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VI
Contents
Highway Safety 382-383
Arun Kumar Singh1, Ramendra Pandey2 and Ashish Pandey3
Analysing Water Quality Parameters for Liquid Waste from Distillery 388-390
Dravin KumarDev1, Ms.Sunayana2 and A.K. Mishra3
Soft Computing and Regression Models for Compressive Strength of BFS and SP Mixed Concrete 391-395
Y K BIND1, Keshav Sharma2, N N Harry3 and Y K Kushwaha4
Time History Analysis of Irregular Reinforced Concrete High Rise Building with Shear Wall 396-400
Keshav. K. Sharma1, S. K. Duggal2, R. K. Pandey3 and Sanjay Singh4
Analysis of Seismic Loads acting on Multistory Building as per IS: 1893-2002 and 405-408
IS: 1893-2016 :- A comparative Study
Ravikant Singh1 and Vinay Kumar Singh2
Geosynthetics: A Smart and Sustainable Material for Construction and Soil Improvement 409-411
Shivani Verma1 and Vikas Kumar2
Study of Physico-Chemical Parameters of Ground Water Quality of Indira Nagar, Gorakhpur 416-422
Surya Pratap Singh1 and Sunayana2
Contents
Comparative Study of different Waste Materials as an Adsorbent for Fluoride Removal from 426-429
Groundwater
Anju Gulia1, Athar Hussain2 and Mimansa Gulati3
Anaerobic Co-digestion of Lignocellulosic Waste Co-Digested with Food Waste under 430-433
Mesophillic Conditions
Pushkar Adhikari1, Athar Hussain2 and Mimansa Gulati3
The Energy Potential of Rice Straw by the Thermal and Biological Method: 434-437
A Comparative Study
Suraj Negi1, Athar Hussain2 and Mimansa Gulati3
Journal of Civil Engineering and Environmental Technology
p-ISSN: 2349-8404; e-ISSN: 2349-879X; Volume 4, Issue 5; July-September, 2017, pp. 382-383
© Krishi Sanskriti Publications
http://www.krishisanskriti.org/Publication.html
Highway Safety
Arun Kumar Singh1, Ramendra Pandey2 and Ashish Pandey3
1,2,3
P.G. Student Madan Mohan Malaviya university of Technology Gorakhpur 273010
E-mail: 1ce.arunsingh@gmail.com, 2imramendrapandey@gmail.com, 3ashishpandey840@gmail.com
Types of highway
Types of pavement
Pavement design
Traffic volume
Highway alignment
Curve on highway
Highway Safety 383
Green Concrete
Ashish Pandey1, Ramendra Pandey2 and Shweta Yadav3
1,2
P.G. Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology, Gorakhpur, India
3Department of Civil Engineering, Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology, Gorakhpur, India
E-mail: 1ashishpandey840@gmail.com, 2imramendrapandey@gmail.com
Abstract—Concrete is the most commonly used building material in 1.1. Requirements of Green Concrete
the world. Pollution is becoming more and more serious with the
increasing use of concrete in the world. It was observed that 0.9 To be called as “Green Concrete” the concrete should have the
tonnes of carbon dioxide is produced per tonne of cement production. following requirement:
By weight the cement composition is almost about 10% of the
concrete. The reduction of emission of carbon dioxide in atmosphere 1. Requires the optimizes use of available materials.
is possible by using the green concrete towards the eco-friendly
2. It requires the better performance.
construction techniques. This paper gives an idea about the
advantages and disadvantages about the green concrete. Some of the 3. It enhanced cohesion workabiliry/consistency in the
materials used in the manufacturing of green concrete are quarry concrete.
rocks, crushed concrete marble sludge powder and fly ashes. It also
helps in reducing the pollution in the atmosphere 4. It reduces shrinkage and creep in the concrete.
Keywords: Green Concrete, Pollution, Recycled Materials, Eco- 5. Their is no increase in cost.
friendly construction, Geo-polymer concrete, Sustainable 6. It reduces the carbon foot print.
construction.
7. Certification of LEED.
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MATERIALS FOR GREEN CONCRETE
In ‘Green Concrete’ the word ‘green’ doesn’t represent the
colour of the concrete. Green concrete means that the concrete 1. Fly Ash
is eco-friendly. In other words, we can say that the concrete 2. Marble Sludge Powder
which is made from the concrete wastes which are eco- 3. Quarry Rock Dust
friendly are called as “Green Concrete”. It represent that the 4. Recycled Aggregate
concrete requires less energy in its production and produces 5. Blast Furnace Slag
less carbon dioxide than the normal concrete. The concrete
should not be confused by its colour. Due to the use of 2.1. Fly Ash
recycled material the green concrete is considered to be very It has a number of advantages. It is used to improve the
cheap to produce. At present green concrete is a miracle and concrete performance in both fresh and hardened state. Fly ash
tool for future when the natural resources are demolishing helps in improving the workability of plastic concrete and
strength and durability of hardened concrete. Fly ash is mainly
available where there coal is being burned. Fly ash is less
expensive as compared to the Portland Cement. We can make
the best use of the fly ash by utilizing its cemmentitious
properties.
Following are the application of green concrete: 6. It has good thermal and acid resistance.
3. In mass concrete projects. 9. By the use of recycled aggregates it reduces the green
mining.
4. Used in bridge construction. 10. As compare to the conventional concrete much change is
not required in the preparation of green concrete.
5. In high density radiation shielding.
6. DISADVANTAGES
1. Higher water absorption capacity.
2. In green concrete flexural strength is less.
3. As compare to the conventional concrete shrinkage and
creep is high.
7. CONCLUSION
In this paper we concluded that there are various means to get
the sustainable construction and one of the better means is by
Green Concrete. Now a days, construction industry is using
Green Concrete technology to get the sustainable construction
without affecting the environment. Green concrete helps in
decreasing the demand of natural resources. With the help of
green concrete technology we can save the natural materials
for the future generation.
REFERENCES
Fig 11: Application of Green Concrete
[1] Chirag Garg and Aakash Jain (2014), “Green Concrete:
Efficient and Eco-Friendly Construction Materials”.
5. ADVANTAGES [2] Abhijeet Baikerikar (2014), “AReview On Green Concrete”.
[3] Https://Theconstrucor.Org/Concrete/Green-Concrete/5566/
1. It reduces the overall consumption of cement. (Online).
2. As compare to conventional concrete it is economical. [4] D.B. Desai, A.K. Gupta and Pradeep Kumar (2013), “Green
Concrete: Need Of Environment”.
3. As compare to conventional concrete it has better [5] Bambang Suhendro (2014), “Toward Green Concrete For
compressive and split tensile strength. Better Sustainable Environment”.
Abstract—The effluent that are originated from distillery are very 50000 mg/l and the typical value of chemical oxygen demand
harmful in nature. Many distillery effluent are dispose into the river (COD) are 100000-1500000 mg/l. all different industries have
or stream without proper treatment which cause change in physical, set there norms for effluent discharges. Due to increasing
chemical, and biological characteristics of river/stream. The effluent industrialization the no of pollution is increase like air
generated from the distillery is also known as spent wash lead to
more water pollution .Industrial waste create a variety of water
pollution, noise pollution, water pollution. The increasing
pollution which is more difficult in treating and more costly the level of water pollution is more dangerous to environment and
present study is under take to assess the level of physical chemical living things. Most of the industries discharge the waste water
parameter of distillery spent wash. The parameter is compare with in the stream without proper treatment which causes more
Bureau of Indian standard. Untreated effluent have high BOD rate water pollution. Around the industrial area soil and
but low DO rate. The untreated effluent have more harmful to plant underground water is polluted and due to soil pollution by
so it is no permissible to irrigation the treated effluent is under nearly industries the crop growth rate decreases. Water
permissible limit and less toxic and it is use as irrigation purpose. pollution also increases due to standard of living being, high
This study was conducted to know the physical and chemical profile person have high rate of demand of water supply per
characteristics of distillery waste water like Biological oxygen
demand, chemical oxygen demand, turbidity, pH, alkalinity, total
day. The demand of water supply increases per year due to
dissolved solid, Total suspended solid, total solid, chloride. The this led to scarcity of water in the world. . In the world various
average values of pH, Turbidity, Acidity, Chloride, Hardness, Total standards are laid down by agency after analyzing the water
Solid, BOD, DO, Alkalinity are found out. Distillery industries in quality for different use such as (WHO) world health
India pose a very serious threat to the environment because of the organization, U.S Environmental Protection Agency
large volume of wastewater they generate which contains significant (USEPA), the Bureau of Indian standards (BIS) the Indian
amount of recalcitrant compounds. Distillery spent wash has very Council of Medical Research (ICMR) etc.
high COD and BOD with low pH and dark brown color. The
treatment of spent wash using various treatment technologies and
reactor configurations has been widely explored.
1. INTRODUCTION
Large amount of dissolved organic matter is present in effluent
of distillery. With the help of biological action organic matter
is readily decompose, consequently its causes serious damage
to aquatic life when distillery effluent is discharge into the
stream. In India there are about 145 distilleries, a state wise
producing ethyl alcohol by fermentation of molasses and
subsequent distillation of the fermented wash. The
fermentation is carried out by yeast, which convert the sugar
present in the molasses into alcohol while the sludge settle
down at the end of the process.
The color of the waste water of distillery is dark brown
instead of color the spent wash of distillery have high
biological oxygen demand, high chemical oxygen demand,
high suspended solid, and inorganic solid but low value of ph. Fig 1 Map of Study Area
The typical range of biological oxygen demand (BOD) 35000-
Analysing Water Quality Parameters for Liquid Waste from Distillery 389
For existance of life on the earth water is one of the most 7 TSS Gravity metric Gooch Crucible
important components. For all human being in the world fresh method and electronic
and clean drinking water is needed for survival on the earth, Balance,
but sadly millions of people are deprived by fresh water in the Burner
world. Today in the entire world all the living (being) flora
8 Chloride
and fauna need water for survival.
range from 80000 mg/l to 90000mg/l and 2200 mg/l on land REFERENCE
disposal after treatment.
(1). Agrawal, C.S., Pandey, G.S., Soil pollution by spent wash
3.7. TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLID discharge: Depletion of manganese (II) and impairment of
its oxidation. J. Environ. 1994.
Suspended solid may be define as those solid which are retain
by passing the sample through 1µm pores and therefore also (2). Beauro of Indian standard 1998.
called as non filterable solid. In this project the TSS varies
(3). CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board). Pollution
from 199mg/l to 318mg/l. But the TSS is 100 mg/l after
Control Acts, Rules, Notifications issued there under, vol.
treatment by CPCB.
I.
3.8. CHLORIDE
(4). G.N Pandey and G.C Carney, Environmental Engineering.
In this project the average value of chloride is range from 78 (5). Dr.Ahmad Ashfaq, Industrial waste Treatment
mg/l to 99 mg/l. But according to CPCB the chloride range of Technology.
spent wash is 5000 mg/l to 6000 mg/l. The treated spent wash
of distillery waste which is dispose on land is in range from 50 (6). Management of distillery waste water resource recycling
mg/l to 100 mg/l. series RERES/4/2001-2002.
