DISTILLATION (liquid mixture of miscible and volatile substances)

TYPES OF DISTILLATION COLUMNS

Batch Columns (Batch wise)
Continuous Columns (continuous feed stream, capable of handling high throughputs)

HUMIDIFICATION (increasing the amount of vapor present in a gaseous current. The

vapor can increase by passing by passing the gas through the liquid)

1. A steam comes into contact with dry air

2. Part of the water evaporates, thus cooling the interface.
3. Sine of the liquid then gives heat to the interface; therefore it cools.
4. Water evaporated at the interface is transferred to the air.

Cooling Tower (water to be cooled is put in contact with the air in countercurrent;
evaporative type heat exchanger and direct contact.)

Filings that improve contact and promote the exchange of mass and heat.

• wooden boards,
• plastic
• fiber
• cement
• ceramic
• glass
• resin

Types of Cooling Tower

1. Natural Draft
- air circulates through the chimney
- 100 and 140 m height
- 12% is the filings.
 - upper part is empty to increase the draft

2. Force Draft
- air circulates through fan or extractor

3. Mechanical Draft
- with small cross section and pumping height compared to natural draft

CRYSTALLIZATION

Terms
1. Crystals (solids arranged in an orderly repetitive array)
2. Crystallization (capable of producing very high purity products from solutions)
3. Crystal grow rates are higher at higher temperature.
4. The incorrect amount or type of impurities can cause cycling of the crystal
size.
5. Additives or the level of impurities are normally effective within a narrow
range.

Curve 1: exhibits normal solubility.

Curve 2: solubility of the solute in the solvent does not change with temperature
Curve 3: the temperature increases, the solubility decreases.
Curve 4 exhibits very steep solubility.

Formation of Hydrates - breaks may occur in solubility curves because of this,

Water is used as solvent.
Mass Of Solute Per Unit Mass Of Solvent - unit of solubility
Crystal size distribution (CSD) - measured with a series of standard screens
Differential Amount - size less than a particular screen opening, and greater than
the next smaller size
Process of Crystallization

• Evaporation of Solvent
• By Changin the temperature at which solubility is lower

Terms

1. Precipitate - result of chemical reaction between separately soluble gases or

liquids. (sodium sulfate, ammonium sulfate, and ammonium phosphate.)

2. Precipitation - called salting out because salts with ions common to those
whose precipitation is desired are often used for this purpose.

3. Foreign substances - may inhibit or accelerate (usually decrease) growth

rate or change the shape of crystals

4. Saturated Solution - one that is in equilibrium with the solid phase and will
remain unchanged indefinitely at a particular temperature and composition of
other constituents.

5. Metastability - sensitive to mechanical disturbances

METHODS BY WHICH THE SUPERSATURATION DRIVING FORCE CAN BE

GENERATED

1. Indirect cooling
2. Evaporation
3. Adiabatic evaporative cooling
4. Antisolvent addition/salting out
5. Chemical reactions
6. pH adjustment

Nucleation (generation of submicron-size particles or nuclei)

1. Primary - Does not involve participation of product crystals
a. Homogeneous – ultra clean solution
b. Heterogeneous – foreign bodies such as dust, filter aid, etc

2. Secondary - Product crystals are involved in nucleation

Growth
Mechanisms
1. The diffusion of the solute molecules to the liquid/solid interface.
2. Incorporation of the molecules into the growing crystal lattice
 ADSORPTION (It is the adhesion of atoms, ions or molecules from a gas, liquid
or dissolved solid to a surface.)

ADSORPTION SYSTEM
1. Column Contact (It uses a bed of adsorbent to purify solutions.)
2. Slurry Contact (use a powdered adsorbent slurry to adsorb desired materials)
3. Pressure Swing (adsorbents are used under varying pressures to separate
gas mixtures.)

