations, either pretensioning or posttensioning, the stressing load shall be
applied in two increments. An initial load is applied to the individual strands to straighten them and
provide a reference point for measuring elongation of the strands. The minimum initial jack load shall be
5% for pretensioning and 10% for posttensioning. The initial jacking force shall be measured within an
accuracy of +445 N (+100 lb.). The final load is then applied such that the stress conditions in all strands
reach a uniform final stress.

c. Under all circumstance, stress induced in the tendons shall be determined by two independent
measurement methods: (1) direct stress measurement by pressure gauges or dynamometers or load cells,
and (2) force computed from the actual elongation of the strands based upon their physical properties and
compensation adjustment.

d. For double-curved tendons, or all single curved tendons over 30 m (100 ft) in length, or wherever
sharp bends of tendons exist, stressing from both ends shall be specified. Where stressing from both ends
is impracticable, calculations and tests shall be made to determine friction losses and adequate
compensation shall be provided accordingly.

e. In posttensioning all structural components with multiple tendons, the stressing shall be carried
out in a carefully predetermined sequence and increments so that prestressing eccentricity can be
prevented.

f. For all but lightly pretensioned concrete, jacking forces shall be gradually released by hydraulic
jacks after concrete reaches adequate strength. For lightly pretensioned concrete, release of jacking forces
by burning the strands may be permitted, but is not recommended.

g. Stressed and ungrouted posttensioning tendons are very susceptible to corrosion. All post-
tensioning ducts shall be grouted within 24 hours after final stressing.

B-4. Grouting

a. P/S ducts. Past experience shows that blockage of posttensioning ducts is a common problem in
the field. The causes of blockage are usually either entry of foreign objects (pieces of gravel or short bars)
or in leakage of cement paste at splices. Ducts and their couplers shall be watertight to prevent leakage of
cement paste. Specifications shall require that the open end of the ducts be capped with red plastic cover
and heat-shrinkage tape be used at splice. Care shall be taken to ensure that all ducts, anchorage block-
outs, openings, and vents are kept clean prior to and after installing the tendons. Minor damage to ducts
shall be satisfactorily repaired and sealed, or by removing the damaged segment and splicing a segment of
new duct. Major damage shall require replacement of the duct. Prior to grouting, the ducts and tendons
shall be flushed with water to remove any contaminants and protective grease. The ducts shall be checked
for blockage and leakage. The flush water shall then be removed by blowing compressed air through the
ducts.

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EC 1110-2-6052
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b. Grouting. Grouting of the ducts shall proceed as soon as practical once the tendons are stressed.
Written grouting instructions shall be prepared to dictate the direction of grouting and sequence of closure
for vents, inlets, and outlets. The essential requirements are as follows:

(1) Grouting of each duct shall be one continuous operation. All vents shall be open when grouting
starts. The ducts shall be grouted from the lowest inlet in an upward direction. Grout shall be placed by
positive pressure in a continuous, one-way flow. The pumping pressure shall not exceed 1 MPa (150 psi)
for oval/flat ducts nor 1.7 MPa (250 psi) for circular ducts without approval of the engineer. If the
grouting pressure exceeds the maximum allowable, the injection vent shall be closed and grout shall be
injected into the next vent in the prescribed direction. Grouting shall continue until all the water and
entrapped air are removed from the duct and the grout emerging from the vents is of the same color and
consistency as the grout being pumped. Then, a pressure of 0.7 MPa (100 psi) shall be maintained for one
minute and the injection valve shall be sealed off under pressure. If the bleeding test show that bleeding
water of grout amounts to over 1% in volume, a standpipe shall be provided at the high-point outlets and
anchorage to let out bleeding water. When one-way flow of grout cannot be maintained or when grouting
is interrupted for more than 30 minutes, the grout shall be immediately flushed out of the duct.

(2) Vertical ducts with high rise can develop substantial bleeding due to strands acting as wicks
under the high pressure. Thus, standpipes and special thixotropic admixtures are employed to ensure
complete filling of the ducts.