4. CONCLUSION (7). Goetz, C.A. and R.C. Smith, (1959). Evaluation of various
methods and reagents for total hardness and calcium
The main objective of this project was analyse the physical hardness in water. Lowa State J.Sci. 34:81.
and chemical characteristics parameter of distillery waste (8). Schwarzenbach, G.and H. Flaschika, (1969).
water. Complexometric Titrations, 2nd Ed., Barnes and Noble,
The pH range from 6 to 6.5. According to CPCB distillery Inc., New York, N.Y.
effluent standard prescribed limit for irrigation purpose is 5.5 (9). Sawyer Clair N., Perry Z. McCarty, Gener F. Parkin.
to 9. Chemistry for Environmental Engineering, 4th Edition.
The Turbidity, TDS and TSS ranged from 145 to 182 (10). C PCB document stating the guidelines values for
NTU, 261 to 361 mg/l and 199 to 318 mg/l respectively. The various water bodies. Rationalization and Optimisation of
value of Turbidity was found to be within the prescribe limit. Water Quality Monitoring Network, CPCB, MINARS,
The DO and BOD were in the range of 2.2 to 3.8 mg/l and IS-2001-2001.
1419.33 to 1763.89 mg/l. The prescribe value DO for (11). American Society for Testing and Materials, (1195).
irrigation purpose according to CPCB are 2ppm to 5ppm .But Standard Methods for Chemical Oxygen Demand
the prescribed value of BOD of distillery effluent for irrigation (Dichromate Oxygen Demand of Water D1252-95,
purpose 100mg/l in this project the BOD value is above the ASTM Annual Book of Standard, American Testing and
prescribe value. Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
Rise in BOD value due to presence of organic matter that (12). Howard, C.S., (1933). Determination of total dissolved
are not oxidise during the treatment process solids in water analysis. Ind. Engg. Chem. Anal. Ed., 5:4.
The COD and Alkalinity were in the range of (13). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
2617.53mg/l to 3512.90mg/l and 283mg/l to 340mg/l Wastewater, APHA, AWWA and WEF, 21st Edition,
respectively. The parameters studied resemble the distillery 2005
effluent waste water quality.
(14). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
High COD value may occur because of the presence of Wastewater; APHA, AWWA and WEF, 21st Edition,
inorganic substance with which the dichromate can react. 2000.
In addition agricultural, industrial, waste water discharge (15). Peavey, S. and Rowe, R. Environmental Engineering,
to surface water are a source of chloride. Mc- Graw-HILL International.
Alkalinity in waste water result from the presence of (16). Rajor, A. Kalia, P and Mathur, R, P., Research Journal
hydroxide , carbonate and bicarbonate of element such as Chemistry Environment, 2003, 7(2) 59-75.
calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium and ammonia.
(17). Joshi, H. C., Pathak, H., Choudhary, A., Kalro, N.,
Problems and prospects fertilizer News. 1996, 41: 41-47.
Abstract-–This research is prepared with a notion that it will parameters like workability, shrinkage of cement and shape of
encourage the use of soft computing methods in the field of concrete aggregate causes substantial imprecision in the design strength
technology since these methods are being extensively used in many even though quite a lot of care had taken in the calculation of
field of engineering now a days. Concrete mix design calculation was
design mixes and subsequent preparation of laboratory
carried out for blast furnace slag and super plasticizer mixed
concrete. Compressive strength was determined by casting cubes in
samples. Casted cubes takes several days in curing. Soft
the laboratory. Hence, the mix design calculations and experimental computing methods can offer a ground to overcome the
set up yielded set of variables viz. cement content, water content, difficulties involved in standard design mix process and save
super plasticizer, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and curing time involved in curing.
period. Using these variables as inputs and compressive strength as
target, two different soft computing methods, Artificial Neural This research paper is prepared to examine the
Network (ANN) and Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) feasibilityArtificial Neural Network (ANN) and Adaptive
were employed to understand the nonlinear pattern between concrete Neuro Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) in determining the
mix design data and corresponding compressive strength. Later on, concrete compressive strength. Two regression analysis were
multiple linear and nonlinear regression analysis was also carried also carried out to compare the results of ANN and ANFIS
out for comparative performance. Compressive strength was models with the regression models.
satisfactorily modeled with given set of variables using ANN
technique. 2. ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK
Keywords -Blast Furnace Slag, Super Plasticizer, Artificial Neural A large number of interconnected processing units (also called
Network, Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Inference System, Regression as neuron) working on the principle of biological neuronal cell
Analysis. is called as Artificial Neural Network (Goh, 2002).Function
1. INTRODUCTION and structural aspects of ANN is same as a bunch of biological
neurons. ANN is advanced and standard tools to find solutions
A suitable value of compressive strength of concrete is the to a wide variety of non-linear statistical data complications
primary and most important requirement of hardened concrete (Hanna et. al., 2007).Interconnections among neurons are
to ensure satisfactory performance under service load. established by weights. The ANNs are arranged in three or
However, binding capacity, strength and workability of more layers (depending on number of hidden layers). The very
conventional concrete is often below expectations. To first layer is input layer, second layer is hidden layers and last
overcome this problemuse of admixtures in concrete are layer is target layer. Each layer of neurons has connections to
encouraged. Mineral admixtures increases the binding all the neurons in next layer. Each neuron receives an input
capacity of concrete (Huang et. al, 2013 and Nath&Sarker, signals from the previous neuron. Each of these connections
2011). In addition, chemical admixture are used to increase the has numeric weights associated with it. Figure 1 shows the
workability of concrete (Elsageer et. al., 2009 andJatale et. al., simplest form of ANN.
2013). Hence, this study takes into account the use of Blast
Furnace Slag (BFS) and Super Plasticizer (SP) into concrete
mix.
Variation in behavior of conventional concrete materials
and admixturein different places, vagueness in design
392 Y K BIND, Keshav Sharma, N N Harry and Y K Kushwaha
bias
x1 wk1 bk
Activation
x2 wk2 Function
vk Φ(.
∑xiwki yk
)
xm wkm
Where x 1 , x 2 , …,x m are input signals; w k1 , w k2 , …., w km A typical rule in a Sugeno fuzzy model has the form, if
are synaptic weights of neuron k; u k is the linear combiner input x = A 1 and input y = B 1 , then output is given as f 1 = p 1 x
output; b k is the bias ;φ (.) is the activation function; v k is the + q 1 y+ r 1. For a zero-order Sugeno model, the output level
induced local field or activation potential; and y k is the output f 1 is a constant (p 1 = q 1 =0).Likewise,If input x = A 2 and input
signal (Haykin, 2006). y = B 2 , then output is given as f 2 = p 2 x + q 2 y+ r 1. For a zero-
order Sugeno model, the output level f 2 is a constant (p 2 = q 2
3. NEUROFUZZY INFERENCE SYSTEM
=0). Butif outputf 1 ,f 2 are linear then we have first order TSK
There are various categories of neurofuzzy system which is fuzzy inference system. The output level f i of each rule is
essentially an integration of ANN and Fuzzy logic. However weighted by the firing strength w i of the rule. For example, for
Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) which was an AND rule with input x = A i and input y = B i , the firing
originally proposed by Jhang, 1993 is frequently used due to strength is
its simplicity and vast applicability. Fuzzy inference systems w i = And Method {µ A i (x), µ B i (y)}, i=1,2 (8)
are mainly composed of a rule base, a database and a decision
making unit(Habibagahi, 2002). The steps of FIS consist of Where, µ A i (.) and µ B i (.) are the membership functions
fuzzification, allotment of membership grade, rule base for inputs 1 and 2. The final output of the system is the
development by employing if, then reasoning and finally weighted average of all rule outputs, computed as shown in
defuzzification i.e. fuzzy set into crisp set. This is how an Equation 1 below
input variable x is fuzzified to be a partial member of the ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤 𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑖
Overall output = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤̅𝑖𝑖 𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 = ∑𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤 𝑖𝑖
(9)
fuzzy set A by transforming it into a degree of membership of
function µ A (x) of interval (0, 1)(Shahin et.Al., 2003). A
typical ANFIS structure containing zero order and first order 4. DEVELOPMENT OF CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
Takagi-Sugeno-Kang (TSK) model are shown below (Figure 2 DATA
& 3).
The concrete mix data used in this research paper was
developed in laboratory by casting cubes of Blast Furnace
Slag (BFS) and Super Plasticizer (SP) mix concrete. BFS and
SP were used as partial replacement of cement and water
respectively. Total 170 samples of cubes were casted to carry
out compression test. The discussion on properties of BFS and
design mix calculations are avoided here due to limitation of
space. The compression testing machine was used to break the
casted cubes of concrete for curing period of 3, 7, 28, 56, and
91 days. In this manner,seven variable data matrix was
prepared from BFS and SP mixed concrete. These variables
were cement content (CC), water content (w), coarse
aggregate (CA), fine aggregate (FA), BFS, SP and curing
period (CP).These seven variable were taken as input in both
Figure 2: Sugeno method of fuzzy inference system soft computing methods. The concrete compressive strength
(CCS) obtained from compression test was taken as target
parameter in both methods.
CC
w N1
BFS
N2
SP CCS
N3
CA
N10
FA
CP
(MPa)
0.4886. The higher performance of ANN model may be 40
attributed to higher number of inputs. However, same could be 30
the cause of underperformance of ANFIS that is it don’t work 20
well with higher number of inputs. Poor predictability also 10
depends on several other factors also like nature of input and 0
validation data, optimization of fuzzy rule bases and training 0 20 40 60 80 100
parameters.
Actual Compressive Strength (MPa)
Concrete compressive strength (CCS) of BFS and SP
mixed concrete was selected as dependent variable in multiple Figure 8b ANFIS Prediction for BFS & SP Mixed Concrete
linear regression (MLR) and multiple nonlinear regression
(MNR) analysis. Dependent variables were same as input in The values of gradients and intercept obtained from
case of soft computing models. The SPSS 20 statistical regression analysis are shown in above equation. The R2
software was used for developing regression models. obtained from compressive strength yielded by this multiple
linear equation and actual compressive strength was 0.5885
The multiple linear equation obtained from MLR analysis (Figure 9a). Multivariate power equation was adopted for
is gives as: MNR analysis. Same set of independent and dependent
CCS = 0.696+ (0.439cc) + (0.296BFS) - (0.636w) - variable yielded following multivariate power function
(0.375SP) - (0.378CA) - (0.434FA) + (0.499CP) (11) CCS = 2.032895cc 0.864565 BFS 0.476152 w – 72.328
SP –
0.06611
CA -0.1991FA -0.048406CP 0.215445(12)
90
Predicted Compressive Strength
80 y = 0.835x + 8.181 This MNR model yielded R2 = 0.7354 (Figure 9b) which
70
R² = 0.827 is higher than R2 obtained from MLR analysis. It shows that
multivariate power equation can model concrete compressive
60
strength better than multiple linear equation. Overall it can be
50
observed that soft computing method may satisfactorily model
(MPa)
0 80
0 20 40 60 80 100 70 y = 0.645x + 19.97
R² = 0.588
Actual Compressive Strength (MPa) 60
50
Figure 8a ANN Prediction for BFS & SP Mixed Concrete
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Actual compressive Strength (MPa)
Abstract—In this research work effect of plan and vertical torsional modes have great influence on seismic responses. In
irregularities of a 20 story high rise building located in zone-V have this study time history analyses of buildings irregularities in
been studied. An attempt has been made to investigate the responses plan and elevation is attempted using real time earthquake
of the buildings forreal seismic event that took place in
event of Loma Prieta 1989 recorded at Loma Gilroy station is
LomaPrieta.To investigate the seismic responses of the building,
modelling and analysis has been carried out in STAAD.Pro.V8i
attempted. In this paper lateral deflection, base shearand
(ss6).The building has been modelled with and without shear walls, acceleration are discussed.
and ideal positions of shear walls have been identified in the
building. Time history analysis (incorporating Loma Gilroy 2. MODELLING AND ANALYSIS
acceleration-time history) has been carried out as perIS: 1893-2002.
