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Identification of Wild Edible Mushrooms from Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest

of Eastern Chota Nagpur Plateau, West Bengal, India

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DOI: 10.1007/s40011-014-0330-y

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Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., India, Sect. B Biol. Sci. (Jan–Mar 2015) 85(1):219–232
DOI 10.1007/s40011-014-0330-y

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Identification of Wild Edible Mushrooms from Tropical Dry

Deciduous Forest of Eastern Chota Nagpur Plateau,
West Bengal, India
Sudip Kumar Das • Aninda Mandal • Animesh K. Datta •
Debadrito Das • Rita Paul • Aditi Saha • Sonali Sengupta •
Sudha Gupta • Sandip Halder

Received: 8 November 2013 / Revised: 3 January 2014 / Accepted: 12 February 2014 / Published online: 1 March 2014
Ó The National Academy of Sciences, India 2014

Abstract Sixteen wild edible mushrooms collected from
tropical dry deciduous forest of Eastern Chota Nagpur
Plateau, West Bengal, India are characterised morpholog-
ically up to generic level considering fruit body and spore.
Nutritional assessment (protein, fat, carbohydrate and ele-
ment contents) of fruiting bodies revealed their utility as
nutritious food supplements. Results of food habit survey
suggest that mushroom consumption (18.0 % of total food
items) is restricted only in mushroom growing period
(June–October). Total of 8 mushrooms (Amanita sp. 2,
Astraeus sp., Termitomyces sp. 1–4, Volvariella sp. and
Lentinus sp.; price range Rs. 40–200/kg) are sold in local
markets. Sub-chronic toxicity test was conducted for Ter-
mitomyces sp. 2 and Lentinus sp. on Wistar rats at different
dosing (0, 1000, 2000 and 4000 mg/kg). Assessment of
biochemical and hematological parameters and
S. K. Das  A. Mandal  A. K. Datta (&)  D. Das  S. Halder
Cytogenetics, Genetics and Plant Breeding Section,
Department of Botany, Kalyani University, Kalyani 741235,
West Bengal, India
e-mail: dattaanimesh@gmail.com
S. Gupta
Pteridology-Palaeobotany Section, Department of Botany,
Kalyani University, Kalyani 741235, West Bengal, India
R. Paul
Department of Botany, Charuchandra College,
Kolkata 700029, West Bengal, India
A. Saha
Department of Botany, Narasinha Dutt College,
Howrah 711101, West Bengal, India
S. Sengupta
P.G. Department of Botany, Hooghly Mohsin College,
Hooghly 712101, West Bengal, India
histopathological studies of heart, liver, lung and kidney
indicate safe consumption of the mushrooms. A simple and
cost effective in vitro cultivation protocol of Volvariella
volvacea has been developed. Preservation of mushrooms
following salt, mustard oil and sun drying are found to be
effective. Present study suggests significant value of wild
mushrooms towards domestication and commercialisation.
Keywords Economic benefits  Food value 
Tropical dry deciduous forest  Wild edible mushrooms
Introduction
Edible mushrooms are fleshy fruit bodies of different
species of macrofungi, which are either hypogenous or
epigenous and can be picked up by hands. Edible mush-
rooms are used worldwide as supplementary food pos-
sessing immense nutritive values. They are also well
known for their medicinal applications [1–3] including
uses as anticancer, anti-diabetic, immune enhancing and
hypolipidemic properties [4]. Mushrooms are great recy-
clers and decomposers [5] and therefore play a significant
role in the ecosystem.
Edible mushrooms are economic mainstay of tribal
people and are essential forest products [6]. An edibility
criterion of a mushroom encompasses absence of poison-
ous effects on human and desirable taste and aroma [7].
This requires proper identification knowledge to ensure
safe edibility. It is well known that poisonous fungi are
frequently confused with edible mushrooms thus are
responsible for mushroom poisoning which lead to fatal
sufferings [6]. In the Sal forest of Eastern Chota Nagpur
Plateau of West Bengal, India, mushroom collection and
selling is an alternative source of income of the study