(3) Within 48 hours after grouting, the level of grout in the injection ports and vents shall be checked
for complete filling of the ducts. In case voids are found, grout should be topped off through the outlets.
Valves, caps, and vent pipes shall not be removed until the grout has set. The filled ducts shall not be
subjected to vibration or shock within 24 hours of grouting. All steel vents shall be removed at least
25 mm (1 in.) below the concrete surface and patched with epoxy mortar. All plastic vents shall be
removed to the concrete surface.

c. Pressure. The pumping pressure shall not exceed 1 MPa (150 psi) for oval/flat ducts nor 1.7 MPa
(250 psi) for circular ducts without approval of the engineer.

d. Vents.

(1) The grouting procedure and arrangement of inlets and outlets should be designed to ensure
complete filling of ducts, including forcing grout through wedges at anchorage. Inlets and outlets shall be
placed at the following areas: (a) the anchorage of the tendon, (b) the high points of the duct profile when
the vertical distance between the high and low points is more than 0.5 m (20 in.), (c) the lowest point of a
tendon profile, (d) major changes of the cross section of the duct, such as trumpets of couplers, and
(e) any location where air and water are likely to collect. All the inlets and outlets shall be detailed on
working (shop) drawings. Grout injection and outlet vents shall be equipped with positive shutoffs.

(2) The specification shall require that the contractor submit written procedures of grouting
operations for approval. As a minimum, the grouting plan shall include the following items:

(a) Type, quantity, and brand of materials used in the grout with all the certification required.

(b) Type of equipment to be used including their capacities in relation with demand and working
conditions.

(c) Types and sizes of hoses and connections.

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(d) Grout mixing and pumping procedure.

(e) Duct cleaning methods prior to grouting.

(f) Direction and sequence of grouting, rate of grouting.

(g) Contingency procedure for removing blockage.

(h) Contingency procedure for possible local regrouting.

(i) Contingency plan of equipment breakdown, including provisions for backup equipment and spare
parts.

(j) QA/QC plan, the types and frequency of onsite tests of the grout mix

(k) Names of the persons in charge and their experience.

(3) If the grout mix design is not provided in the engineering specification, the specification shall
provide specific performance requirements in the following aspects:

(a) Degree of fluidity and pumpability (test in accordance with recommendation in FHWA-
RD-92-095).

(b) Amount of bleeding water (test in compliance with ASTM C 940).

(c) Volume stability (test in compliance with ASTM C 1090).

(d) Strength (test in compliance with ASTM C 942).

(e) Permeability (test in compliance with ASTM C 1202).

(f) Set time (test in compliance with ASTM C 953).

B-5. Tremie Concrete In-fill Placements

a. Concrete specifications should cover at least eight key elements that contribute toward the
success of underwater concreting:

• Performance requirements of the concrete mixture.

• Quality of the concrete mixture components.

• Handling, storage, and testing of concrete mixture components.

• Batching, mixing, and transportation of the concrete.

• Equipment.

• Concrete placement procedures.

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• Curing and protection of fresh concrete.

• Quality control.

b. In general, specifications for underwater concrete should conform to the requirements of

EM 1110-2-2000. Only special items pertaining to large-scale underwater concrete construction are
discussed in this appendix.

c. Typical performance requirements of concrete mixtures (a range of suggested target values is

included in parentheses):

• Slump (180-280 mm or 7-11 in.).

• Slump flow (310-760 mm or 12-30 in.).

• Slump retention (20% slump loss in 60 minutes).

• Bleeding (< 0.1% to 2%).

• Antiwashout property (<6-12% per CRD-C 61-89A).

• Time of the set (> 4 hours, <18 hours).

• Adiabatic temperature rise (<21 "C or 70 "F).

• Strength (> the design strength of concrete).

• Bond strength to the P/C form.

• Creep.

• Abrasion resistance, if concrete will be permanently exposed to river currents.

d. Prior to concrete construction, a comprehensive plan of concrete production, placement, and

quality control shall be developed by the contractor and approved by the engineer. The plan shall include
descriptions and supporting calculations pertaining to the following items:

• Concrete mixture proportions (if requested), and the test data showing their compliance with the
specification.

• Concrete delivery system and placement plan with detailed placement schedules and the system
capacities. The validity of the systems shall be supported by the calculation of concrete
placement rate and concrete delivery capacity. The systems shall be shown to meet the specified
placement rate.

• Equipment for production, transportation, and placement of concrete.

• Plan and details of placing, positioning, and supporting reinforcement, if any.

• The methods and equipment for sounding underwater concrete.