The results showa higher base shear, lateral displacement and 20 storey high rise building with structural height 62 m has
acceleration in case of the building with vertical irregularitiesthan been modelled in STAAD.Pro.V8i (SS6).Two types of base
that with plan irregularities. structures are considered viz., plan irregular and vertical
irregular. Plan dimensions of vertical irregular building at
Keywords: Dynamic analyses, Time-history analyses, Shear walls, ground floor is 24.5 × 24.5 mwhereas plan irregular building
Loma Prieta. is in T-shape throughout the height. Each storey height of 3 m
and framing plan grid of 3.5 × 3.5 m is considered in both
1. INTRODUCTION
cases.In vertical irregular building, vertical irregularity starts
Due to high population growth rate, rapid urbanization is at 29.0 m from foundation level with continuous setbacks of
taking place resulting in high rise structures to conserve the 3.5 m at each storey up to roof level. T-shape building has
urban land for other useful puposes. To beautify the cities, flange width of 24.5 m, flange thickness of 7.0 m, web length
large number of new buildings with unique design of of 17.5 m and web thickness of 10.5 m.Fig. 1 (a-b) shows the
structureshave adopted innovative aesthetics views like Icon isometric view of plan irregular and vertical irregular
Hotel in Dubai (Berahman, 2010), China Pavilion in Shanghai buildings. Further, shear walls are also modelled as lateral
(Yang et al., 2011) and BurjKhalifa in Dubai.Appealingly load resisting system in both types of buildings. Shear walls of
good structures usually have setbacks in plan or vertical or panel size (3.5 × 3.0 m) are modelled as surface element with
both. The discontinuity, setbacks which leads to reduced fine meshing continuing throughout the height of building.
lateral stiffness and high stress concentration due to sudden Many configurations have been modelledto optimize location
change in geometry. Setbacks also results in non-uniform of shear walls in each type of building. Optimum locations of
distribution of mass, which may have significant effect on shear walls are shown in Fig. 2 (a-b). Materials and geometry
seismic responses of structure (Lu et al., 2011). Determining of various structural members considered are shown in Table
seismic responses of structures with setbacks are quite 1.
complex since large number of variables are involved (Humar Table 1. Geometry and material properties of structural
et al., 1977). Therefore, in becomes important to knowseismic members
behaviour of these special structures when subjected to
dynamic loading. Many researchers in the past have studied Structural Thickness (m) Grade of Grade of
seismic behaviour of asymmetric structures. Aranda (1984) Member concrete Steel
compared the regular and setback structures in terms of Beam 0.3×0.5 M30 Fe500
ductility demand and observed that ductility demand of Slab 0.15 M30 Fe500
setback structures are higher. Khoury et al., (2005) performed Shear Wall 0.25 M40 Fe500
the nonlinear dynamic analysis on 49 storey asymmetric frame Foundation 0.5 ×0.5 M40 Fe500
level to 5th
structure and conclude that higher modes, specially the
C floor
Time History Analysis of Irregular Reinforced Concrete High Rise Building with Shear Wall 397
o 6th to 10th floor 0.45 ×.45 M40 Fe500 acceleration-time history recorded atLomagilroy station of
l 11th to 15th 0.4 ×0.4 M40 Fe500 Loma Prieta earthquake is used. Loma Prieta earthquake is
u floor one of the great seismic event in earthquake history that has
m 16th to 20th 0.35 ×.35 M40 Fe500 occurred in 1989 in San Francisco, California along San
n floor Andreas Fault. Its magnitude was 6.9 on Richter scale and
Maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). It was the
disastrous earthquake which took 63 lives, 3757 injuries and
caused 4000 landslides resulting in large damage to life and
property. Severe ground shaking occurred in Santa Cruz
Mountains where buildings collapsed and destroyed by ground
shaking and land sliding. Liquefaction occurred on poorly
consolidated deposits or man-made fill area at San Francisco
Bay area where many buildings collapsed. Recorded Time-
history at Lomagilroy station is shown in Fig. 3, which shows
the maximum peak ground acceleration of 0.36 g.
[M], [C] and [K] are the diagonalized modal mass matrix, Table 2. (b) Base shear plan irregular building for with and
modal damping matrix and modal stiffness matrix, without shear wall
respectively, and �𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡)� is the effective modal force vector. Plan Irregular
Direction Without Shear With Shear Wall
�𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑡𝑡)� = �−𝑥𝑥̈𝑔𝑔 (𝑡𝑡)[Φ]𝑇𝑇 [𝑚𝑚]{𝐼𝐼}� 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 �−𝑥𝑥̈𝑔𝑔 (𝑡𝑡)Γ𝑟𝑟 � Wall
X 7.81× 103 10.8× 103
{Φ}𝑇𝑇 [𝑚𝑚 ]{𝐼𝐼} {Φ}𝑇𝑇
𝑟𝑟 [𝑚𝑚 ]{𝐼𝐼}
Shear
Base
(kN)
Γ𝑟𝑟 = {Φ}𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟[𝑚𝑚 ]{Φ} = (5) Y 2.66× 101 8.02× 101
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑀𝑀𝑟𝑟
Z 8.17× 103 8.9× 103
Displacement response in physical coordinates
{𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)} = ∑𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑟=1{Φ}𝑟𝑟 𝑞𝑞𝑟𝑟 (𝑡𝑡) (6)
Effective earthquake response force at each storey
𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡) = [𝑘𝑘]{𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)} (7)
3. RESULTS
Seismic response of 62 m high rise building subjected to
dynamic loading has been evaluatedusing time history
analysis. Response in terms of lateral time-displacement, time-
acceleration and base shear are presented. Maximum
acceleration and maximum displacement in vertical irregular
building without shear walls was found to be 9.74 m/s2 and
188 mm occurred at 6.1 s and 6.64 s respectively [Figure4 (a-
b)], whereas maximum acceleration and maximum
(a) Maximum Lateral Time-Displacement
displacement reduces to 10.1 m/s2 and 124 mm occurred at
6.82 s and 6.88 s respectively [Fig. 5 (a-b)] in vertical
irregular building with shear walls. Figure6 (a-b),show the
response of plan irregular building without shear wall in terms
of maximum acceleration and maximum displacement as 7.37
m/s2 and 141 mm at 5.34 s and 6.82 s respectively. Figure7 (a-
b), show the response of plan irregular building with shear
walls. Figure7 show the maximum acceleration of 10.1 m/s2
and maximum displacementof 101 mm at 6.06 s and 6.6 s
respectively.Table 2 (a-b) shows the base shear for two cases
in global co-ordinate system. It can be observed from the
Table that base shear increases in global X and global Z
directions for plan irregular building with shear walls as
compared to plan irregular building without shear wall.
Whereas, in global Y direction base shear decreases in case of
plan irregular building with shear walls. Higher base shear (b) Maximum Time-Acceleration
was observed in global X, Y and Z directions for vertical
Fig. 4.Response of vertical irregular building
irregular building with shear walls as compare to vertical
irregular building without shear walls.
Table 2. (a) Base shear vertical irregular building for with and
without shear wall
Vertical Irregular
Direction Without Shear With Shear Wall
Wall
X 17.9 × 103 22.6 × 103
Shear
Base
(kN)
2
Y 2.73 × 10 3.51 × 102
3
Z 11.2 × 10 14.5 × 103
1. INTRODUCTION
Stone masonry is a traditional form of the structure which has
been used for the hundreds of years in the regions where the
stone is easily available. Due to the external effects, there are
formed losses in masonry structures. Many losses are caused
due to the failure of the unreinforced masonry buildings. The
main aim of the retrofitting is to provide the resistance to the
damaged construction instatedof repairing thus it becomes
reliable under coming earthquake occurrences.
2.3. Post-Tensioning
By introducing prestressed reinforcement along the vertical
member, the post tensioning technique is used to improve the
strength and ductility of the vertical members of the lateral
load resisting frame of the structure. This technique reduces
the cracking deflection caused under the service loads. It does
Figure 4. Surface Treatment Technique not change the appearance of the historical structures. The
method is costly and causes shrinkage of masonry.
2.2. Grouting Disadvantage of this method is that the external straps and
For the strengthening of the masonry structures Grout connections may affect the architectural aspect of the
injection technique is one of the most widely used in the structures and being a external element it is exposed to
unreinforced masonry buildings. Mostly, it is used for the re- corrosion.
establishing the bond in the cracks of the wall. The advantage
of this method is that it does not change the architectural
aspect of the building and the main disadvantage is that it has
high shrinkage and segregation.
4. DISADVANTAGES
Following are the disadvantages of the strengthening method
for unreinforced masonry structure:
1. Expensive.
2. High mass.
3. High disturbance.
4. High electric conductivity.
5. High segredation.
6. High shrinkage.
Figure 8. Unbonded Post Tensioned Slab 7. Irreversible action.
Abstract—Many changes and improvement in the Earthquake recommendations. Comparison of building designed according
resistant design of structure is done in past recent years. It results in earlier code is done as per revised code recommendation to
the changes in the Indian seismic code IS 1893 which is revised and check whether the building is safe or not safe. If any structural
drafted in year 2016, after a time elapsed of nearly 14 years. deficiency is found the building is retrofitted to withstand
In this paper we represents the seismic load assessment for multistory
building as per IS: 1893-2002 and IS: 1893-2016 recommendations.
expected design earthquake vibration.
Considering and analyzing the four storey RC framed multistorey The goal of this paper is to calculate the seismic forces
building. acting on the building as per IS: 1893-2002 and IS: 1893-
It is concluded that such study is done on individual RC framed
2016. And also comparison of seismic forces is done using
building structure which is designed using earlier code. To predict
the seismic vulnerability of building structure and to check due to both codes.
revisions and changes in the IS codal provisions the structure is safe
or unsafe.