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220
region. The tribal women (predominantly Santal and Lo-
dha) collect the naturally growing mushrooms, commonly
known as chhatu, from the forest and sell them to local
markets, providing opportunities for cultural, social and
technical education in improving the quality of family and
community life by increasing income.
Despite importance of these mushrooms among the tri-
bal people in the study area, they have been rarely scien-
tifically characterised and documented. Nucleotide
sequence determination using ClustalW software was per-
formed for molecular assessment of eight mushroom
samples (CN 1–CN 8) of the study area (persistent fungal
contamination and DNA degradation were hindrance for
the rest) using Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS; genomic
fragment of rDNA) 1 and 2 primers [8]. Present investi-
gation is undertaken to provide a comprehensive knowl-
edge to the local tribal people regarding the value of 16
naturally growing wild edible mushrooms. The study use
morphological attributes of fruit bodies and spores to
delineate the taxa to genus level. It also covers their
nutritional aspects as well as economic benefits associated
to local people. Furthermore, cultivation, cost effective
preservation protocol and toxic effect for two mushroom
genera are also discussed.
Material and Methods
Study Area
Sixteen morphologically different types (sample designated
as CN 1–CN 16) of wild edible mushrooms from natural
habitat were collected from tropical dry deciduous forest
(predominantly with Sal vegetation) of Eastern Chota Nag-
pur Plateau of West Bengal, India (Table 1). The study area
comprises of 3 districts (Fig. 1) namely, Paschim Medinipur
(Jhargram: latitude 22°430 N, longitude 86°980 E, altitude
81 m above sea level; Belpahari: latitude 22°630 N, longitude
86°760 E, altitude 83 m; Gidhni: latitude 22°450 N, longitude
86°880 E, altitude 82 m; temperature 20–38 °C, humidity
70–80 %, rainfall 252.4–296.2 mm); Bankura (Khatra: lat-
itude 22°980 N, longitude 86°850 E, altitude 154 m; Rani-
bandh: latitude 22°860 N, longitude 86°780 E, altitude 162 m;
Bankura: latitude 23°250 N, longitude 87°070 E, altitude
78 m; temperature 19–39 °C, humidity 74–90 %, rainfall
265.5–285.3 mm) and Purulia (Baghmundi: latitude
23°200 N, longitude 86°050 E, altitude 208 m; Barabazar:
latitude 23°360 N, longitude 86°650 E, altitude 229 m; tem-
perature 19–40 °C, humidity 74–88 %, rainfall
233.6–275.3 mm). Agro climatic attributes are average of
5 months from June to October and are obtained from the
Agro meteorological Department, Bidhan Chandra Krishi
Viswa Vidyalaya, Nadia, West Bengal. All the study areas
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S. K. Das et al.
belong to red lateritic zone possessing fine to coarse loamy
soil dominated by Santal and Lodha. Mushroom collections
were made during rainy (June–July) and post rainy (August–
October) seasons of 3 consecutive years (2009–2011).
Morphological Studies of Fruit Bodies
Morphological parameters (characteristic features of
pileus, lamellae, stipe, spore morphology and colour) of
each collected mushroom were assessed from fresh sam-
ples. Photographs were taken from natural habitat as well
as under laboratory conditions. Morphological character-
istics were described according to the methodology sug-
gested by Largent and Stuntz [9]. Spore surface of different
mushrooms were studied using Scanning Electron Micro-
scope (EVOÒ-40, CarlZeiss SMT Ltd.).
Assessment of Nutritive Value
Total protein (extraction following Osborne [10] and esti-
mation as per Lowry et al. [11]), carbohydrate [12] and fat
[13] contents were quantified in each mushroom sample (in
each case 3 replicas were made and average data has been
presented).
Detection of Elements in Fruit Bodies
All mushroom samples were sundried as well as dried in an
oven (80 °C) for 4 h. The dried mushrooms were powdered
homogenously using mortar and pestle. Powdered samples
(2 g for each) were taken in beakers and digested with
concentrated nitric acid and perchloric acid (4:1 ratio). The
mixture was placed on a hot plate, set at 135 °C for 2 h.
The clear digested samples were filtered through What-
manTM filter paper No. 1 and the filtrates made up to 25 ml
each with nitric acid. The digested mushroom samples
were analysed for elements using a graphite furnace and
atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Sensa Xii 75, Aus-
tralia) and flame photometer.
Assessment of Economic Benefits
Food Habit Survey
Survey regarding consumption of food type apart from the
main food rice (during lunch) and roti (dinner) was con-
ducted in the study area from randomly selected 100 families
distributed in Belpahari and Binpur (adjoining to Jhargram)
of Paschim Medinipur, Ranibandh of Bankura and Baghm-
undi of Purulia districts. The selected villages are adjoining
to the forest and predominantly comprise of Santal and rarely
Lodha tribes of people. Families were selected on the basis of
their complete dependency on natural forest products and on
 Table 1 Morphological comparison of gill mushrooms among the collected samples
Sample Pileus Lamellae Stipe Spore
no.
Size in Colour Colour of gills Colour Size Veils Morphology Colour
diameter and attachment (length 9 diameter)
(cm) of stipe (cm)

CN 1 6.0–10.0 Centre-orange, Creamy white, Maize 8.0–12.0 9 0.8–0.12 Annulus and Sub-prolate, size: 28.51 ± 1.4 9 24.64 ± 1.2 lm, White
margin-yellow free yellow volva surface wrinkled, non utriculate
Value of Wild Mushrooms