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• A contingency plan to deal with foreseeable incidents and breakdown, such as accidental
discharge of concrete in water and blockage of the tremie pipe.

e. For placing concrete containing aggregates greater than 10 mm (3/8 in.), only the tremie method
shall be used. The tremie method is defined as placement of underwater concrete through a tremie pipe
by means of gravity flow.

f. The tremie shall be of heavy gauge steel pipe with an inside diameter equal to or greater than
eight times the nominal maximum size of aggregates. The tremie pipe shall be marked to allow
determination of depth to the tremie mouth.

g. The tremie shall be a straight pipe of uniform diameter and smooth internal wall surface. Under
no circumstance shall the tremie be sharply bent to accommodate concrete placement. All splices shall be
flush on the inside.

h. Joints between tremie pipe sections shall be gasketed and bolted so as to be watertight through the
tremie placement.

i. A hopper or funnel with a size of at least 2 cubic meters (3 cubic yards) capacity shall be
provided on top of the tremie to facilitate transfer of concrete.

j. An adequate supply of extra end plates and gaskets shall be provided to allow resealing of the
tremie, if necessary.

k. The tremie and hopper shall be supported on a stable frame or platform to keep its vertical
position and to prevent horizontal movement. A power hoist shall be provided to raise the tremie pipe in a
controlled manner.

l. A crane or other lift equipment shall be available at the site for complete removal of tremie for
the purpose of resealing or relocation.

m. The method selected for transporting concrete shall ensure delivery without segregation,
excessive delay, and excessive temperature change. Pump line for horizontal delivery should be insulated
and in hot climate painted with reflective paint. Similarly, conveyer belts should be covered and insulated
and/or painted.

n. After the introduction of mixing water to concrete, no retempering of the concrete mixture shall
be permitted without the engineer’s approval.

o. Tremie placement shall be a continuous operation, uninterrupted until completion, if possible.

p. The placement rate shall be controlled by the rate of concrete delivered to the tremie hopper.
Vertical movement of the tremie shall be carefully controlled to prevent loss of seal.

q. Throughout tremie placement, the tip of the tremie shall remain embedded in the fresh concrete at
least 0.6 m (2 ft) at all times. At no time shall concrete be allowed to fall through the water or slurry.

r. The spacing of tremie pipes and sequence of the placement shall meet the specification
requirement of the maximum allowable horizontal distance of concrete flow.

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s. The starting point of the tremie placement shall be at the lowest points in elevation within the
confine of the placement.

t. During the placement, the tremie shall be relocated in accordance with the placement plan and on
the basis of the concrete flow as indicated by soundings.

u. For massive concrete placement, the tremie shall not be moved horizontally. To relocate, the
tremie shall be lifted from the water, resealed, relocated, and restarted.

v. If the tremie loses the seal due to any reason, placement shall be halted immediately, the tremie
be removed, resealed, and restarted.

w. The wet method, i.e., the “pig” or “go-devils” method, shall not be used to restart a concrete
placement. The tremie or pumpline shall be resealed in the dry, reinserted into the fresh concrete to
restart the placement. Restarting the tremie placement shall follow the standard procedure as specified
below:

• Lift the tremie pipe out of water, and tie on an end plate with gasket.

• Position the pipe at the placement location. Then, lower the pipe down to seat the tip through the
fresh concrete to rest on bottom.

• Start placement with 0.4 m3 (0.5 yd3) grout and fill the tremie up to 40% of water depth.

• Lift the tremie off the bottom by 15 cm (6 in.) and continue the placement.

x. At completion of the concrete placement, exposed laitance shall be green-cut after concrete has
set.

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Appendix C
Design Example

C-1. Introduction

Three example calculations have been selected from load case 1 (LC1), the transport stage of precast
concrete (P/C) segments from a casting yard to the outfitting site (Figure C-1). These sample calculations
are performed using AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, SI Units, 2nd Edition, 1998. All
equation numbers refer to this guide. Note: All SI units are in N and mm unless otherwise noted.

The examples are as follows:

• Flexural check of a reinforced concrete section.

• Shear check of a reinforced concrete section.

• Flexural and cracking check of a prestressed concrete section.

C-2. Demand Calculations

First, the demand moments and shears must be found over the segment. A finite element model of the
segment is created to find the appropriate values.