2. CHANGES DONE IN IS: 1893-2016
Keywords: - seismic loads, IS: 1893-2002 RC framed buildings, IS: IS 1893 was first published in 1962 and it has been revised 5
1893-2016, IS codal recommendations times. Last revision was done in 2002 and presently, draft
code of part I has been released. The following significant
1. INTRODUCTION changes have been included in this revised code:
Seismic code help designer to construct and improve the (i) Design spectra are defined for natural time
behavior of structure. So it can withstand during Earthquake period up to 6 s;
effect and reduce loses. Seismic code are unique for particular (ii) for all building structures same design response
country and region. spectra are specified;
(iii) Bases of various load combinations are made
Seismic code consider the local seismology with consistent, with other codes;
recognized level of Earthquake risk, properties of raw (iv) Temporary structures are brought under the
material, methods and technique used in design and insight of this code.
construction of building. It shows the country progress and (v) Importance Factor provisions are modified in
development in the field of Earthquake Engineering. code;
The changes made in the IS code based on the observation (vi) A provision is introduced to ensure that all
and data collected from past Earthquakes, and Experimental buildings are designed and constructed for at least a
and logical studies done by engineers, researchers, and minimum lateral force;
seismologists. (vii) Buildings with flat slabs are brought under the
insight of this code;
As the continuous analysis and efforts put by researchers (viii) Additional clarity is brought in consideration how to
to study the behavior and performance of structure during past handle different types of irregularity of structural
earthquake leads to development and advancement in system;
designing earthquake resistant structure. Therefore, it is (ix) Effect of masonry infill walls has been contained
required to revise the seismic code time to time. IS: 1893-2016 in design of building frame structure;
revised after 14 years in year 2016. (x) Method is introduced for determining
approximate natural time period of building
The building design according to previous code are also
checked according to revised code as per IS code
406 Ravikant Singh and Vinay Kumar Singh
structures with basements, step back buildings and The detailing of the building is done according to the IS:
buildings on hill slopes; 13920-1993 and also provided with moment resisting frame
(xi) Torsional provisions are made easier; and (MRF). Moment resisting frame provided for lateral load
(xii) liquefaction potential analysis method is resistance and also infilled with brick masonry panels.
Simplified
The Zone factor, Z is 0.16 for seismic zone III. As the
3. DETAILS OF BUILDINGS building is official building, the Importance Factor, I is 1. The
response reduction factor, R is 5. The values of Zone factor,
The multi storey RC buildings are considered for analysis. The Importance Factor, response reduction factor are given same
building structure is analyzed as individually distinct system.. in the both IS codes.
The structural load calculated on each floor are Permanent The fundamental time period calculated using previous
load (include all the load on each floor), Weight of one – half and revised code is same as 0.28 sec. and base shear calculated
of the columns , Weight of the walls above and below the from both code as 832 kN.
floor , Some amount of live load which always act on the
building structure Table 1 - Lateral Load acting on building with height by the
Static method
The geometrical detail of the building is given and we
find the fundamental time period of the building structure by Storey Wi hi Wi hi2 x Wi h2i Lateral Force at i
th
using empirical relation as per IS: 1893-2002 and IS: 1893- Level (kN) (m) 1000 ∑ Wi h2i Level for EL in
2016. direction (kN)
Four storey building X Y
Considering RC framed building with 3 x 4 bay configuration. 4 4000 13.8 761.76 0.424 352.768 352.768
Consider a four-storey RC framed office building as shown in 3 5600 10.6 629.216 0.350 291.2 291.2
2 5600 7.4 306.656 0.171 142.272 142.272
Fig. 1.1. The RC framed building is situated in seismic zone
1 5600 4.2 98.784 0.055 45.76 45.76
III and soil is medium stiff. The RC framed building is
1796.41 832 832
supported on a raft foundation. The reinforced concrete 6
frames of building are infilled with brick-masonry. The dead
and live load acting on the floor of building is 12 kN/m2 and 4
kN/m2 respectively. The dead and live load acting on the roof
of the building is 10 kN/m2 and 1.5 kN/m2 respectively.
Increase the no. of storey and Calculate seismic load acting on
the RC framed building structure as per old and new code.
X Y
REFERENCES
Abbstract—Geosynnthetic materials ls have been exxtensively used for classifyy based on the techniques off production: either
e woven
impproving the softt soil. Geosyntheetics have becom me smart and most
m or non woven.
w
susstainable materiaal for geotechnical and environm ment applicationn in
thee whole world. The polymeric behaviour of prroduct makes thhem 2.1.1. Woven
W
suiitable for use in ground where high
h level of durrability is requirred. These cloth-like fabrics
f are made
m by the regular and
Geeosynthetic materrials solve manyy types of engineeering problemss. In uniformm ineterweavingg of threads in two directionss.
thiss paper, we focuus on the applica
ations of geosyntthetic materials and
a
its functions for soil improvem ment and construction purposses. Theese are mainlyy used for soil separation, reinforcement,
Geeosynthetic materrials have greatt potential to be used also as a cost
c filteratioon, drainage annd load distribuution.
effe
fective solutions for several en ngineering problems. Geosynthetic
maaterials are availlable worldwidee and activity is robust and steaddily
groowing.
1. INTRODUC
CTION
Geeosynthetic materials
m are man-made
m materials used to
im
mprove soil coonditions. It makes
m possiblle cost effecttive
envvironmental and
a geotechnical engineeriing constructtion
proojects. The woord Geosynthettic is derived frrom:
2. Types of Geossynthetics
Thhere are variouss kind of geosyynthetic materials which cann be
useed for differennt purposes .Few of the geosyynthetic materiials
aree as follows:
2.11. Geotextiles
Geeotextiles are defined as, “aany
perrmeable textilee used with fou
undation soil, rock,
r earth or any
a
othher geotechnical engineerin ng related material
m in ciivil
enggineering applications”. They are mainlyy the most used
geoosynthetic matterial. They aree generally maade fibres and can
c Fig 2:
2 Non-Woven Geotextile
G
410 Shivani Verma and Vikas Kumar
2.2 Geogrids
Fig 5: Geomembranes
2.5. Geocells
Geocells are mainly formed from polyethylene sheets and
expand out like an accordion when opened up to use. They are
meant to contain soil, gravel or other fill material within their
maze of cells. They are used in slopes with soft subgrades for
stabilization and in erosion control in channels.
Fig 3: Geogrid
2.3. Geonets
Fig 4: Geonets
2.4. Geomembranes
Geomembranes are impermeable polymeric sheets generally
made up of HDPE or LDPE used as barriers for solid or liquid
waste containment. They are used in different applications like
waste treatment projects, Water conservation projects, water
transport projects and landfill projects. Fig 7: Geosynthetic clay liner
2.7 Geocomposites materials have also been used as prefabricated vertical drains
(PVDs) and slope interceptor drains.
Geocomposites are hybrid system of any, or all of the above
geosynthetics types such as geotextiles, geogrids, geonets, 3.5. Reinforcement
geomembranes, geocells, geosynthetic clay liners, which can
Geosynthetic with high tensile strength perform the function
function as specifically designed for use in soil, rock and
of reinforcement. Geogrids are used to add tensile strength to a
liquid related problems.
soil mass in order to produce vertical or near vertical changes
in grade. Heavy geotextiles can be used to reinforce earth
structures by means of fill materials due to their high tensile
strength.
3.6. Barrier
Geosynthetic acts as an impermeable barrier to fluids or gases.
For example, geosynthetic clay liners, thin film geotextile
composites. Geomembranes are used as barrier to prevent flow
of liquid or gas.
Fig 8: Geocomposites 4. Conclusion
3.4. Drainage
Geosynthetic material act as a drain to carry fluid flows
through less permeable soils. Geotextiles will efficiently
collect superfluous water from structures, such as rainwater or
surplus water, from the soil and discharge it. Geosynthetic
Fluo
oride Remo
R val Teechniq
ques frrom
Grou
undwaater: A Reviiew
Shulbha Singh1, Athar Hussain2 and Mimansa Gulati
G 3
1
Studdent, B.Tech, Environmental
En E
Engineering, Ch Brahm Prakkash Govt. Engiineering Collegge, Delhi, Indiaa
Ch.
2,3
Environmental Engineering, Ch. Braahm Prakash Govt.
G Engineeriing College, IN
NDIA
E-mail: 1shulbhasingh@
s @gmail.com, 2atthariitr@gmaill.com, 3mimanssagulati@gmail.com
1. INTRODUC
CTION
Table1. Effects due to fluoride contamination This paper attempts to characterize the basics of removal
techniques of fluoride from water, followed by discussing the
S.no. Fluoride conc. Health effects most promising defluoridation techniques; bone char,
1. > permissible limit Effects neuro activated alumina, Nalgonda and finally these methods are
development in compared using indicators, which may be appropriate in
children developing countries.
2. 1-4 mg/lt Skeletal fluorosis
and fractures 5. DEFLUORIDATION TECHNIQUES
3. > 4 mg/lt / 12 mg/day Kidney injury due
to dehydration and Defluoridation refers to methods of water treatment that
polyuria
reduce the concentration of fluoride in the water, normally, in
4. > 1 mg/lt( range – 4 to 21 mg/lt) Dental fluorosis
order to make it safe for human consumption. The objective of
5. 50 mg/lt Suppresses
endocrine glands Defluoridation is to prevent or to mitigate endemic fluorosis.
like thyroid Defluoridation technology has to be simple, affordable,
reliable and operational. Defluoridation is defined as, “The
3. FLUORIDE MEASUREMENT downward adjustment of level of fluoride in drinking water to
the optimal level.” Various techniques of defluoridation can be
Addition of fluoride is certainly effective, but too much categorized into four:
fluoride can be harmful; therefore, it is important to have a
convenient Method for monitoring fluoride levels. Fluoride 1. Adsorption technique
presence in water is odourless, tasteless and colourless; 2. Precipitation technique
therefore the use of instrumentation is must for identifying its 3. Ion-exchange technique
concentration in water. Fluoride selective electrode is 4. Other techniques, which includes reverse osmosis,
considered to be the most reliable way of testing water for electro- dialysis
fluoride, though this method is difficult to do outside of a lab
setting. Fluoride selective electrode consists of a lanthanum Table2. Materials used in different defluoridation techniques
fluoride crystal (LaF6) which in the presence of fluoride ions,
experiences an electro-potential. Several methods have been Adsorption precipitation Ion exchange others
developed, out of which most of them are colorimetric tests by Carbon Anion exchange Lime, Alum, Electrochemi
which fluoride interacts with dyes and chemicals such as materials, resins: NCL Lime & cal method
SPADNS method, where fluoride determination involves the Activated poly anion resin, Alum (Aluminium
Alumina, Tulsion A27, (Nalgonda electrode),
reaction of fluoride with a red zirconium-dye solution. The
Magnesia, Lewatit-MIH- technique), Electro
fluoride combines with part of the zirconium to form a Tricalcium 59, Amberlite Alum flock dialysis,
colourless complex, thus bleaching the red colour in an phosphate, IRA-400, blanket Electrolysis,
amount proportional to the fluoride concentration. Though Calcite, Deacedodite FF- method, Poly Reverse
these are less accurate than an electrode method, they can be Hydroxy IP, Polystyrene. Aluminium Osmosis.
used in order to evaluate if a body of water is safe to consume. apatite, Cation exchange Chloride
Wood, resins: (PAC), Poly
4. TECHNIQUES FOR FLUORIDE REMOVAL Lignite, Defluoron-1, Aluminium
Activated Defluoron- 2, Hydroxy
Excessive fluoride level in drinking water in developing char coal, Carbion. Sulphate
countries poses to be a serious problem and its detection Fish bone (PAHS),
demands laboratory equipment, skills and analytical grade char, Brushite.
chemicals. Preventing fluorosis through management is a Processed
bone, Nut
tough task as it requires various favourable conditions. Several
shells,
water treatment techniques are known to be used in order to Avaram bark,
remove fluoride from the water however, many of these Tea waste,
techniques have failed to meet the requirements. In order to Coir pitch,
select an appropriate method of defluoridation to achieve a Fly ash,
sustainable solution for fluorosis problem, the provision for Bauxite,
safe, low fluoride water from alternate sources, either as an Serpentine
alternative source or for blending, should be investigated as
the very first option. In cases where alternate sources are not 5.1 conventional techniques
available, then defluoridation is the only technique to prevent 5.1.1 Nalgonda technique
fluorosis. Adsorption technique functions on the adsorption of fluoride
ions onto the surface of an active agent. Activated alumina,
activated carbon and bone char were among the highly tested
adssorbing agentss. After extenssive testing off these materiaals; 5.1.1.1 Merits and Demerits
NE EERI, Nagpur has evolved a simple and economical methhod Merits::
forr removal of fluoride thatt is referred to as Nalgonnda Reggeneration of media
m is not reqquired.
tecchnique in the year 1975 in response to fluuorosis concerrns.