present
CN 2 7.0–11.0 Off white White, free Pale white 9.0–18.0 9 1.0–2.0 Annulus and Sub-prolate, size: 51.2 ± 0.5 9 41.3 ± 0.4 lm, White
volva surface wrinkled, non utriculate
present
CN 3 – – – – – – Prolate-spheroidal, size: 6.1 ± 0.2 9 5.9 ± 0.2 lm Cocoa brown
CN 4 5.5–8.0 Creamy white, centre White White 3.0–5.0 9 1.0–2.0 Absent Prolate-spheroidal,, size: 9.7 ± 0.7 9 8.9 ± 0.6 lm, Light pink
blackish or greyish surface smooth, non-porate, closely covered by utricle
CN 5 4.0–10.0 Creamy white, centre White White 12.0–35.0 9 1.0–2.5 Annulus Oblate-spheroidal, size: 6.2 ± 0.7 9 6.7 ± 0.5 lm, Light pink
blackish or greyish present utriculate, porate, pore elongated
CN 6 1.2–2.0 Creamy white, centre White White 3.0–5.0 9 0.15–0.3 Absent Prolate-spheroidal, size: 18.3 ± 1.5 9 17.0 ± 1.2 lm, Light pink
blackish or greyish smooth, non-porate, loosely covered by utricle
CN 7 0.4–1.0 Creamy white, centre White White 0.5–1.5 9 0.1 Absent Prolate, size: 7.5 ± 0.5 9 5.5 ± 0.5 lm Light pink
blackish or greyish
CN 8 8.0–15.0 White with brown at Pinkish brown White 7.0–14.0 9 1.0–1.8 Volva present Prolate, size: 57.5 ± 0.5 9 5.5 ± 0.5 lm, smooth, Brownish-pink
centre non-utriculate
CN 9 3.0–5.0 White to pale grey Blackish Pale white 3.0–5.0 9 0.8–1.0 Annulus Prolate, size: 8.8 ± 0.7 9 6.0 ± 0.6 lm, surface Blackish brown
brown, free present smooth, non-utriculate
CN 10 – – – – – – Sub-prolate, size: 5.0 ± 0.2 9 4.2 ± 0.3 lm, Dull yellow brown
verrucose ornamentation, verrucae small to tobacco brown
CN 11 4.0–7.0 Off white to grey White, free Off white 4.0–8.5 9 0.3–0.4 Volva present Prolate-spherical, size: 8.9 ± 0.5 9 8.1 ± 0.5 lm, White
Author's personal copy

to grey smooth, non-utriculate

CN 12 3.0–5.0 White to pale grey Blackish- Off white 1.5–2.5 9 0.3–0.5 Absent Sub-prolate, size: 3.2 ± 0.2 9 2.5 ± 0.3 lm, wrinkled, White
brown, to pale utriculate, non-porate
decurrent grey
CN 13 3.5–8.0 White White to light White 2.5–5.0 9 0.8–1.0 Absent Sub-prolate, size: 8.3 ± 0.2 9 6.5 ± 0.5 lm, smooth, White
grey utriculate, non-porate
CN 14 3.0–7.0 Blackish Blackish Brownish 3.0–5.0 9 0.7–1.2 Absent Sub-prolate, size: 8.2 ± 0.3 9 6.9 ± 0.2 lm, surface White
brown, smooth, non-utriculate
decurrent
CN 15 2.5–5.0 Red White, free White 2.0–4.0 9 0.7–1.2 Absent Sub-prolate, size: 8.6 ± 0.4 9 7.4 ± 0.7 lm, striate White
and reticulate ornamentation, non-utriculate
CN 16 2.5–5.0 Blackish brown White to grey, White 2.0–4.0 9 0.7–1.2 Absent Prolate-spheroidal, size: 9.6 ± 0.3 9 8.5 ± 0.4 lm, White
free verrucose ornamentation, non-utriculate
221

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222 S. K. Das et al.

Fig. 1 Map of West Bengal

depicting the study area (1)
Jhargram, (2) Belpahari, (3)
Gidhni, (4) Binpur, (5) Khatra,
(6) Ranibandh, (7) Bankura, (8)
Baghmundi, (9) Barabazar

their willingness to participate in the survey. Each family
comprises of 4–9 members (data collected from each mem-
ber). Age group of family members ranged from 7 to
[70 years. All surveyed families were below poverty line as
per Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of
India (10th Five Year Planning—Rural) and mostly (98.0 %)
did not possess any primary school education.
Foods consumed were broadly classified into categories
namely, pulses (seeds of lentil, gram, pea, pigeon pea etc.),
tubers (potato, yam, arum etc.), leafy vegetables (different
leaves specifically arum), fruit vegetables (brinjal, tomato,
pumpkin, fig, gourd, etc.), legumes (beans, yard long beans
etc.), mushrooms (fruit bodies of the collected mushrooms
under investigation) and animal products (fishes, egg,
chicken, snails, wild animals and birds). The chief objective
of the survey was to constitute an idea regarding the signif-
icance of mushroom consumption in relation to other foods
by taking local inhabitants in account. Data were collected
during mushroom growing season (June–October) as well as
during pre- (April–May) and post (November–March)
mushroom growing seasons in the year 2009, 2010 and 2011.
Market Survey
Eight markets namely, Jhargram, Belpahari and Gidhni of
Paschim Medinipur, Khatra, Ranibandh and Bankura of