The finite element analysis is performed by using the SAP2000 nonlinear version 6.11 program from
Computers and Structures, Inc. – Berkeley. The nonlinear features in the program are not used during the
analysis.

Grid models constructed by beam elements simulate the behavior of the dam. The properties of the
elements are changed as the dam structure changes for different stages. The centerline of the frame
elements is located at the centerline of the webs (Figures C-2 and C-3).

Figure C-1. Diagram of dam being lowered onto foundation

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Figure C-2. Labels of equivalent frame members

Figure C-3. Diagram of frame sections used during analysis

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Figure C-4. Bending moments on frame model during float-out load case

The buoyancy while the dam is floating is modeled by springs located at each node location. The spring
stiffnesses are equivalent to the tributary area multiplied by the density of the water and thereby simulate
the buoyancy.

The demand for the three cases:

A load factor of 1.7 has been used for all moments and shears as it is a hydrostatic load case (see
Figure C-4).

1) Flexural strength check of critical section - Line 2, segment NP

Mu = 3640 kN-m

2) Shear strength check of critical section - Line 2, segment NP

Vu = 863 kN

3) Flexural and cracking strength check of prestressed concrete section –

Line 7, segment GH
Mu = -2422 kN-m

C-3. Capacity Calculations

1) Flexural check of reinforced concrete section

Use line 2, segment NP. The flexural strength of this segment must be checked against the demand
moment calculated during the float-out process (LC1). The capacity will be calculated according to
AASHTO section 5.7.3 – Flexural Members. The segment is simplified as a wide-flange beam with the
following assumptions:
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The tension steel consists of 60 #8 bars. The steel is lumped at its centroid, 6 in. from the edge of the
flange. The steel in the web and the compression steel are ignored, a conservative estimate.

Calculate effective flange width. Taken as the least of three values (4.6.2.6.1):

• one-quarter of the effective span length = ¼ x 135’ = 33.75 ft

• 12.0 times the average thickness of the slab, plus the greater of web thickness or one-half the
width of the top flange of the girder
= 12 x 1’ + ½ x 7.5’ = 16 ft

• the average spacing of adjacent beams = 16 ft

Use 16 ft.

The beam has the following properties:

Property English Units SI Units

As 47.4 in.2 30581 mm2
f 60 ksi 414 MPa
beam depth 21 ft 6401 mm
f 5 ksi 34 MPa
b 15.92 ft 4852 mm
bw 0.83 ft 253 mm
hf 1 ft 305 mm
cover 0.5 ft 152 mm
ds 20.5 ft 6248 mm

Calculate β1, stress block factor (for concrete strength greater than 28 MPa, β 1 shall be reduced from 0.85
at a rate of 0.05 for each 7 MPa of strength in excess of 28 Mpa):

0.05 ⋅ ( f c' − 28) 0.05 ⋅ (34 − 28)

β 1 = 0.85 − = 0.85 − = 0.804 (5.7.2.2)
7 7

Assuming the section behaves as a rectangular beam, calculate c, distance between the neutral axis and
the compressive face:

A ⋅ fy 30 ,581 ⋅ 414
c= s = = 111 mm< h f (5.7.3.1.1-4)
0.85 ⋅ f c ⋅ β 1 ⋅ b 0.85 ⋅ 34 ⋅ 0.804 ⋅ 4852
'

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The assumption of behavior as a rectangular beam rather than a t-beam is correct because c is less than
the hf, and the compression zone does not extend into the web.
Calculate a, depth of equivalent stress block:

a = c ⋅ β 1 = 111 ⋅ 0.804 = 89 mm (5.7.2.2)

Find nominal flexural resistance:

 a  89 
M n = As ⋅ f y ⋅  d s −  = 30 ,581 ⋅ 414 ⋅  6248 −  = 7.848 ⋅1010 N- mm (5.7.3.2.2-1)
 2  2 

Find factored flexural resistance:

ϕ = 0.90 for flexure and tension of reinforced concrete beams (5.5.4.2.1)

M r = ϕ ⋅ M n = 0.9 ⋅ 7.848 ⋅1010 = 7.06 ⋅1010 N -mm (5.7.3.2.1-1)

Check demand versus capacity:

Mr > Mu ?
70,600 kN - m > 3,640 kN - m OK

2) Check of shear in line 2, segment NP:

The cross-section is the same as example 1. Shear reinforcement consists of #8 stirrups spaced at 9 in.
Calculate Av, steel area:

Av = 0.60 in.2 ⋅ 2 = 1.20 in .2

Find bv, effective web width, and dv, effective shear depth:

bv = web thickness = 0.83 ft

a
dv = ds − = 20.4 ft
2

ϕ, the resistance factor for shear, is 0.9 for normal density, reinforced concrete
(5.5.4.2.2).