Thhe methods are a based on n the additioon of chemiccals Noo handling of caaustic acids andd alkalis.
(cooagulants andd aids) and the subsequennt formation of Thee chemicals reequired are readdily available and
a are used
inssoluble fluoridde precipitatess. Its involvess the addition of in conventional
c m
municipal waterr treatment.
lim
me, bleaching powder
p and aluuminum salts followed
f by raapid
mixing, flocculattion sedimentaation, filtration and disinfectiion. Addaptable to dom
mestic use.
Aluuminum salt is i responsible for removal of fluoride frrom Ecoonomical
waater.
Cann be used too treat waterr in large quuantities for
com
mmunity usagee.
Appplicable in battch as well as in continuous operation to
suitt needs.
Sim
mplicity of design, consstruction, opeeration and
maaintenance.
Demeriits
Journal of Civil
C Engineering and Enviroonmental Technnology
p-ISSN: 2349-8404; e--ISSN: 2349-8779X; Volume 4,4 Issue 5; Julyy-September, 2017
2
Fluoride Removal Techniques from Groundwater: A Review 415
Abstract—In recent 20 years the environmental issues regarding urbanization, frequently discharging industrial effluent,
environmental problem like hazardous waste, global climate change, domestic and solid waste dump causes ground water gets
stratospheric ozone depletion, groundwater contamination, disaster pollute. This pollute water not only affects water quality but
mitigation and removal of pollutant have become the focus of also threats human health, economic development and social
environmental attention.
In this Dissertation work the quality of ground waters from
prosperity. So, the assessment of water quality is very
Indiranagar Gorakhpur and its environs was conducted between important factor for knowing the suitability for various
December, 2016 to March, 2017. This study was undertaken to purposes and continuous monitoring of ground water is
determine physical and chemical parameter of ground water sources necessary for the health of human, animals and crops.
(shallow and deep hand pump) in Indiranagar Gorakhpur, is as a
result physical parameters (pH, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Hence an assessment of the ground water quality in Indira
Electrical Conductivity (E.C), Temperature, turbidity) and chemical Nagar area is taken in the present study as the most of the
parameters (Alkalinity, total Hardness, Acidity, chloride, fluoride) in people are using hand pumps water for drinking. The objective
water resources were determined. Water samples were collected from of present work was to study the water quality of ground water
10 sampling points including 7 shallow hand pumps and 3 deep hand in Indira Nagar area of Gorakhpur district, UP, (India).
pumps (India mark hand pump). The result was compared with WHO,
and IS: 10500-2012 standards. The usefulness of these parameters Water covers about 70 percent of the earth’s surface, only
(Physico-chemical) in predicting ground water quality 2.53 percent is fresh water while the remaining is salt water.
characteristics were studied. Thus an attempt has been made to find The World Water Council also records that of the 3 percent of
the quality of ground water in Indiranagar area of Gorakhpur fresh water, only 0.3 percent is found in rivers and lakes,
suitable for drinking purposes or not, and what its impact on human
health.
1. INTRODUCTION
Water is a prime need for human survival and industrial
development. Ground Water quality is very essential in a
sense of practical utility for domestic, agricultural and
industrial purposes and plays significant role in the living
organism that existing in this world water. For many rural and
small scale communities, ground water is the only source of
drinking water. Assessment of ground water for drinking and
irrigation has become a necessary and important task for
present and future ground water quality management. Ground
water quality depends on the quality of recharged water,
atmospheric precipitation, inland surface water and subsurface
geochemical processes. Temporal changes in the origin and Fig. 1 World water scenario
constitution of the recharged water, hydrologic and human
factors may cause periodic changes in ground water quality. 2. AIM AND OBJECTIVES
The geology of a particular area has a great influence on
quality of water and its environment. The quality of ground The study aims to determine the quality of ground water in the
water varies due to a change in chemical composition of the Indira Nagar area in order to evaluate their suitability for
underlying sediments and aquifer. The modern civilization and drinking and domestic use.
Study of Physico-Chemical Parameters of Ground Water Quality of Indira Nagar, Gorakhpur 417
temp(0C)
7.3
December 15
7.2
pH
7.1 10 December
7 January 5
6.9
0 January
6.8
February B F H
6.7
A C D E G I J Sampling Stations February
Sampling Stations March
March
pH for India mark II hand pump
7.6 The temperature value of all the water samples analyzed
7.4 ranged from 180C to 260C (Fig.4.2). There was no (IS: 10500-
7.2 2012; WHO) guideline value for temperature to be compared
7 with. Ground water temperature for both shallow hand pump
December and India Mark II hand pumps (Fig.4.2) ranged from the
pH
6.8
minimum value of 180C (December,2016)to a maximum of
6.6 260C (march,2017) .
6.4 January
6.2 4.3. TDS graph
6 February
B F H TDS for shallow handpump
Sampling Stations March
800
4.2. Temperature graph 700
600
TDS (mg/l)
500 December
temprature for shallow handpump 400
300
30 200
100 January
25 0
20 A C D E G I J
temp (0C)
December February
15 Sampling Stations
10 January March
5
0 February
A C D E G I J
Sampling Stations March
TDS for India mark II hand pump Electrical Conductivity for India
700 mark II hand pump
600 800
500 700
TDS (mg/l)
December 600
400
EC (µS/cm)
300 500
January 400
200 December
300
100 200
February
0 100
January
B F H 0
March
Sampling Stations
B F H
February
Sampling Stations
1200 180
1000 160
140
800 December
120
600 100 December
400 January 80
200 60 January
February 40
0
20
A C D E G I J March 0 February
Sampling Stations B F H
March
Recorded turbidity values for ground water in the study hardness concentration level exceed the acceptable limit of IS:
area varied between 1 to 165 NTU (Fig.4.5).These Turbidity 10500-2012 But within permissible limit of IS: 10500-2012
values were obtained at Shallow hand pump (station-A, D, E and WHO guideline value. The hardness even in shallow hand
and G) and India mark-II (station- not any) respectively pump may be attributed to the contact with soil formations.
within acceptable and permissible limit of IS: 10500-2012 and
4.7. Alkalinity graph
WHO guideline value. And Ground water station B, C, E, F
and J, turbidity concentration level (13 to 44 NTU) exceed the
acceptable limit of IS: 10500-2012 and WHO guideline value. Alkalinity for shallow
But station H & I was highly turbid water, its ranged from 47 handpump
to 165 NTU (Fig.4.5). Thus making aesthetically unfit for
domestic and drinking water purpose, It was very poor quality 400
of ground water. 350
Alkalinity (mg/l)
300 December
4.6. Total Hardness graph 250
200
150 January
Total Hardness for shallow 100
handpump 50 February
600 0
Total Hardness (mg/l)
500 A C D E H I J March
400 Sampling Stations
300 December
200
100 January
Alkalinity for India mark II
0
February handpump
A C D E G I J
350
Sampling Stations March 300
Alkalinity (mg/l)
250
200 December
Total Hardness for India mark II 150
100
handpump January
350 50
300 0
February
250 B F H
TDS (mg/l)
100
90 1.6
Chloride (mg/l)
80
70 1.4
Fluoride (mg/l)
60 December 1.2
50 1 December
40 0.8
30 January 0.6
20 0.4
10 January
February 0.2
0
0
A C D E G I J March February
A C D E G I J
Sampling Stations
Sampling Stations
March
1.2
60 1
Chloride (mg/l)
50 0.8
40 0.6 December
December 0.4
30 0.2 January
20 0
10 January B F H February
0 Sampling Stations
B F H February March
Sampling Stations
March
Fluoride value ranged varies from 0.5 to 1.5 mg/l for both
shallow hand pump and India Mark II hand pumps (Fig.4.10)
during the study. The highest desirable level for fluoride
Chloride value ranged varies from 14 to 93 mg/l for both
stipulated for drinking and domestic purposes is within the
shallow hand pump and India Mark II hand pumps (Fig.4.9) range of 1 to 1.5 (IS: 10500-2012; WHO, 2004) (Fig. 4.9).
during the study. The highest desirable level for chloride
Fluoride values were obtained at both Shallow hand pump and
stipulated for drinking and domestic purposes is within the
India mark-II (all station) respectively within acceptable &
range of 250 to 1000 (IS: 10500-2012; WHO, 2004) (Fig. 4.9). permissible limit of IS: 10500-2012 guideline value.
Chloride values were obtained at both Shallow hand pump and
India mark-II respectively within acceptable limit of IS: 5. CONCLUSIONS
10500-2012 guideline value. Its indicates that ground water is
protected against certain kind of waste water treatment. In the whole study of this project the contamination of
physico-chemical parameter in groundwater has emerged as
one of the most prominent problems being faced by public
health engineering department, in particular and public at large
in both urban and rural areas. The assessment of the physico-
chemical parameter concentration in groundwater in 5. The appropriate testing facilities and field kits should
Indiranagar, Gorakhpur district revealed the following be made available to the people at reasonable cost.
recommendations and conclusions:
6. Any scheme for intangible from deep-water aquatic
1. The evaluation of physico-chemical parameter
material should be subject to monitoring of both the quality
concentration in 10 groundwater samples (including 7 shallow
and quantity of available resources and for the purposes of
hand pumps and 3 India Mark-II hand pumps) of Indiranagar,
irrigation there should be no intangible to the deep water.
