The rock cycle is a process in which rocks are continuously transformed between the

three rock types igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

Rocks of any type can be converted into any other type, or into another rock of the same type

PETROLOGY

- Is a branch of geology that studies rocks and the conditions under which they form.

The Processes of the Rock Cycle

Several processes can turn one type of rock into another type of rock. The key processes of
the rock cycle are crystallization, erosion and sedimentation, and metamorphism.
CRYSTALLIZATION
- Magma cools either underground or on the surface and hardens into an igneous rock. As
the magma cools, different crystals form at different temperatures,
undergoing crystallization.
EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION

EROSION

The geological process in which earthen materials are worn away and transported by
natural forces such as wind or water.

A similar process, weathering, breaks down or dissolves rock, but does not involve
movement.

The opposite of deposition, the geological process in which earthen materials are
deposited, or built up, on a landform.

Most erosion is performed by liquid water, wind, or ice (usually in the form of a glacier).
If the wind is dusty, or water or glacial ice is muddy, erosion is taking place. The brown color
indicates that bits of rock and soil are suspended in the fluid (air or water) and being transported
from one place to another. This transported material is called sediment.

Physical Erosion

Physical erosion describes the process of rocks changing their physical properties without
changing their basic chemical composition. Physical erosion often causes rocks to get smaller or
smoother. Rocks eroded through physical erosion often form clastic sediments. Clastic sediments
are composed of fragments of older rocks that have been transported from their place of origin.
Erosion by Water

Liquid water is the major agent of erosion on Earth. Rain, rivers, floods, lakes, and the
ocean carry away bits of soil and sand and slowly wash away the sediment.

Erosion by Wind

Wind is a powerful agent of erosion. Aeolian (wind-driven) processes constantly

transport dust, sand, and ash from one place to another. Wind can sometimes blow sand into
towering dunes. Some sand dunes in the Badain Jaran section of the Gobi Desert in China, for
example, reach more than 400 meters (1,300 feet) high.

Erosion by Ice

Ice, usually in the form of glaciers, can erode the earth and create dramatic landforms. In
frigid areas and on some mountaintops, glaciers move slowly downhill and across the land. As
they move, they transport everything in their path, from tiny grains of sand to huge boulders.

Erosion and Sedimentation. Pieces of rock at Earth's surface are constantly worn down into
smaller and smaller pieces. The impacts of running water, gravity, ice, plants, and animals all act
to wear down rocks over time. The small fragments of rock produced are called sediments.
Running water and wind transport these sediments from one place to another. They are
eventually deposited or dropped somewhere. This process is called erosion and sedimentation.
The accumulated sediment may become compacted and cemented together into a sedimentary
rock. This whole process of eroding rocks, transporting and depositing them, and then forming a
sedimentary rock can take hundreds or thousands of years.
 METAMORPHISM
Metamorphism comes from the Greek word: Meta = change and Morph = form. Metamorphism
means to change form. In geology this refers to the changes in mineral assemblage and texture
that result from subjecting a rock to pressures and temperatures different from those under which
the rock originally formed.

CHANGES OCCURS DURING METAMORPHISM

As rocks are subjected to great heat and pressure, they begin to undergo several changes:
o Changes in the minerals.
o Folding and bending of rocks causing change in its shape.
o Recrystallization causes changes in minerals size and shape.
o Chemical reactions occur between the minerals to form new sets of
minerals that are more stable at the pressure and temperature of the
environment, and new minerals form as a result of polymorphic
phase transformations

AGENTS OF METAMORPHISM
Heat
Heat is the most important agent of metamorphism. Normally a
geothermal gradient increase in temperature with depth at about 30°C per kilometer. The gradient
is much higher in some areas, for example at the edges of continents where one oceanic plate
dives under another or where plutons have become embedded in the crust. The first minerals that
begin to change are clays, then others that are more stable begin to change as the temperature
increases.
It usually takes burial to 20KM or more for feldspars to begin to metamorphose.

Pressure
Pressure increases with depth so that there is 1,000kg/cm2 at 4 km
depth.

TYPES OF PRESSURE:
1. Confining Pressure
Equal pressure in all directions tends to cause objects to uniformly become
smaller.
 2. Differential stress
If the stress is not equal from all directions, then the stress is called a differential stress.
3. Shear stress
It causes objects to be smeared out in the direction of applied stress.

Fluid Phase
Any existing open space between mineral grains in a rock can potentially contain a fluid.
This fluid is mostly H2O but contains dissolved ions. The fluid phase is important because
chemical reactions that involve changing a solid mineral into a new solid mineral can be greatly
speeded up by having dissolved ions transported by the fluid. If chemical alteration of the rock
takes place as a result of these fluids, the process is called metasomatism.

TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
1. Contact Or Thermal Metamorphism
 Driven by a rise in temperature within the host rock
2. Regional Metamorphism
 Occurs during mountain building
 Produces the greatest volume of metamorphic rock
3. Dynamic Metamorphism
 Occurs due to mechanical deformation, like when two bodies of rock slide past one
another along a fault zone.
4. Burial Metamorphism
 Occurs at bottom of thick sedimentary rock piles
5. Hydrothermal Metamorphism
 Chemical alterations from hot, ion-rich water

TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCK

o There are two major subdivisions of metamorphic rocks.
Foliated – These have a planar foliation caused by the preferred
orientation (alignment) of minerals and formed under differential
stress. They have a significant amount of sheet silicate (platy
minerals and are classified by composition, grain size, and foliation type.

Non-foliated – These have no evident planar fabric or foliation, crystallized under conditions
where there was no differential stress, and are comprised of equant minerals only. These are
classified mainly by the minerals present or the chemical composition of the protolith.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Foliated rocks
o (Shale) slate ‹ phyllite ‹ schist ‹ gneiss
o (Basalt) greenschist ‹ amphibolite
 o (Basalt) blueschist ‹ eclogite

Non-foliated rocks
o Quartzite (sandstone)
o Marble(limestone)
o Hornfels (claystone)
o Coal (peat)

GRADE OF METAMORPHISM
Metamorphic grade is a general term for describing the relative temperature and pressure
conditions under which metamorphic rocks form.

Low-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures between about 200 to 320oC, and
relatively low pressure. Low grade metamorphic rocks are characterized by an abundance of
hydrous minerals. Example: Clay Minerals

High-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures greater than 320oC and relatively high
pressure. As grade of metamorphism increases, hydrous minerals become less hydrous, by losing
H2O and non-hydrous minerals become more common. Example: Muscovite

Prograde Metamorphism occurs while temperature and pressure progressively increase.

Retrograde Metamorphism occurs when temperature and pressure decrease.

ROCK CYCLE

The rock cycle is a basic concept in geology that describes the transitions through geologic time
among the three main rock types: There are three kinds of rock: igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic.

1. Igneous rocks form when molten rock (magma or lava) cools and solidifies. Igneous rock
forms when magma cools and makes crystals. Magma is a hot liquid made of melted minerals.
The minerals can form crystals when they cool. Igneous rock can form underground, where the
magma cools slowly. Or, igneous rock can form above ground, where the magma cools quickly.
When it pours out on Earth's surface, magma is called lava. Yes, the same liquid rock matter that
you see coming out of volcanoes.

2. Sedimentary rocks originate when particles settle out of water or air, or by precipitation of
minerals from water. They accumulate in layers. On Earth's surface, wind and water can break
rock into pieces. They can also carry rock pieces to another place. Usually, the rock pieces,
called sediments, drop from the wind or water to make a layer. The layer can be buried under
other layers of sediments. After a long time, the sediments can be cemented together to make
sedimentary rock. In this way, igneous rock can become sedimentary rock.

3. Metamorphic rocks result when existing rocks are changed by heat, pressure, or reactive
fluids, such as hot, mineral-laden water. All rock can be heated. But where does the heat come
from? Inside Earth there is heat from pressure (push your hands together very hard and feel the
heat). Baked rock does not melt, but it does change. It forms crystals. If it has crystals already, it
forms larger crystals. Because this rock changes, it is called metamorphic. Remember that a
caterpillar changes to become a butterfly. That change is called metamorphosis. Metamorphosis
can occur in rock when they are heated to 300 to 700 degrees Celsius.

•-Most rocks are made of minerals containing silicon and oxygen, the most abundant elements in
the Earth’s crust.

•-Each of the types of rocks is altered or destroyed when it is forced out of its equilibrium
conditions.

•-The Rock Cycle is a group of changes. Igneous rock can change into sedimentary rock or into
metamorphic rock. Sedimentary rock can change into metamorphic rock or into igneous rock.
Metamorphic rock can change into igneous or sedimentary rock.

•-The rock cycle continues. Mountains made of metamorphic rocks can be broken up and washed
away by streams. New sediments from these mountains can make new sedimentary rock.

•-The Rock Cycle never stops...