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Value of Wild Mushrooms
Bankura and Baghmundi and Barabazar of Purulia districts
were surveyed each day during mushroom availability
period for 3 consecutive years. During market survey it was
specially noted about the type, quantity and price variation
of mushroom sold. Data was directly obtained from
mushroom selling vendors of the markets. Vendors as well
as consumers both represent ethnic group of people who
are below poverty line.
Toxicity Analysis
Experiment
Sub-chronic toxicity test (28th day from dose initiation) was
conducted for two mushrooms (CN 5—Termitomyces sp. 2
and CN 12—Lentinus sp.) with Wistar rats in accordance to
the schedule Y of drugs and cosmetic act (1940) to assess,
the adverse effects caused due to mushroom consumption.
The two most frequently found and widely consumed
mushrooms Termitomyces sp. and Lentinus sp. were
assessed. Both mushrooms are sold in market at relatively
low to moderate price rate (Rs. 40–100/kg). The experiment
involved 24 male and female rats (6–8 weeks old). Doses of
0, 1000, 2000 and 4,000 mg/kg in the dose volume of 1 ml/
100 g body weight (6 animals/sex/dose) were administered
orally. The animals were allowed 7 days period to accli-
matise with laboratory conditions prior to dosing. Rats were
grouped into six per cage, sex wise and the individual
animal was fur marked with picric acid. The females were
nulliparous and not pregnant. The cages were polycarbon-
ated and provided with husk bedding (temperature
20–24 °C; humidity 30.0–70.0 %; 12 h dark and 12 h light
cycles maintained).
Investigation
All animals were observed twice daily for mortality during
the period of study. Blood samples were collected in the
morning (fasted over night) from orbital sinus using hep-
arin as anticoagulant.
Necropsy
All animals were sacrificed on 29th day from dosing using
CO2 asphyxiation technique. Necropsy of heart, liver, kid-
neys, and lungs was carried out on all animals. The organ
weights were recorded as absolute values and their relative
values (i.e. percent of the body weight) were also calculated.
Histopathology
Heart, liver, kidney and lungs of control and higher dose
animals (4,000 mg/kg) were examined histopathologically
223
(tissues were preserved in 10 % formalin) to assess any
abnormalities associated with them.
Mushroom Cultivation
Mycelia were developed from fruit bodies (pieces of
5 mm 9 2 mm samples were taken from internal portion
and grown under aseptic condition) for all samples in malt
agar media (2 % malt extract and 2 % agar powder). The
mycelia of each mushroom were inoculated in sterile wheat
media (grains mixed with 2 % calcium sulphate and 4 %
calcium carbonate in 1:3 ratio, pH 7.8) for spawn devel-
opment in polythene bags as well as in glass containers.
Paddy straw was used as the substrate material for fruit
body development. For this purpose 2.5 kg fresh dry paddy
straw was cut into pieces of 18 inch length. The straw was
then soaked in sufficient fresh water for 12 h. Excess water
from the straw was removed by spreading on sieve made of
fine wire mesh. One bed with four layers was prepared by
the soaked straw. The straw pieces were placed in opposite
direction in each layer. The bed was placed on a clean
polythene paper in a shaded semi-dark condition (temper-
ature 27 ± 1 °C, relative humidity 70–80 %). The small
pieces (10–15 g) of spawn were placed (inoculation) in
each layer through the side line of the bed. Total 200 g
spawn was inoculated in a bed. The bed was covered by
transparent polythene. The growth of the mycelium was
observed. After 15th day of inoculation the polythene was
removed. Mature fruit body was developed after
25–27 days of inoculation.
Mushroom Preservation
For preservation of wild mushrooms 3 cost effective
methods were followed (1) mushrooms were preserved
directly in powdered salt and in different concentrations (5,
10, 15 and 20 %) of NaCl, (2) preserved in 100 % pure
mustard oil in glass bottle and exposed under sunlight
during day time and (3) collected mushrooms were dried
under direct sunlight. Quality of the preserved mushroom
samples was assessed by organoleptic method following
cooking at an interval of 10–12 days.
Results and Discussion
Morphology
Sixteen (CN 1–CN 16) mushrooms are described based on
morphological features of fruit bodies and spores and
presented in Table 1 (Figs. 2a–p, 3a–f).
Morphologically CN 3 and CN 10 are characteristically
different from other samples. The mushroom sample CN 3
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 Author's personal copy
224
Fig. 2 Fruit bodies of mushrooms. a CN 1: Amanita sp. 1, b CN 2:
Amanita sp. 2, c CN 3: Astraeus sp., d CN 4: Termitomyces sp. 1,
e CN 5: Termitomyces sp. 2, f CN 6: Termitomyces sp. 3, g CN 7:
Termitomyces sp. 4, h CN 8: Volvariella sp., i CN 9: Agaricus sp.,
showed globose, sub-epigenous, sessile fruit body,
2.5–3.0 cm in diameter, splitting to become star shaped,
covered with thin, white mycelial layer when unexpanded; it
tears away at maturity, often partly encrusted with soil debris;
with slight odour when fresh. Fruit body of CN 10 was sub-
globose, cushion shaped to turbinate, 4.0–6.0 cm tall,
6.0–8.0 cm broad, abruptly tapered towards the base, some-
times with a root like attachment to the substrate. Both the
123
S. K. Das et al.
j CN 10: Calvatia sp., k CN 11: Amanita sp. 3, l CN 12: Lentinus sp.,
m CN 13: Russula sp. 1, n CN 14: Russula sp. 2, o CN 15: Russula sp.
3, and p CN 16: Russula sp. 4
mushroom samples possessed outer peridium, endoperidium
and gleba. On the basis of morphological characterisation, it is
concluded that CN 3 and CN 10 are Astraeus sp. (Family:
Diplocystaceae) and Calvatia sp. (Agaricaceae) respectively.
Morphological characterisation of mushroom samples
indicate that some samples belong to same genus (CN 1,
CN 2 and CN 11—Amanita spp.—family: Amanitaceae;
CN 13–16—Russula spp.—Russulaceae; CN 4–7—
 Author's personal copy
Value of Wild Mushrooms 225