DRYING (mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water or another

solvent)

1. Tray Dryers (Heating may be by an air current or conduction)

2. Tunnel Dryers (developments of the tray dryer, trays on trolleys move
through a tunnel)
3. Drum Dryers (also called conduction drying)
4. Fluidized Bed Dryers (maintained suspended against gravity in an upward-
flowing air stream)
5. Spray Dryer (liquid or fine solid material in a slurry is sprayed in the form of a
fine droplet dispersion into a current of heated air.)
6. Pneumatic Dryer (conveyed rapidly in an air stream, the velocity and
turbulence of the stream maintaining the particles in suspension.)
7. Rotary Dryer (is contained in a horizontal inclined cylinder)
8. Trough Dryer (contained in a trough-shaped conveyor belt)
9. Belt Dryer (thin layer on a horizontal mesh or solid belt and air passes
through or over the material.)
10. Vacuum Dryer (operate under a vacuum, and heat transfer is largely by
conduction or by radiation.)
11. Freeze Dryer (material is held on shelves or belts in a chamber that is under
high vacuum, material is first frozen)

EXTRACTION (difference in solubility)

Extract- solvent-rich phase

Raffinate - solvent-poorphase

MIXER- SETTLERS (Simplest way by means of mixing the two phases thoroughly in
one vessel and then to allow the phases to separate in another vessel.)

PROS
1. The stages are independent.
2. Can be added to or removed as needed
3. Easy to start up and shut down,
CONS
1. Emulsions can be formed
2.Pumping of one or both phases between
tanks may be required
3. Independent agitation equipment and large
floor space needs are expensive
SPRAY TOWERS
empty vessels with provisions for introducing the liquidsas dispersed or continuous
phases and for removing them.

Capacities of spray towers are high because of their openness, and they are not
bothered by suspended solids.

PACKED TOWER
cylindrical column, or tower, equipped with a gas inlet and distributing space at the
bottom

CENTRIFUGAL EXTRACTOR
uses the rotation of the rotor inside a centrifuge to mix two immiscible liquids

PULSE EXTRACTOR
uses the rotation of the rotor inside a centrifuge to mix two immiscible liquids

PRINCIPAL TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGER

1. Double-pipe exchanger: the simplest type, used for cooling and heating.
2. Shell and tube exchangers: used for all applications.
3. Plate and frame exchangers (plate heat exchangers): used for heating and
cooling.
4. Plate-fin exchangers.
5. Spiral heat exchangers.

Exchanger
all types of equipment in which heat is exchanged; but,

often used specifically to denote equipment in which heat is exchanged between two
process streams.

o Heaters and Coolers – process fluid is heated or cooled by a plant service

stream.
o Vaporizer – process stream is essentially completely vaporized
o Reboiler – heat exchanger associated with a distillation column
o Evaporator – used to concentrate a solution
o Fired Exchanger – used for exchangers heated by combustion gases
o Unfired Exchanger

Applications of Heat Exchangers

1. Intercoolers and preheaters;

2. Regenerators;
3. Automobile radiators.
4. Cooling tower.
 5. Heat pipes.

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger - one process fluids flow through the tubes of the exchange
while the other flows outside of the pipes within the shell.

Baffles - supporting the tubes and for inducing crossflow over the tubes
o To induce turbulence outside the tubes

Condenser

used to condense a substance from its gaseous to its liquefied state

Steam Condenser (condenses the steam to a pressure significantly below atmospheric.)

Cooling Tower

recirculating condenser water from a condenser or cooling coils

consist of

• a fan
• a heat-transfer medium or fill
• a water basin
• a water distribution system
• an outer casing.
Radiator (exchangers used to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another for the
purpose of cooling and heating.)

- three main parts: core, inlet tank, outlet tank

- major application: automobiles buildings and electronics.
o Compact heat exchangers (used in cars and heavy vehicles)
 The magnitude of the individual coefficients will depend on:
1. Nature of the heat-transfer process (conduction, convection, condensation,
boiling, or radiation)
2. Physical properties of the fluid
3. Fluid-flow rates
4. Physical arrangement of the heat-transfer surface