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

Igneous Rocks

• also known as “magmatic rock”

• from the Greek word for “fire”

Igneous Rocks Formation

• solidification of magma

• made up of inter grown mineral crystals

• environments

• magma

• lava
 • FORMS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

1. Extrusive Igneous Rocks

- these are formed when magma reaches to earth’s
surface and get solidification
- example: basalt, obsidian
2. Intrusive Igneous Rocks
- these are formed by consolidation of magma at
some depth below the earth’s surface
- such bodies show variation in their shape and size
- example: granite, gabbro
a. Discordant Igneous Bodies
- are those which cuts through overlaying
strata
- examples: batholiths, dikes
b. Concordant Igneous Bodies
- these bodies lie between beds
- examples: sills, laccoliths

IGNEOUS
ROCKS

TEXTURES

1. Phaneritic texture
- visible mineral grains
• distinguishable as different colored interlocking shapes
• Example: rhyolite
 2. Aphanitic
- mineral grains too small to be seen
• microscopic
• Example: basalt

3. Porphyritic
- two distinct size of mineral grains
- large and small
• large
• phenocrysts
• small
• ground mass or matrix
- ground mass
• grains may be either visible or not

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

- Formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living organisms.

- Formed from sediments grains deposited by water, wind or ice.

- Formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation of mineral or organic particles on the
floor of oceans or other bodies of water at the Earth's surface.

Sedimentary Rocks are the product of:

1. Weathering of Pre-existing rocks.

2. Transport of weathering Products.
3. Deposition of Minerals.
4. Compaction.
5. Cementation of the sediment to form a rock.
TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Clastic - rocks are composed of the solid products of weathering (gravel, sand, silt, and clay)
cemented together by the dissolved weathering products.

Biogenic - rocks are those composed of materials formed by the activity of living organisms such
as coal (compacted undecayed plant matter) and many limestones which are made up of the
shells or other skeletal fragments from marine organisms.

Chemical- rocks are those such as halite and gypsum, and some limestones, which form direct
precipitation (crystallization) of the dissolved ions in the water.
SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES

Stratification - Refers to the way sediment layers are stacked over each other and can
occur on the scale of hundreds of meters, and down to sub millimeter scale. It is a fundamental
feature of sedimentary rocks.

Ripple Marks - Are produced by flowing water or wave action, analogous to cross-bedding (see
above), only on a smaller scale (individual layers are at most a few cm thick).

Mudcracks - Form when a water rich mud dries out on the air.

Cross-Bedding - A feature that occurs at various scales and is observed in conglomerates and
sandstones. It reflects the transport of gravel and sand by currents that flow over the sediment
surface (e.g. in a river channel). sand in river channels or coastal environments

Example of Sedimentary Rocks

Breccia - is a clastic sedimentary rock that is composed of large (over two-millimeter diameter)
angular fragments. The spaces between the large fragments can be filled with a matrix of smaller
particles or a mineral cement which binds the rock together. The specimen shown above is about
two inches (five centimeters) across.

Chert - is a microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline sedimentary rock material composed of silicon

dioxide (SiO2). It occurs as nodules and concretionary masses, and less frequently as a layered
deposit. It breaks with a conchoidal fracture, often producing very sharp edges.

Coal - is an organic sedimentary rock that forms mainly from plant debris. The plant debris
usually accumulates in a swamp environment. Coal is combustible and is often mined for use as
a fuel. The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Conglomerate - is a clastic sedimentary rock that contains large (greater than two millimeters in
diameter) rounded particles. The space between the pebbles is generally filled with smaller
particles and/or a chemical cement that binds the rock together. The specimen shown above is
about two inches (five centimeters) across.

Limestones - a rock that is composed primarily of calcium carbonate. It can form organically
from the accumulation of shell, coral, algal, and fecal debris. It can also form chemically from
the precipitation of calcium carbonate from lake or ocean water.

Sandstone - is a clastic sedimentary rock made up mainly of sand-size (1/16 to 2 millimeter

diameter) weathering debris. Environments where large amounts of sand can accumulate include
beaches, deserts, flood plains, and deltas.
Types of Metamorphic Rocks

Coming up with a way to classify and name the great variety of metamorphic rocks on Earth
hasn't been easy. After decades of debate, geologists have found it most convenient to divide
metamorphic rocks into two fundamental classes: foliated rocks and non-foliated rocks. Each
class contains several rock types. We distinguish foliated rocks from each other partly by their
component minerals and partly by the nature of their foliation, whereas we distinguish non-
foliated rocks from each other primarily by their component minerals.

a.) Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Foliation in geology refers to repetitive layering in metamorphic rocks.The word comes from the
Latin folium, for leaf. Geologists use foliation to refer to the parallel surfaces and/or layers that
can occur in a metamorphic rock. Foliation can give metamorphic rocks a striped or streaked
appearance in an outcrop, and/or can give them the ability to split into thin sheets. A foliated
metamorphic rock has foliation either because it contains inequant mineral crystals that are
aligned parallel to one another, defining preferred mineral orientation, and/or because the rock
has alternating dark-coloured and light-coloured layers.