Fig. 3 Scanning electron micrographs of different mushroom spores a CN 6: Termitomyces sp. 3, b CN 9: Agaricus sp., c CN 11: Amanita sp. 3,
d CN 13: Russula sp. 1, e CN 15: Russula sp. 3, and f CN 16: Russula sp. 4

Termitomyces spp.—Lyophyllaceae). They could be different
at species level. From the ecological point of view Amanita sp.
1 and 2, Astraeus sp., Calvatia sp., Amanita sp. 3, and Russula
sp. 1–4 show ectomycorrhizal association with Shorea
robusta; while, Termitomyces sp. 1–4 are symbiotic with
termites. Sample CN 8 (Volvariella sp.—Pluteaceae) and CN
12 (Lentinus sp.—Polyporaceae) are lignicolous and CN 9
(Agaricus sp.—Agaricaceae) is saprotrophic in nature. Roy
and Samajpati [14] reported 4 Russula spp. and A. hemibapha
(white form) from Bankura district, West Bengal, adjoining to
the location of present study. CN 1 identified as Amanita
species (pileus orange at centre, yellow at margin) resembles
A. hemibapha morphologically excepting pileus colour. Jana
and Purkayastha [15] collected R. delica from a market of
Medinipur. Edible fleshy fungi were also reported and
described earlier [16–20]. CN 6 and CN 8 are found to match
with the morphological description provided by Johnsy et al.
[21] for T. microcarpus and Volvariella volvacea respectively.
Although modern identification is quickly becoming molec-
ular, the standard method for identification up to genus level
may still be accomplished by using morphological guidelines,
and can easily be disseminated among people.

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226 S. K. Das et al.

Table 2 Protein, carbohydrate

Sample no. Mushroom Protein Carbohydrate Fat
and fat content (g/100 g dry
weight) in the studied CN 1 Amanita sp. 1 18.35 42.56 1.78
mushrooms
CN 2 Amanita sp. 2 19.35 41.95 1.86
CN 3 Astraeus sp. 18.67 40.24 2.06
CN 4 Termitomyces sp. 1 28.45 42.44 1.49
CN 5 Termitomyces sp. 2 29.34 40.33 1.23
CN 6 Termitomyces sp. 3 22.45 39.95 1.45
CN 7 Termitomyces sp. 4 23.32 41.54 1.15
CN 8 Volvariella sp. 28.92 44.67 2.46
CN 9 Agaricus sp. 26.89 35.25 1.95
CN 10 Calvatia sp. 15.78 38.45 1.24
CN 11 Amanita sp. 3 18.57 38.76 1.58
CN 12 Lentinus sp. 23.76 45.34 1.85
CN 13 Russula sp. 1 20.65 38.35 1.74
CN 14 Russula sp. 2 23.34 41.34 2.97
CN 15 Russula sp. 3 19.55 38.45 1.46
CN 16 Russula sp. 4 20.68 37.66 1.67

Table 3 Elements present in fruit body (mg/kg dry weight) of different mushrooms
Sample no. Mushroom Cu Fe Zn Na K Mg Ca Pb Cd As

CN1 Amanita sp. 1 13.2 268.6 15.27 63.63 668.1 532 120 0.38 0.47 0.14
CN2 Amanita sp. 2 14.5 228.7 14.51 153.72 394.9 296 173 0.52 0.77 0.55
CN3 Astraeus sp. 4.2 159.1 13.38 244.65 427.3 280 276 0.28 0.04 0.65
CN4 Termitomyces sp. 1 15.2 327.5 12.70 539.50 458.8 630 252 0.17 0.26 0.24
CN5 Termitomyces sp. 2 16.7 476.0 12.36 573.90 180.9 610 350 0.57 0.43 0.27
CN6 Termitomyces sp. 3 21.3 241.0 10.18 475.13 150.8 495 214 0.42 0.50 0.52
CN7 Termitomyces sp. 4 20.4 350.0 9.04 483.23 110.9 456 245 0.46 0.47 0.45
CN8 Volvariella sp. 14.4 170.8 10.06 571.40 190.7 602 420 0.77 0.12 0.62
CN9 Agaricus sp. 14.7 144.0 9.56 277.56 170.6 502 390 0.47 0.11 0.52
CN10 Calvatia sp. 4.5 146.7 14.50 203.45 418.6 265 234 0.23 0.03 0.56
CN11 Amanita sp. 3 16.3 345.9 18.16 378.20 486.4 520 150 0.19 0.32 0.60
CN12 Lentinus sp. 7.9 397.3 10.13 512.78 190.9 501 125 0.33 0.37 0.50
CN13 Russula sp. 1 20.3 386.6 15.45 430.20 482.5 280 190 0.16 0.32 0.93
CN14 Russula sp. 2 13.5 135.4 7.73 347.08 444.3 320 180 0.15 0.35 0.91
CN15 Russula sp. 3 18.6 180.8 13.04 443.10 488.6 480 210 0.11 0.26 0.80
CN16 Russula sp. 4 16.5 201.3 12.06 360.73 355.7 380 220 0.37 0.12 0.70