Property English Units SI Units

Av 1.2 in.2 774 mm2
s 0.75 ft 229 mm
Es 29000 ksi 2x105 MPa
bv 0.83 ft 253 mm
dv 20.4 ft 6204 mm
ϕ 0.9 0.9

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To find Vn, nominal shear resistance, take the lesser of:

1) Vn = 0.25 ⋅ f c' ⋅ bv ⋅ d v (5.8.3.3-1)

2) Vn = Vc + Vs + V p (5.8.3.3-2)
Calculate first term:

Vn = 0.25 ⋅ f c' ⋅ bv ⋅ d v = 0.25 ⋅ 34 ⋅ 253 ⋅ 6204 = 13,527 kN

Calculate second term:

Vp, the vertical component of the prestressing force = 0

In order to calculate Vs and Vc, assume a value for θ , angle of inclination of transverse reinforcement to
longitudinal axis, and β, factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension:

θ 32
β 3.5

Calculate Vc and Vs:

Vc = 0.083 ⋅ β ⋅ f c' ⋅ bv ⋅ d v = 0.083 ⋅ 3.5 ⋅ 34 ⋅ 253 ⋅ 6204 = 2677 kN (5.8.3.3-3)

Av ⋅ f y ⋅ d v ⋅ cot θ 774 ⋅ 414 ⋅ 6204 ⋅ cot (32)

Vs = = = 13,909 kN (C5.8.3.3-1)
s 229

Find v, the shear stress on the concrete:

Vu − ϕ ⋅ V p 862,746 − 0.9 ⋅ 0
v= = = 0.611 MPa (5.8.3.4.2-1)
ϕ ⋅ bv ⋅ d v 0.9 ⋅ 253 ⋅ 6204

and

v 0.611
'
= = 0.018
fc 34

Calculate εx, the strain in the reinforcement on the flexural tension side:

Mu
+ 0.5 ⋅ Vu ⋅ cot θ
dv
εx =
Es ⋅ As
(5.8.3.4.2-2)
3,640 ,000
+ 0.5 ⋅ 862,746 ⋅ cot (32)
= 6204 = 2.1 ⋅ 10 −4
2 × 105 ⋅ 30 ,581

Checking the values on the charts: (see following page)

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Table 5.8.3.4.2-1. Values of θ and β for sections with Transverse Reinforcement

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If v f c' = 0.018 and ε x = 2.1 ⋅ 10 −4 , then β = 3.6 and βθ = 28°. Need to guess new values for β and θ

Try: β = 3.6 and θ = 28°

Thus,

Vc = 2 ,677 kN
Vs = 16 ,347 kN
v = 0.611 MPa
ε x = 2.3 × 10 − 4

If v f c' = 0.018 and ε x = 2.3 ⋅ 10 −4 , then β = 3.6 and θ = 28°, so estimates are good.

Vn = Vc + V s + V p = 2,677 kN + 16,347 kN + 0 kN = 19,024 kN

19 ,024 kN > 13,527 kN
Use 13,527 kN

Vr = ϕ ⋅ Vn = 0.9 ⋅ 13,527 kN = 12 ,174 kN

Check demand versus capacity:

V r > Vu ?
12 ,174 kN > 863 kN OK

3) Check bending moment and crack width in prestressed beam - line 7, segment GH:

• Calculate effective flange width. Taken as the least of three values (4.6.2.6.1):

• One-quarter of the effective span length = ¼ ! 40 ft = 10 ft

• 12.0 times the average thickness of the slab, plus the greater of web thickness or one-half the
width of the top flange of the girder = 12 ft + ½ ! 5.75 ft = 15 ft

• the average spacing of adjacent beams = 16 ft

Use 10 feet.