Gorakhpur district, Uttar Pradesh, India has provided useful
Deep aqueous material can be drained if only a separate layer
insight into the extent of physico-chemical parameter toxicity
of soil separates shallow and deep water and preserves deep
in the study area. It was found that physico-chemical
water for a long period of time.
parameter (5 out of 10) concentration in 3 samples taken from
India Mark-II hand pumps was higher than the Acceptable 7. Deep hand pump should be constructed with adequate
limit of IS:10500-2012 and WHO guideline. And turbidity caution against cross contamination.
concenration India Mark-II hand pumps was higher than the
permissible able limit of IS:10500-2012 and WHO guideline REFERENCES
in With this in view, a detailed investigation about local
[1] Study on Determination of Physicochemical Parameters of
sources of physico-chemical parameter and mechanisms of Ground Water in Industrial Area of Pydibheemavaram,
physico-chemical parameter release is required. Vizianagaram District, Andhrapradesh, India
2. The evaluation of physico-chemical parameters [2] APHA (1998), „Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater‟, 20th edition Washington D.C...
concentration in 7 shallow hand pumps of Indiranagar,
[3] BIS (1992), Indian standard specifications for drinking water. IS:
Gorakhpur district, Uttar Pradesh. It was found that physico- 10500-2012
chemical parameter (5 out of 10) in 4 samples from shallow [4] Physico-chemical quality of ground and surface waters from
hand pumps taken monthly was higher than the Acceptable Bibiani and its environs was conducted between November, 2009
limit of IS:10500-2012 and WHO guideline. The use of and April, 2010 (FRANK'S FINAL THESIS)
groundwater for drinking purposes from contaminated ground [5] Assessment of Physico-chemical Water Quality Parameters of
water hand pumps should be restricted. Surajkund Pond in Gorakhpur City Sushil Kumar Gupta, Dr.
Govind Pandey
3. The test result of physico-chemical parameter [6] Physico-Chemical and Microbiological Analysis of Potable
concentration in 10 groundwater samples (including 7 shallow Surface and Ground Water Samples in Dubti, Amibara and
hand pumps and 3 India Mark-II hand pumps) of Indiranagar, Awash Fentale Woredas of Afar Region Status Of Physico-
Gorakhpur. The results of 3 station out of 10 (station A, D & Chemical Parameter Of Ground Water Of Gorakhpur City U.P.
G) physico-chemical parameter concentration are within (India) Priyanka Chaudhary, Kalawati Shukla, Jitendra kumar
Acceptable limit of IS: 10500-2012 and WHO guideline. But [7] WHO; UNICEF. JPM Technical Task Force Meeting on
Monitoring Drinking-water Quality.
other 7 hand pumps exceed the acceptable limit of IS: 10500-
Available online:
2012 and WHO guideline. It is very big issue for ground water http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Task-
contamination for Indiranagar Gorakhpur. Force- Meeting-on-Monitoring-Drinking-water-Quality.pdf
4. The test results (on the basis of physico-chemical (accessed on 9 July 2013).
parameter) of station E, F, H, I & J is very poor because most
physico-chemical parameter exceed the acceptable limit of IS:
10500-2012 and WHO guideline. The color of these stations is
highly yellowish and turbidity ranges 11 to 165 NTU which
are exceed all standard limits. So this station ground water not
must be taken directly for drinking.
Abstract—A kinetic study of the reaction of 2,3,5 trimethyl phenol low temperature and pH, reaction is very slow to study the
with formaldehyde has been made at 345, 350, 355 and 360K and at progress and at high temperature and pH polymerisation of
pH values of 9.8, 10.3, 11.0 and 11.5 using sodium hydroxide as product can occur.
catalyst. An overall second order rate law with the formation of 4,6
dimethylol 2,3,5 methyl phenol. Activation energy, E≠ and entropy Experimental
of activation, Sobs values were calculated using the linear plots of
log k versus 1/T. Effect of the polar nature of solvents i.e. methanol, Materials: Ethylamine(MEA), diethylamine(DEA) and
ethanol, isopropanol and 1,4 dioxan show that rate of the reaction is triethylamine(TEA) were from Sigma-Aldrich chemicals.
highest in 1,4 dioxan. Catalysis by Lewis bases, ethylamine (MEA), Potassium iodide, AR, was an E. Merck products, 2,3,5
diethylamine (DEA) tri ethylamine and tetra ethyl ammonium trimethyl phenol and tetraethyl ammonium hydroxide(TEAH)
hydroxide (TEAH) exihibit that MEA acts as weak Lewis base and used for kinetic study was a Fluka AG Buchs G (Switzerland)
TEAH as a strong base. A comparative study of the reactivities of products. 1,4 Dioxan and isopropanol were of spectroscopic
different phenols viz 2,4 xylenol, phenol, m-cresol and saligenin- grade (E Merck). Other chemicals sodium hydroxide and 4-
formaldehyde reactions reveal that rate is lowest in the case of 2-
tertiary butyl 3-methyl phenol -formaldehyde reaction and highest in
nitroaniline used were AR grade CDH (India) products. A
saligenin-formaldehyde reaction. The calculated and experimental German thermostat (model NBE) was used for rate studies.
values of second order rate constant at different temperatures and at Thermostat consists of a circular type steel bath and is
pH value of 11.0 agree well within the experimental error. provided with a tubular heating element. An electric motor
was used for stirring the water. The sensitivity of the
Keywords: Kinetic; Deprotonation; Activated complex; and Entropy thermostat was 0.05C.
of activation.
Method:
INTRODUCTION
100 ml of the 2, 3, 5 trimethyl phenol in 1:1, methanol –water
The resinous and non-resinous products formed by the mixture, was taken in a 250 ml round bottom flask .To this
reactions of different phenols with formaldehyde find large flask requisite amount of sodium hydroxide solution was
number of industrial applications. Therefore, a comprehensive added to give the desired pH. In a separate flask 100 ml of
kinetic studies of the reactions of 2,3,5 trimethyl phenol with standardized formaldehyde solution was taken and suspended
formaldehyde, undoubtedly would reveal useful information the flask in the same thermostat. After 5 minutes, when both
regarding the factors controlling the properties and production the flasks attained the temperature of the bath, the solutions
of phenol-aldehyde product and in elucidating the exact were mixed carefully and fitted with a water condenser. After
mechanism of these reactions. A review of literature reveals a definite interval of time 10 ml of reaction mixture was
that research works were mainly concerned with the detection withdrawn and placed in an ice-bath to freeze the reaction.
of major components formed during the reaction and Kinetic study in terms of the estimation of reactants i.e. 2-
preparation of the phenolic resins.1-6 The kinetics study of the tertiary butyl 3-methyl phenol and formaldehyde was made at
reaction of 2, 3, 5 trimethyl phenol with formaldehyde has different temperatures and pHs.
been the subject of slower growth7-14. In present work a
comprehensive kinetic and mechanistic study of 2,3,5 2, 3, 5 trimethyl phenol was separated from the other
trimethyl phenol with formaldehyde has been made at 345, reactants by preparatory TLC and estimated
350, 355 and 360K and pH values of 9.8,10.3,11.0 and 11.5 spectrophotometrically. Yellowish orange colour developed
taking into account the functionality (n) i.e., the number of by the interaction of phenol and diazotised p-nitroaniline was
available reactive positions on reacting phenol. Temperature utilised in the estimation. λmax of 550 mμ was used for the
and pH ranges for kinetic studies are chosen in such a way that estimation15.
the reaction can be studied moderately in the laboratory. At
424 PS Jassal
Prepration of diazotised p-nitroaniline : 0.5% solution of p- 11.0 and temperature of 345, 350, 355 and 360K and
nitroaniline was prepared in 2N HCl and 5ml of this solution comparing the same with the experimental values.The values
was diazotised by adding 0.5 ml of 5.0% aqueous sodium of Arrhenius parameters along with the entropy of activation
nitrite solution to get required indicator. Because of the can be calculated by plotting log k vs. 1/ T (Table 2).
unstability, every time a fresh sample of the indicator solution s
was prepared. Table 1. Overall Rate Constants k, at Different Temperature
and at Different Concentrations of NaOH ._
4) Comparative Rate Study of 2,3,5 Trimethyl Phenol- Activated complex formed is unstable and distorted and
Formaldehyde Reactions : its value is assumed to remain constant. Since Sph for 2,3,5
tri methyl phenolate ion is becoming increasingly negative
A comparative rate study of the overall second order rate
with of increase of pH and SAC has large postive value. The
constant values for 2, 3, 5 trimethyl methyl phenol, 2,4-
net result would be that the entropy of activation ( SObs )
xylenol, m-cresol and saligenin- formaldehyde 24 at 345, 350,
would decreases with increase of pH. The larger values of
355 and 355K reveals that rate of reaction is lowest with 2, 3,
5 trimethyl methyl phenol-formaldehyde reaction due to the energy of activation ( E ) at lower pH show that OH- play an
reason that tertiary butyl group is more electron releasing in important role in the reaction.
comparison to methyl group, so the electron density at the REFERENCES
phenol nucleus is greatly increased, that will not favour the
easy removal of H+ from the phenol nucleus. Due to ortho and 1) Sebenik A, Osredkar V and I Vizovisck Polymer 22 (1981) 804
para directing effects of methyl group, the approaching 2) I Stepanov J Therm Anal 39 (1993) 1375
electrophile will be directed toward the meta position of the 3) P Christijanson, A Koosel and H Lippmaa ( Estonia) Tallinna
phenol nucleus and which is not susceptible for an Technikaulik Toim 15 (1994) 744 [ CA 284974b (1995) 123
electrophilic attack. The tertiary butyl group, the steri 4) C Lucas, A Soum and M Fontanille Makromol Chem Makromol
Symp 66(1993) 297 [CA 3146153 (1995) 128]
hindrance by this group will be large. The electrophilic center
5) P S Jassal and A K Rakshit Ind J of Chem 39A(2000) 646
and hence rate would be slow. 6) Conner, Anthony H. Journal of Applied Polymer Science (2000),
Rate of different phenols-formaldehyde reaction can be 78(2), 355-363.
arranged in the following order: 7) Mitsunaga, Tohru; Conner, Anthony H.; Hill, Charles G., Jr.
Journal of Wood Scence (2002), 48(2), 153-158.
8) Swelam A.; Awad, M. B. J Ind Chem Soc Journal of the Indian
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9) Srivastava, Kavita; Kaushik, Manoj Kumar; Srivastava, Deepak;
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Mechanism: Due to inductive and mesomeric effects 2,3,5 10) Kang, Zhenhui; Tsang, Chi Him A.; Wong, Ning-Bew; Zhang,
methyl phenol in the presence of OH – acquires a negative Zhendong; Lee, Shuit-Tong. Journal of the American Chemical
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11) Tan, Song Ting; Huang, Zeng Fang; Liu, Min Na; Wang, Xia Yu.
ion and form the activated complex with the formaldehyde
Journal of Applied Polymer Science (2006), 99(3), 1269-1276.