Nutritional Aspects mushroom species from Western Ghats of district Kan-

Protein, carbohydrate and fat contents analysed on dry
weight basis (mg/kg) in mushroom samples are presented
in Table 2. Protein content ranges from 15.78 % (Calvatia
sp.) to 29.34 % (Termitomyces sp. 2); while, amount of
carbohydrate varies from 35.25 % (Agaricus sp.) to
45.34 % (Lentinus sp.). Fat content ranges from 1.15 %
(Termitomyces sp. 4) to 2.97 % (Russula sp. 2). Johnsy
et al. [21] analysed the nutrient content of 10 edible
yakumari, out of which 2 namely, T. microcarpus and V.
volvacea were reported to possess 46.53 and 43.53 %
carbohydrate, 29.40 and 30.57 % protein and 2.33 and
2.04 % fat respectively. Results obtained in the present
study for V. volvacea are nearly comparable with those of
Johnsy et al. [21]. However, the maximum amount of
carbohydrate, protein and fat contents analysed in Ter-
mitomyces spp. (Table 2) are different from those of T.
microcarpus.

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Value of Wild Mushrooms
Fig. 4 Pie diagram showing consumption of mushrooms along with
other supplementary foods by local tribal people a pre-mushroom
season, b mushroom growing season, and c post mushroom season
Elements in Fruit Bodies
Assessment of elements (mg/kg dry weight) present in fruit
bodies of collected samples are made and summarised in
Table 3. Amount of copper ranges from 4.2 mg/kg (CN
3—Astraeus sp.) to 21.3 mg/kg (CN 6—Termitomyces sp.
3); while, for zinc it varies from 7.73 mg/kg (CN 14—
Russula sp. 2) to 18.16 mg/kg (CN 11—Amanita sp. 3).
Amount of iron (476 mg/kg) and sodium (573.9 mg/kg) in
Termitomyces sp. 2, calcium (420 mg/kg) and lead
(0.77 mg/kg) in Volvariella sp., potassium (668.1 mg/kg)
in Amanita sp. 1, cadmium (0.77 mg/kg) in Amanita sp. 2,
magnesium (630 mg/kg) in Termitomyces sp. 1 and arsenic
(0.93 mg/kg) in Russula sp. 1 was maximum. Present
investigation suggests that the collected mushrooms are
nutritious and may be important dietary products for peo-
ple. Alofe et al. [22] in Lentinus subnudus, Psathyrella
atroumbonata, Termitomyces striatus; Adejumo and Aw-
osanya [23] in T. mammiformis, Russula vesca, Lactarius
triviralis, Lentinus tigrinus; Lee et al. [24] in Pleurotus
eryngii, Flammulina velutipes, Hypsizigus marmoreus;
227
Ayodele and Odogbili [25] in Lentinus squarrosulus,
Pleurotus tuberregium, P. atroumbonata; Manjunathan and
Kaviyarasan [26] in Lentinus tuberregium; Uzun et al. [27]
in 45 wild edible mushrooms among others also analysed
the nutritional aspect of different mushrooms. According to
their findings cadmium and lead were not detected among
the analysed mushroom samples; while, the amount of
other elements were variable in relation to present study.
Further the presence of lead, cadmium and arsenic in trace
amounts (Table 3) possibly indicate the probability of
biomagnifications upon prolonged consumption.
Economic Benefits
Food Habit Survey
Results indicate that during mushroom growing period they
are valuable resource and major food supplement (about
18 % of the total supplementary food consumed) in the
study area (Fig. 4a–c). Further, mushrooms are not at all
consumed during non-mushroom growing seasons possibly
due to lack of preservation practices, which highlights the
necessity of mushroom preservation.
Market Survey
Out of 16 mushrooms, 8 are sold in market (Fig. 5a). They
are Amanita sp. 2 (local name: Modhal chhatu), Astraeus
sp. (Putka chhatu), Termitomyces sp. 1–4 (Bara bali chhatu,
Karang chhatu, Chhoto bali chhatu and Tila chhatu
respectively), Volvariella sp. (Poyal chhatu) and Lentinus
sp. (Sal chhatu). Their price ranges from Rs. 40 to 200/kg.
Price of Termitomyces sp. 1 (Rs. 100–200/kg) and Termi-
tomyces sp. 4 (Rs. 200/kg) are recorded to be higher; while,
the rest are sold at an average rate of Rs. 40–100/kg. Ast-
raeus sp. is found to be highest selling mushroom in terms
of quantity. Manna and Roy [4] studied the economic
benefits of different wild edible mushrooms from eastern
part of India associated with different ethnic groups like the
Santal, Lodha, Dhangar among others and suggests that the
wild edible mushrooms may be an alternative economic
resource for tribal people. Economic benefits of wild edible
mushrooms from other rural areas are also described by
some workers [28–30].
Cultivation
Ten samples (Amanita sp. 1 and 2, Termitomyces sp. 1–3,
Volvariella sp., Agaricus sp., Lentinus sp., Russula sp. 1
and Russula sp. 3) out of 16 produced mycelia in malt agar
media and subsequently spawn in sterile wheat media but
fruit bodies are produced only in Volvariella sp. (Fig. 5b).
About 200 g of spawn yielded 500 g of fruit bodies.
123
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228 S. K. Das et al.