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The prestressed beam has the following properties:

Property English Units SI Units

As 36.3 in.2 23445 mm2
fy 60 ksi 414 Mpa
Es 29000 ksi 2x105 Mpa
beam depth 8 ft 2438 mm
f'c 5 ksi 34 Mpa
b 10 ft 3048 mm
bw 1.0 ft 305 mm
hf 1.0 ft 305 mm
cover 7 in. 178 mm
ds 7.42 ft 2260 mm
Aps 1.72 in.2 1110 mm2
fpe 162 ksi 1117 MPa
dp 7.56 ft 2303 mm

Calculate β1, stress block factor:

0.05 ⋅ ( f c' − 28) 0.05 ⋅ (34 − 28)

β 1 = 0.85 ⋅ = 0.85 ⋅ = 0.804 (5.7.2.2)
7 7

Find fpy, the yield strength of the prestressing tendons:

f py = 0.90 ⋅ f pu = 0.90 ⋅ 1860 = 1675 MPa (C5.7.3.1.1-1)

Find k:

 
 = 2 ⋅ 1.04 − 1675  = 0.28
f py
k = 2 ⋅ 1.04 − (5.7.3.1.1-2)
 f pu   1862 
 

Assuming the section behaves as a rectangular beam, calculate c, distance between the neutral axis and
the compressive face:

A ps ⋅ f pu + A ⋅ f y
c= s
f pu
0.85 ⋅ f c' ⋅ β 1 ⋅ b + k ⋅ A ps ⋅
dp (5.7.3.1.1-4)
1110 ⋅ 1861 + 23,455 ⋅ 414
= = 163 mm
1860
0.85 ⋅ 34 ⋅ 0.804 ⋅ 3048 + 0.28 ⋅ 1110 ⋅
2303

Find fps, the average stress in prestressing steel:

 
f ps = f pu ⋅ 1 − k ⋅
c  = 1861 ⋅ 1 − 0.28 ⋅ 63.3  = 1824 MPa (5.7.3.1.1-1)
 dp   2303 
 

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Calculate a, depth of equivalent stress block:

a = c ⋅ β 1 = 163 ⋅ 0.804 = 131 mm (5.7.2.2)

Find nominal flexural resistance:

 a  a
M n = As ⋅ f y ⋅  d s −  + Aps ⋅ f ps  d p − 
 2  2
 131   131 
= 23,455 ⋅ 414 ⋅  2260 −  + 1110 ⋅1824 ⋅  2303 −  (5.7.3.2.2-1)
 2   2 
= 2.58 ⋅1010 N - m

Find factored flexural resistance:

ϕ = 1.0 for flexure and tension of prestressed concrete

M r = ϕ ⋅ M n = 1.0 ⋅ 2.58 ⋅1010 = 25,800 kN- m (5.7.3.2.1-1)

Check demand versus capacity:

Mr > Mu ?
25,800 kN - m > 2422 kN- m OK

The moment capacity is sufficient, but must also check that there is no cracking or small cracking in the
base of the slab due to the bending moment.

In order to calculate the stress in the bottom flange of the beam:

σ total = σ d + σ pa + σ pb

where:

The tensile stress due to the demand bending moment:

M d ⋅ y 2.42 ⋅ 10 9 ⋅ 1219
σd = = = 0.93 MPa
I 3.19 ⋅ 1012

where

y = the distance from the centroid to the extreme fiber = 1219 mm

I = the moment of inertia of the section

The compressive stress due to the axial force applied by the prestressing tendons:

− P 1.24 ⋅ 10 6
σ pa = = = −0.51 MPa
A 2.42 ⋅ 10 6

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where

P = the axial force applied by the prestressing tendons = 1240 kN

A = the area of the section = 2.42 ! 106 mm2

The compressive stress due to the bending moment applied by the prestressing force:

− P ⋅ e ⋅ y 1.24 ⋅ 10 6 ⋅ 1084.26 ⋅ 1219

σ pb = = = −0.51 MPa
I 3.19 ⋅ 1012

where

e = the distance from the prestressing tendons to the centroid of the section

σtotal = 0.93 – 0.51 – 0.51 = -0.09 MPa (compression)

Thus, because there is no tension in the bottom of the slab, there is no cracking.
If there is tension, then it would have to be checked according to provision 5.7.3.4 (not included herein).

C-11