Foliated metamorphic rocks can be distinguished from one another according to their
composition, their grain size, and the nature of their foliation. The most common types include

Slate: The finest-grained foliated metamorphic rock, slate, forms by metamorphism of shale or
mudstone (rocks composed dominantly of clay) under relatively low pressures and temperatures.
Slate contains a type of foliation called slaty cleavage, which allows it to split into thin sheets
that make excellent roofing shingles

Phyllite: Phyllite is a foliated metamorphic rock that is made up mainly of very fine-grained
mica. The surface of phyllite is typically lustrous and sometimes wrinkled. The word comes from
the Greek word phyllon, meaning leaf, as does the word phyllo, the flaky dough in Greek pastry.

Metaconglomerate: Metaconglomerate is a rock type which originated from conglomerate after

undergoing metamorphism. Conglomerate is easily identifiable by the pebbles or larger clasts in
a matrix of sand, silt, or clay.

Schist: Schist is a metamorphic rock with well-developed foliation. It often contains significant
amounts of mica which allow the rock to split into thin pieces. Schist forms at a higher
temperature than does phyllite.

Gneiss: Gneiss is a compositionally layered metamorphic rock, typically composed of alternating

dark-coloured and light-coloured layers that range in thickness from millimetres to meters. This
compositional layering, or gneissic banding, gives gneiss a striped appearance.
Migmatite: A migmatite, or "mixed rock" in Greek, is a banded, heterogenous rock composed of
intermingled metamorphic and igneous components. Under certain conditions, gneiss may begin
to melt, producing felsic magma and residual, still solid, mafic rock. If the melt freezes again
before flowing out of the source area, a mixture of igneous rock and relict metamorphic rock
forms. This mixture is called migmatite. In effect, a migmatite is part metamorphic and part
igneous.

b.) Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks

Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks contain minerals that recrystallized or grew during

metamorphism but have no foliation. Nonfoliated rocks contain more coarse-grained minerals
and generally have a random shape. Because of this, these rocks are very granular in appearance.
Unlike a foliated rock, there will be no layers and they will not flake apart into thin layers when
broken. We list below some of the rock types that can occur without foliation.

Examples of quartzite and marble typically, but not always, these are non-foliated.

Hornfels: Hornfels is a fine-grained nonfoliated metamorphic rock with no specific composition.

It is produced by contact metamorphism. Hornfels is a rock that was "baked" while near a heat
source such as a magma chamber, sill, or dike.

Quartzite: Quartzite forms by the metamorphism of pure quartz sandstone. Quartzite looks
glassier than sandstone and does not have the grainy, sandpaper-like surface characteristic of
sandstone depending on the impurities it contains, quartzite can vary in colour from white to
gray, purple, or green.

Marble: Marble is a non-foliated metamorphic rock that is produced from the metamorphism of
limestone or dolostone. It is composed primarily of calcium carbonate. Not all marble is non-
foliated.

IMPORTANCE OF PETROLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING

Petrology is very important from civil engineering point of view, as it provides a proper
concept and logical basis for interpreting physical properties of rocks. The study of texture,
structure, mineral composition, chemical composition etc., gives all necessary details regarding
the strength,durabiliy,colour,appeareance, workability, etc., These inherent characters of rocks
are of chief concern for a civil engineer to judiciously assess the suitability occuring at project
site for required purpose.

This is necessary because different kind of rocks are suitable for different specific
purposes and no rock is ideal or best suited for all of purposes of construction.
 Thus, different kind of rocks suit different purposes by virtue of their special physical
properties which are inherent and characteristics to them. These details must be known so as to
make the best use of available rocks at the construction site.
 REFERENCES

Barrow, G. & Thomas, H.H., 1908. On the occurrence of metamorphic minerals in calcareous
rocks in the Bodmin and Camelford areas, Cornwall. Min. Mag., 15, 113-123.

Barton, D., Ilchik, R.P. & Marikos, M.A., 1991. Metasomatism, p321-350. In: Kerrick D.M.,
Contact Metamorphism. Reviews in Mineralogy, 26. Mineralogical Soc. of America,
847pp.

Daly, R. A., 1917. Metamorphism and its phases. Bull. Geol Soc. Amer., 28, 375-

418.

Cosca, M.A., Essene, E.J., Geissman, J.W., Simmons, W.B. & Coates D.A., 1989.
Pyrometamorphic rocks associated with naturally burned coal beds, Powder River basin,
Wyoming. Am. Mineral., 74, 85-100.

Daly, R. A., 1917. Metamorphism and its phases. Bull. Geol Soc. Amer., 28, 375- 418.

Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, 2015

Unconventional Petroleum Geology, 2013
https://socratic.org/questions/how-does-contact-metamorphism-differ-from-regional-
metamorphism
Tony Waltham (2009). Foundations of Engineering Geology (3rd ed.). Taylor & Francis.
p. 20. ISBN 978-0-415-46959-3.
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