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monomethylol 2,3,5 tri methyl phenolate ion and reacts with a 14) H C Malhotra and V Kumar, J Appl Polym Sci 23 (1979) 3575
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and OH is set free to further catalyse the reaction. In the London ) 1994, 740
mechanism suggested above, net entropy of activation ( Sobs 16) H C Malhotra and P S Jassal, J Ind Chem Soc 62 No. 9 (1985)
) is the sum of the entropy of deprotonation of 2,3,5 methyl 657
phenol ( Sph ) and entropy required for the formation of 17) H C Malhotra and P S Jassal, Proc Indian natn Acad 60A No.6
(1994) 777
activated complex ( SAC ) given by the equation (3):
18) H C Malhotra and V Kumar, J Macromol Sci Chem A13(1)
Sobs = Sph + SAC ----- ( 3 ) (1979) 143
19) D V Prabhu and N B Laxmeshwar, J Ind Chem Soc 72 (1995)
S ph of 2,3,5 tri methyl phenol and formaldehyde, is 859
invariably negative and its value becomes more and more 20) H C Malhotra and Mrs Avinash, Indian J Chem 13 (1975) 1159
negative as pH of the reaction increases. 21) H C Malhotra and V P Tyagi, Indian J Chem 16A (1978) 1052
22) Pan, Hui; Shupe, Todd F.; Hse, Chung-Yun. Journal of Applied
Table 2. Various Activation Parameters for the 2, 3, 5 Polymer Science 108(3) (2008) 1837
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International Journal of
24) Chemical Kinetics 41(9) (2009) 559
25) H C Malhotra and V K Gupta, J Appl Polym Sci 22 (1978) 343
Abstract—Fluoride in ground water can cause many health related Shrimp shell waste [5], Banana peel, groundnut shell and
problems and issues. The present study has been undertaken using sweet lemon peel [6], activated alumina [7], Phyllanthus
rice husk (RH), limestone (LS) and brick powder (BP) as locally Emblica [8], Citrus limetta [9], Bleaching powder [10],
available waste materials as an absorbent. The efficiency in terms of Chitosan [11] and other low cost absorbents. Some de-
fluoride removal from groundwater using above mentioned
adsorbents has been studied. Also the effect of pH on fluoride
fluoridation techniques developed to control fluoride in water
removal under different dosing conditions with these adsorbents has are reverse osmosis, adsorption method using sunflower plant,
been observed in this study. Results from the present study indicate bagasse ash, burnt bone powder, etc. as adsorbents. However
that the removal efficiency has been found to be 31%, 67% and 48% due to high cost, lower efficiency or non-applicability on a
using RH, LS and BP as an absorbent for a pH 6. The maximum mass scale, these techniques are not much in use.
removal efficiency of fluoride is observed to be 57% for an optimal Waste materials used as an adsorbent can reduce the cost of
dosing of 11 g/L, 56% for an optimal dosing of 15 g/L and 53% for fluoride removal and also it reduces the pollutants from the
an optimal dosing of 18 g/L for the absorbents RH, LS and BP environment. Various defluorination techniques, such as
respectively. membrane techniques, application of different chemicals and
Keywords: Rice Husk (RH), Limestone (LS), Brick Powder (BP)
adsorption methods have been used to remove fluoride.
Membrane methods effectively reduce fluoride concentration
1. 1. INTRODUCTION to acceptable levels [12]; however, these methods are
complex, require skilled labor, and demand high initial and
Presence of fluoride in the potable water is one of the maintenance costs [13,14]. The different methods so far tried
important environmental issues because of its adverse and for removal of excess fluoride from water can be broadly
toxic effects. Fluorine in the form of the fluoride anion (F-) is classified into four categories. a) Adsorptive methods, b) ion
found in the organic and inorganic compounds of the exchange methods, c) precipitation methods, d) miscellaneous
environment [1]. Fluoride pollution has been observed not methods. The main objective of the comparative study is to
only in various minerals processing but also in some natural estimate the effect of locally available waste material such as
water systems over large areas in Asia, Africa, America, and RH, LS, and BP as an absorbent on the removal efficiency of
Europe where the fluoride concentration can range from 0.01 fluoride from groundwater. The removal efficiency of the
to 3 mg/L in fresh water and 1-35 mg/L in ground water. The fluoride is compared on the basis of various varying
presence of fluoride in groundwater has drawn worldwide parameters like pH and adsorbent dosing.
attention due to its considerable impact on human physiology.
The assimilation of fluoride into the human body from the 2. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
ground water at the level of 1.0 mg/L enhances bone
development and prevents dental carriers [2, 3]. Groundwater samples were collected from different areas near
There has been an escalation in daily fluoride intake via the the college premises. Total 5 samples of different fluoride
total human food and beverage chain. Carbonated soft drinks concentration were collected. All the samples collected were
have considerable amounts of fluorides. Beers brewed in tested in the college laboratory and fluoride concentrations
locations with high fluoride water levels may contribute were measured as per standard method [15]. All samples
significantly to the daily fluoride intake and sweetened iced concentrations were measured in triplicates and average of
teas contain significant amounts of fluoride [4]. In absorption these concentrations has been taken. The initial fluoride
method, different absorbents are used for fluoride removal e.g. concentration is shown in Table 1.
Comparative Study of different Waste Materials as an Adsorbent for Fluoride Removal from Groundwater 427
Table 1: Initial fluoride concentration for different samples is observed to be 57% for an optimal dosing of 11 g/L, 56%
collected for an optimal dosing of 15 g/L and 53% for an optimal dosing
of 18 g/L for the absorbents RH, LS and BP respectively.
S.No. Source of sample Initial F- conc. (mg/L)
1 Private Hand pump 1.07 Further increase in the dose of adsorbent does not show
2 Borwell 1.30 any considerable improvement. Final fluoride concentration
3 Borwell 1.29 for different adsorbent dosing is presented in Table 2. The
4 Borwell 0.93 contact time for adsorbent dosing was kept 60 minutes and pH
5 Private hand pump 0.95 was kept at 6. The comparison of fluoride removal by
adsorbent dose is shown in Figure 1. Percentage removal of
fluoride with different dosing of the adsorbent can be shown
Rice Husk, Brick Powder and Lime Stone were used as an
in Table 3. It can be observed that the fluoride removal
adsorbent. The materials used as an absorbent were collected
increases with increase in dosing up to 11 g/L in RH, 18 g/L in
from nearby places.
BP and 15 g/L in LS.
Fluoride removal increases from 26% to 58% for 1-10g/L
Rice husk was carbonized in a laboratory oven at 250°C dosage of RH, 45% to 53% for 1-15g/L dosage of BP and
to 300°C for 4 to 6 hours. The partially carbonized material
16% to 56% for 1-15g/L dosage of LS. The maximum
was then carbonized in a muffle furnace at temperature 500°C
fluoride removal was observed by LS.
to 600°C. The material was cooled to room temperature. The
material was then washed with hot boiling water so as to open Table 2: Final Fluoride concentration for various adsorbent dose.
the pores of carbon. Completely carbonized rice husk was
further treated by acid treatment. Fluoride ion was estimated Dosing (g/L) Fluoride Concentration ( mg/L)
by fluoride ion meter and Batch adsorption studies were made RH BP LS
using jar test apparatus (Scientific Corporation, India) 1 0.962 0.721 1.092
equipped with stirring paddles with provision for controlling 5 0.8502 0.625 0.923
mixing speed [16,17,18]. 10 0.545 0.615 0.689
15 0.623 0.613 0.572
For Brick Powder, bricks were washed with distilled 20 0.848 0.618 0.897
water, dried and grounded to obtain a fine powder. The Brick
Powder was washed several times with distilled water till the
clear water was obtained and was dried in an oven at 110°C Table 3: Fluoride Removal efficiency for various adsorbent dose.
for 10hr.
Dosing (g/L) % of Fluoride
Limestone consists of gypsum. Limestone was properly RH BP LS
washed with distilled water to remove dust and was dried at 1 26 45 16
room temperature in the laboratory. The air-dried sample was 5 35 52 29
crushed and sieved with 0.075 mm diameter opening mesh to 10 58 53 47
obtain particle size <0.075 mm. 15 52 53 56
20 35 52 31
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In order to apply the adsorption technique successfully,
innovation of cheap, nontoxic and easily available adsorbents
are necessary. Bio-adsorbent prepared from agricultural waste
and industrial waste i.e. rice husk, brick powder and limestone
meet these requirements. Adsorption studies were performed
by batch technique to obtain the rate of adsorption. Under
optimum conditions i.e. dose of adsorbent, pH and contact
time for initial fluoride concentration i.e. 1.30 mg/L
Effect of Adsorbent Dose
The effect of adsorbent dose on the removal of fluoride ion
was studied by keeping fluoride ion concentration constant at
1.30rng/L. The response of the adsorbent dose on the removal
of fluoride by RH, BP and LS shows that an increase in the
adsorption occurs with an increase in the dose of adsorbent. Figure 1: Effect of adsorbent dose on the fluoride
The results show the maximum removal efficiency of fluoride concentration by RH, BP and LS
Abstract—Lignocellulosic waste (LW) is difficult to degrade methane-rich biogas. The methane rich Biogas generation
without pretreatment. Anaerobic Co-digestion helps in degradation of represents the most significant advantage of AD over
LW and hence enhancing the methane production. In the present composting. About 70 to 80% of the energy content of the
study, the optimum conditions for maximum methane production initial organic compounds is preserved in the methane, so
with the help of LW and Food Waste (FW) has been determined.
Biochemical Methane Potential (BMP) study has been conducted
growth in microbial biomass is lower for anaerobic digesting
under mesophillic condition (370C) during summer season with than aerobic, resulting in greater volume and biomass
different ratios of LW and FW, a control solution (inoculum) which reduction [3]. Although anaerobic digestion can be considered
is anaerobic sludge was used to enhance the microbial activities. The to go through in these four stages, all the processes take place
result indicates that, the co-digestion significantly effects the methane simultaneously and synergistically [2]. The ultimate product
concentration in biogas. The methane production is increased about of anaerobic digestion is biogas and digestate. In the present
93% in co-digestion of LW and FW in ratio 1:1.5 as compared to the scenario, anaerobic co-digestion treatment method which
mono-digestion of lignocellulosic waste. includes treatment of different wastes together emerges as an
effective and systematic way to manage organic waste and
Keywords: Lignocellulosic waste (LW), Anaerobic co-digestion,
Biochemical Methane Potential (BMP)
production of renewable energy simultaneously. Anaerobic
co-digestion of LW provides an excellent opportunity to
1. INTRODUCTION convert abundant bioresources into renewable energy.
Anaerobic Microorganisms were not able to digest LW due to
The energy need of rural areas in India is increasingly day by their intrinsic ability to degrade substrate rich in cellulosic
day and to meet this ever increasingly demand the most fiber. However, there are still several challenges that must be
efficient and compatible method, anaerobic digestion is overcome for the efficient digestion of LW [4]. As food waste
adopted. Anaerobic digestion has several advantages as an (FW) is a growing problem, and the disposal of it is
attractive method of waste treatment and energy production: controversial, causing increased food prices and the resources
low operational cost, energy production, pathogen control, and required. It can be utilized as a co-substrate for biogas
environment-friendly operations [1]. Anaerobic digestion production and enhance methane production.