Fig. 5 a Mushroom selling in

local market. b Cultivation of V.
volvacea and preservation
methods (c powdered salt,
d different concentrations of
NaCl, e mustard oil, and f direct
sunlight)

Culture raised fruit bodies of Volvariella sp. resemble
phenotypically to the described [30] paddy straw mush-
room V. volvacea. Thiribhuvanamala et al. [31] reported
maximum yield (927.8 g/bed; biological efficiency of
23.8 %) of V. volvacea in circular compact bed method.
Oil palm waste in combination with rice straw or alone
recorded significantly higher yield of the mushroom. Yield
of fruit bodies was also enhanced by spraying bed with
micronutrient booster VVB1 (CaCO3 400 ppm ? CaCl2
50 ppm ? KH2PO4 50 ppm). In the present investigation,
it is rather surprising that fruit bodies of Agaricus sp. and
Lentinus sp. did not develop. Colak et al. [32] reported
wheat straw and waste tea leaves based compost for cul-
tivation of Agaricus bisporus. Reddy et al. [33] suggested
water hyacinth to be a good substrate for white button
mushroom (A. bisporus) production. Atri and Lata [34]
reported that Lentinus cladopus could be successfully
cultivated using wheat straw, paddy straw and mixture of

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Value of Wild Mushrooms 229

Table 4 Biochemical and hematological parameters in two mushrooms

Toxicological test
Parameters Termitomyces sp. 2 Lentinus sp.
Male Female Male Female
Dosage (mg/kg) Dosage (mg/kg)
Control 1,000 2,000 4,000 Control 1,000 2,000 4,000 Control 1,000 2,000 4,000 Control 1,000 2,000 4,000

Hematological investigation
Hb (g%) 13.9 13.9 13.4 13.4 13.5 13.7 13.9 14.1 14.3 14.6 13.6 13.5 14.7 14.5 13.1 14.0
Total RBC (9106/ 6.4 6.3 6.0 6.2 6.5 6.4 6.1 6.6 5.7 5.6 5.6 5.1 5.8 5.7 6.0 6.2
cmm)
Rt (%) 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
HCT (%) 40.2 40.6 39.9 39.3 39.5 38.8 40.5 41.8 42.8 44.3 41.5 41.2 44.2 43.8 39.8 42.4
MCV (lm3) 64.0 65.3 67.2 64.3 62.0 61.7 67.2 63.7 76.3 80.2 75.8 81.1 77.7 77.6 67.7 70.4
MCH (pg) 22.1 22.3 22.6 21.9 21.1 22.0 23.1 21.4 25.5 26.4 24.9 26.6 25.7 25.6 22.4 23.2
MCHC (%) 40.2 34.2 33.7 34.1 34.2 35.5 34.3 33.7 42.8 33.0 32.8 32.8 33.1 33.0 33.0 32.9
5
Platelets (910 / 5.8 6.4 6.2 6.8 6.1 6.6 6.5 6.8 7.2 7.1 7.3 7.7 7.4 7.1 7.7 7.7
cmm)
Total WBC 6.4 6.6 6.8 6.6 6.7 6.4 6.7 6.6 6.9 6.7 6.2 6.5 6.7 6.2 6.5 6.3
(9103/cmm)
Neutrophils (%) 23.5 25.0 24.3 27.2 24.3 22.8 24.2 24.8 20.8 21.7 21.3 21.7 21.5 22.5 22.5 22.2
Eosinophils (%) 2.0 2.2 1.5 1.5 2.5 1.5 1.7 1.8 3.0 3.2 3.0 3.2 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.2
Lymphocyte (%) 73.2 71.7 73.0 70.2 71.5 74.8 73.3 72.5 76.7 75.3 75.5 75.0 75.8 74.7 75.0 74.2
Monocyte (%) 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.3 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Biomedical investigation
Total serum 6.2 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.3 6.1 6.5 6.2 6.3 6.6 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.6 6.4 6.4
protein (g%)
BUN (mg%) 27.2 30.2 28.7 26.7 26.8 25.5 29.3 26.3 20.2 22.7 24.3 26.7 20.8 21.5 24.3 26.5
SGPT (IU/l) 50.7 58.8 58.5 58.2 44.2 68.8 63.2 34.7 53.3 55.0 67.0 66.7 56.3 60.0 67.0 63.0
SGOT (IU/l) 85.3 100.5 92.3 96.2 113.5 104.0 99.0 97.5 93.3 95.3 98.0 98.2 91.8 97.0 98.1 103.0
SAP (IU/l) 331.7 312.3 289.3 319.3 291.7 308.3 343.7 309.5 269.5 294.2 310.7 324.7 291.2 301.5 310.7 327.8
Blood sugar 101.8 99.8 94.0 91.8 95.8 83.8 97.0 94.0 90.7 91.0 94.8 92.8 93.3 93.8 93.3 95.2
(mg%)
Organ weight
Bodyweight (g) 109.5 110.7 111.2 110.9 112.2 111.3 109.3 112.4 106.5 106.9 104.0 105.5 107.0 105.1 106.1 105.2
Liver (g) 5.0 4.7 4.3 4.1 4.2 4.4 4.4 4.2 4.4 4.5 4.4 4.9 4.6 4.6 4.7 4.7
Kidney (g) 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8
Heart (g) 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Hb Hemoglobin, RBC red blood corpuscles, Rt reticulocyte, HCT hematocrit, MCV mean corpuscular volume, MCH mean corpuscular
hemoglobin, MCHC mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, WBC white blood corpuscles, BUN blood urea nitrogen, SGPT serum glutamic
pyruvic transaminase, SGOT serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase, SAP serum alkaline phosphatase

both (1:1); however, yield of fruit bodies is poor in paddy Preservation

straw. Mushrooms with ectomycorrhizal and termite asso-
ciations mostly develop spawn but failed to produce fruit
bodies in culture conditions possibly due to lack of external
factor(s). Successful cultivation of wild mushrooms
namely, Pleurotus sp. [35], Stropharia rugosoannulata
[36], Pluteus cervinus [37], Pleurotus ostreatus [38], Cal-
ocybe indica [39] among others has been reported using
different culture media.
As cultivation of most of the collected mushrooms is rather
difficult, an efficient and cost effective preservation pro-
tocol is of utmost importance for sustainable use of the
fungal species.
Seven mushrooms (Amanita sp. 2, Astraeus sp., Termi-
tomyces sp. 1–4 and Volvariella sp.) are found to be pre-
served successfully in mustard oil (Fig. 5e) and consumed

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230
Fig. 6 Histological
preparations of a heart, b liver,
c lung, and d kidney in Wistar
Rat showing normal cellular
architecture at high dosing
(4,000 mg/kg) under light
microscope (CV central vein,
HC hepatic cell, KC kupffer
cell, A alveoli, DT distal
tubules, G glomerulus)
up to 6 months without any bad odour and taste. Mushrooms
(Amanita sp. 2, Astraeus sp., Termitomyces sp. 1–4) can also
be preserved in powdered salt (Fig. 5c) and in salt concen-
trations (Fig. 5d) up to 3 months without affecting their
taste; however, depending on salt concentrations they are
slightly salty. Sun drying (Fig. 5f) of mushrooms (Termito-
myces sp. 2 and Lentinus sp.) is also found to be effective for
preservation up to 6 months without any deterioration.
Therefore, simple and cost effective measures of mushroom
preservation may boost consumption of mushroom as an
important food resource for common people. Martinez-
Carrera et al. [40, 41] reported acidified Mexican recipes and
canning in glass containers as preservation techniques of
wild edible mushroom from central Mexico.
Toxicity Analysis
All animals from control and different dose groups survived
throughout the dosing period (1–28 days) showing no mor-
tality. Animals from control (Termitomyces sp.—male:
93.32–109.52 g, female: 93.13–112.20 g; Lentinus sp.—
male: 101.42–106.53 g, female: 102.43–107.03 g) and the
123
S. K. Das et al.
different dose (1,000–4,000 mg/kg) groups (male:
97.60–99.13 to 110.67–110.85 g, female: 98.22–98.52 to
109.33–112.43 g; male: 102.97–102.85 to 106.92–105.47 g,
female: 100.65–102.53 to 105.08–105.15 g) exhibit normal
body weight gain throughout the dosing period (data recor-
ded at an interval of 7 days).
Data scored for hematological and biochemical param-
eters of both male and female rats following consumption
of mushrooms on termination of dosing have been pre-
sented in Table 4. As compared to control, the data scored
from dosing animals did not show any significant changes
and are within normal biological and laboratory limits.
The gross pathological examination of necropsy
revealed no abnormality associated to treatment. Further,
histopathological examination of heart, liver, kidney and
lungs of both sexes of animals at high dose group showed
normal architectural and cellular arrangement without any
cellular damages or necrosis (Fig. 6a–d). Although only
two mushrooms are studied, results indicate the safe con-
sumption of mushroom as food supplement/major food.
Thus, proper knowledge regarding wild edible mush-
rooms among the poor, uneducated local tribal people may
 Author's personal copy
Value of Wild Mushrooms
be significant for understanding the value of the mush-
rooms in their socio-economic life. However, natural and
anthropological declination in forest area seems to be
hindrance in this regard. In this context, Government pol-
icy must be framed regarding domestication and commer-
cialisation of wild edible mushrooms in collaboration with
non-governmental organisations to harvest benefits of the
tribal people.
Acknowledgments The research is grant aided by Science and
Society Division, Department of Science and Technology, Govern-
ment of India.
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict
of interest.
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