consists of biochemical reactions in which biomass are
Biochemical methane potential (BMP) is a study done for
decomposed into biogas and digested by the help of different
a period of 30 days having a neutral pH, ranging from 6.5 to
microbial population through the biochemical metabolic
7.5, in which the known amount of substrate biodegrade under
pathways in an oxygen depleted environment. The process
optimal anaerobic conditions in the laboratory. The BMP
described in four phases Hydrolysis, Acidogenesis,
study is done in batch mode and in bench scale, measuring the
Acetogenesis, and Methanogenesis [2].In anaerobic digestion,
maximum amount of CH4 or biogas per gram volatile solids
initially, complex organic materials degrade into soluble
(VS) produced by a known quantity of substrate in anaerobic
monomers by hydrolysis and then followed by the acid-
conditions. The result from the analysis shows the
forming phase (Acidogenesis) in which formations of volatile
concentration of organics in a substrate that can be
fatty acids (VFAs) takes place. The next stage Acetogenesis
anaerobically converted to biogas [5]. Lignocellulosic is a
takes place through carbohydrate fermentation and the result
complex formation of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin [6]
consists of acetate, CO2, and H2. The final stage,
with a smaller amount of proteins and extractives which is
Methanogenesis is perhaps the most crucial step of anaerobic
soluble non-structural materials such as non-structural sugars,
digestion in which it plays a vital role in the formation of
Anaerobic Co-digestion of Lignocellulosic Waste Co-Digested with Food Waste under Mesophillic Conditions 431
nitrogenous material, and waxes. A lot studies were done to gas produced in the head space of the serum bottles was
enhance the methane concentration of biogas. The co- extract using a 100µL gas tight syringe and was analyzed for
digestion of cafeteria waste and cattle dung was analyzed in methane composition by Gas Chromatography (Agilent
batch mode and it was reported that 75% of organic solids has Technologies 7890A series) equipped with a thermal
retention time of 40 days. The average gas yield was 0.34 m3/ conductivity detector (TCD) and packed with molecular sieve
Kg VS [7].To enhance the digestion of lignocellulic biomass column (PORAPAK Q column) having dimension
the categorized pretreatment methods were mechanical, (6×0.12”×0.85”). The operational temperatures at the injection
thermal, chemical, biological or combination of them. The port, column, oven, and the detector were 750C, 600C, 2200C
benefits of pre-treating the biomass includes high biogas yield, and 2000C respectively. H2 was used as the carrier gas at a
reduction in digestate quantity, reduction in retention time, flow rate of 25 mL/min.
better energy balance and better economical feasibility [8]. As
LW required pretreatment before going under digestion 3. RESULTS
process. On the other side, FW having high carbon content
and result in acid formation which inhibits the growth of The physico-chemical characteristics such as Total Solids
methanogens and a biogas with less concentration of methane (TS), Volatile Solids (VS), Moisture Content (MC) and Ash
is produced [9]. The objective of the present study is aimed to Content were determined before the BMP study. The
find the optimum conditions for maximum methane following observations were calculated and shown in Table 1.
concentration of biogas in different mixing ratios of LW and The comparative study is shown in figure 1.
FW through co-digestion. Table 1: Physico-chemical characteristics of samples.
Ash in %
VS in %
MC (%)
TS in %
This study mainly focused on the rural area of India. Sample
WW
WW
WW
characterization was done by prescribed method in CPHEEO
Manual 2013. Collected organic solid waste was kept in a
freezer at 4 °C for reducing degradation before use. Greater
particle–substrate surface areas increase contact between Inoculum 95.65 4.3 2.80 0.16
micro-organisms and organic mass [10]. Thus, the microbes FW 68.49 31.51 30.16 0.07
easily degrade the biomass and enhance the rate of
degradation. Before BMP test, the substrate was analyzed and LW 34.53 65.47 50.50 0.76
the parameter like moisture content (MC), total solids (TS),
volatile solids (VS), ash content as well as carbohydrates, Inoculum has the highest moisture content of 95.65%
lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose were find outas prescribed while LW has the lowest moisture among the samples having
by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS No. 10158-1982).The a moisture content of 34.53. Total Solids and Volatile Solids
BMP study was done on Serum bottles of 125 mL with has maximum Concentration in LW.
working volume of 100 mL were used as anaerobic batch
reactors. The known amount of substrate and inoculum was
transferred to each serum bottles. Biogas production in each
serum bottles was measured on daily basis. Blanks (i.e. only
inoculum) were run parallel to these reactors (serum bottles) in
all phases of the study. Biogas collected at room temperature
was normalized to standard temperature and pressure (STP).
All the set-up were kept on the triplicate basis. Average values
were reported. The methane concentration or methane COD is
reported after blank corrections. Based on substrate VS % of
WW, the volume of inoculum was decided and filled into the
serum bottles, and then the substrate was added, and then by Figure 1: Comparative study of Physico-chemical Characteristics
adding the media, bottles were filled up to the working
volume, and remaining space was left blank to fill nitrogen gas BMP Data
to make anaerobic conditions. The experiment was done in
different ratios of samples as Control (Inoculum), LW, FW, The biogas and methane production for different ratios of
LW:FW (1:0.5, 1:1, 1:1.5). All samples were carried out in samples were represented in Table 2. The highest biogas
triplicate. For maintaining the anaerobic conditions, Bottles yields of 519.75 mL/g VS produced in FW while lowest of
were sealed with silicon and aluminum cap. Filled bottles 61.67 mL/ g VS occurs in case of S T. Methane concentration
were kept in an incubator at 37 °C. Total volume of biogas is highest in case of optimum ratio of LW and FW i.e. (1:1.5T)
measured daily with the help of frictionless glass syringe. The
Cumulative Biogas
Methane mL/g VS
Methane %
mL/g VS
Sample
Code
LW 40.40 14.20 35.14
Abstract—Rice straw (RS) contains high lignocellulosic materials of thermal decomposition [8]. Any cheap material, with a high
which are difficult to degrade. With a low moisture content of 6% carbon content and low in organics, can be used as a raw
and high C/N ratio of 52.15, it is suitable for thermal decomposition. material for the production of AC [9]. Thermal decomposition
This study compares the heating values of RS by Dulong formula, can be a viable solution for the RS.
Boie formula, Grummel and David formula, and Moot and Spooner
formula. Results presented that the energy recovery potential is 47.31 Anaerobic process is a process in which organic waste is
kW/kg, 51.84 kW/kg, 44.77 kW/kg and 53.82 kW/kg respectively. decomposed by the anaerobic microorganism under the
Also, the study evaluates the methane potential of RS by carrying out presence of an oxygen deficient atmosphere. Anaerobic
a batch study of RS. From Biochemical Methane Potential (BMP)
digestion is more economical and environmentally friendly as
study results, the heating value of the methane (CH4) generated from
RS can be calculated. The results show that the CH4 generated from
compared to the thermal decomposition [10]. AD is globally
the sample is 0.174 m3/kg and the energy potential of the CH4 recognized as a method to control greenhouse gases and use
produced is 8.34 kW/kg. The results indicated that the energy widely for energy generation [11-13]. By AD process, around
potential from the anaerobic digestion of RS is less as compared to 90% of biodegradable organic compounds can be converted
the thermal decomposition of the RS. into biogas [14]. From previous studies, it can be clearly seen
that the temperature, loading rate, design of anaerobic reactor
Keywords: Rice Straw (RS), Lignocellulosic materials, Thermal and inoculum rate and pretreatment methods can affect the
Decomposition, Biochemical Methane Potential (BMP) result of CH4 yield [15-19]. However, the energy potential of
the anaerobic digestion is less as compared to the thermal
1. INTRODUCTION
decomposition.
Due to the low nutrients value present in the RS, open burning The objective of this study is to compare the thermal and
of RS is preferred over animal feeding. Open burning cause biological decomposition. The heating value of the RS is first
many health and environmental problems [1]. With the calculated on the basis of the different formula of calorific
complex lignocellulosic structure of RS, it is intricate to value and then the CH4 production of RS is measured on the
decompose. Thus, RS has not been chosen as a substrate for cumulative basis by bench scale study. The resulted heating
energy generation. But with abundance production and crop value and cumulative CH4 production are then used to
burning of RS which causes a greenhouse effect, RS can no evaluate the energy potential of RS.
longer be overlooked as an energy crop and must be used as a
renewable energy source [2-6]. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
It is difficult to produce and utilize energy from certain The RS is collected from the different rural areas on the
biomass such as RS because of its complex lignocellulosic outskirts of Delhi. The RS sample collected is then ground and
structure and characteristics [7]. Therefore, a proper treatment place in the refrigerator before future degradation. Anaerobic
is required for the abundant RS production. Thermal sludge used as an inoculum for the seeding has been collected
decomposition is a chemical process in which heat is used for from the DJB waste water treatment plant near Pappankalan,
the decomposition of waste materials. Thermal decomposition New Delhi. Before BMP setup, VS, Moisture content and Ash
processes such as gasification, pyrolysis or incineration have content of the samples are determined by the standard method
been widely used to biomass for energy content [8]. Particle given by the Bureau of Indian Standards [20]. Carbon,
size, heating rate and temperature can influence the products Nitrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur and hydrogen are determined by
The Energy Potential of Rice Straw by the Thermal and Biological Method: A Comparative Study 435
the standard method [21]. The values of carbon, oxygen, sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen and Ash present in the RS
sulphur, ash content and hydrogen are used to calculate the respectively. Figure 1 and 2 shows the physical characteristics
heating value of RS. of RS and inoculum respectively.
A bench scale BMP study has been used for the CH4 Table 2: GCV of the RS by different formula
generation. 175 mL BMP bottles is used with a working
volume of 150 mL and anaerobic digestion is carried out with Formula GVC (MJ/kg) Energy potential (kW/kg)
F/M ratio of 0.5. The substrate and inoculum are filled on the Dulong 16.51 47.31
basis of VS concentration and rest of the bottle are filled with Boie 18.09 51.84
media. The bottles are tightly capped with aluminum and Grummel and 15.62 44.76
silicon caps for the anaerobic conditions. The bottles are Davis
placed in an incubator for a temperature of 30 ͦ C. All the Mott and Spooner 18.78 53.82
samples are running on the basis triplicate basis. Blank bottles
(without any substrate) have been running parallel to the RS Biodegradability can be affected by the methodology
bottles. CH4 production is measured on the daily basis and is used, inoculum source, storage conditions and activity of the
collected by the inverted serum bottle method [22, 23]. inoculum. Volatile solids (VS) and Ash content of the RS,
and Inoculum is determined before the beginning of the
3. RESULTS experiment as shown in Figure 1 and 2. It can be observed
from Figure 1 and 2 that the RS has more than thrice the VS
Proximate and elemental analysis of RS is presented in table 1. concentration than the ash content. Inoculum has more than
From results, it can be observed that the RS has low moisture
2.5 times VS concentration than Ash content.
content of 6% and high carbon, and C/N of 42.76% and 52.15
respectively. This shows that the RS has more energy potential
for thermal decomposition than anaerobic digestion.
Table 1: Proximate and elemental analysis of RS
Boie formula
Q= 151.2 C + 499.77 H + 45.0 S - 47.7 (O) + 27.0 N
…. (2)
A BMP study of RS has been carried out for 30 days and [3] Ghosh, A. and Bhattacharyya, B.C. Biomethanation of white
the CH4 production is measured on the daily basis. The data rotted and brown rotted rice straw. Bioprocess and Biosystems
obtained is summarized into the cumulative CH4 production Engineering. 20(4), 1999, pp.297-302.
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[4] Zhang, R. and Zhang, Z. Biogasification of rice straw with an
RS has low CH4 production. It may be due to the presence of anaerobic-phased solids digester system. Bioresource
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pretreatment. Also, it can be observed that the CH4 production
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The energy potential can be calculated as per the MoUD lignocellulosic resource: collection, processing,
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digestion is 8.34 kW. Bioenergy. 18(5), 2000, pp.369-389.
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