ELAPTI 209

!2. &cceleration, but mo',' ;r,3 the flaps down ai, lhe Iast minute before
take-off puts a great surain on the structure. Common pra.ctice
&ppears to be to put the flaps at some moderate deflection, say
10o, and to keep them in that position throughout the take-cff.

Auxiliary Lift flevices

r ,lt'1,)llD RANGE
ll,, rrlio of nraximum veloeitl' to minirnrtm velocit.y is called
1,,','rl lange. \\rith retractable landing gear and genelal clean
,, r', r':rcing planes can have a speerl range of 3.3;airpllncs not
' ,',lrrll.\, stlerrnrlined or thosc so heevil-v lourlcd that, thcy
,,,,1 llv at. thc anglc of nt,t.aclt of mirrinlitrn ch'lg l'ill hlvc a
,ll, r rlrr:t:{l rrrnge. l)nless <lesign is lcrv l)(x)r', r)r' t.}tc lolxl is
, 'lrrr1,,l.r, licavr-. thc spceti rangc shorrl,i lrc rrt lcrst 2.i.
rl,, ;rlrorrc is bas^cl on fi.rcd lirrgs. 'l'lrc l;rrrrlilrg slrr:ed is rlctcr-
,,,,1 l,; the maximum lift coefficient iLnrl tlrc iving lortling. If thc
, ,rurrl }ifl coefficient, can be incrcasc,l in rrn5'\\'lr\', lhc ling
,, ' , irn be decreascd rvithoul crrirnging tlrc rninimum spccd.

I' t,AI'S
l,' llrr: simDlest form of flaps, the rear part pf the main rving is
,,,1,,r1 r;o thai it can be s\\'ung don'nrvard. In appearance, flaps
' r,rl,lc ailerons, except that ailerr.lns extend only a small portion
i rl,' ril)an and are so linked that, rvhen the aileron on one side
' rr1r, thab ou the other side goes down. Flaps extend across the
I rrr, r,xoept for the small portion rvhich is aileron, and the flaps
,, t,,,llr sides go down tcgether. Flaps ale moved by a control
, lr;rrrism in the pilot's cockpit.
\\ lr,.rr flaps are dorvn, there is a considerable increase in drag. r\o. 12.1. Flaps.
r,r nrcrcase is desirable in landing as ihe high lift coefficient
'
rr rr I ri :tr slorv laiiding speed rvhile the high dlag retards the speed In Fig. 12.1 are shorvn several tynes of flaps, a.ll of rvhieh have
, rtr,. rtrlplan€. On take-otl, a full dorvnward deflection of the flaps proved to be practical. In Fig. l?.If are shown dive flaps, rvhich
,,,1,1 permit taking off at a lorv speed, but the high drag rvould do not clange the lift coefficient but do increase the rlrag greatly.
,,,,1 t,he airplane in accelelating up to that speed. Running on They are used as air brakes to retard speed in vertical dives.
r,, l,rouod rvith the flaps neutial (lorv drag) rvould permil fast The effect of depressing the flaps is to increase the effective
208 camber of the upper surface of the wing as well as the concavity
 AUXII,IARY I,IFT DRVICNS AUT0t\rA'l'IC SLOT 2tt
, ,nrlcr surface. This increaseis the lifr coefficient,. parill, lrc- The slot is a narrorv opening nea!. [rre leading e<.lge and parallel to
,'l t,lrc action on the under side, s,here the depressed rear the span. Ihe small section in front of the slot may be considered
,,, I'i lo hirder the smooth flou' of airl pressure rvill build up at ir miniature airfoil. When the main rving is at a high angle of
,,,,1r I rrnd c&use an increase in lift. It will also cause the center attack, the small airfoil in front of thc slot is at a small anglc
' ,uo to move reanvard. of attack. \\:hereas rvith a simple rving burbling takes place at 18o to
20o angle of attack, because air is unable to change direction so as
to follorv the upper surfacc of
t hc rving, . rvit h t he slot thc

iril is given a dos,nrr,ald de-

flection in passing over the
snrirll rrrrxiliurl rving scr:l ion, Fixed slot at high angle of attack
so that it can follorv closely
thc uppr'r surfuee of thc mtin
rr in g.
l).]' ,,.t,t* n slot, tlrc rnrrxi.
nrum lil't unglc is inclcu-*ctl to Fj;:d slot at low angle of attack

2So ot' 30". 'I'he slope ol the

lift curvc rcmains const.nnt,
so thnt the maximum lil't co-
effit:ient is inr:reuscd ab<urt, irO
Automatic :lot at hish angle of attrck
per 0cnt ll1' t.lre rrsc of a slol..
With rr fixed slol,, ut lorv
angles of tttack, t,here beirrg
less prcssure at the upper than Automrtlc slot at low anglc of attack
Flo, 12.2. Ilffoct of elol*q und flupa on lifl coofficient. at thc lorver end of the slot, Fro. 12,3. Wirrg slots.
il,rrr loorw&rd center-of-pressure movement, rvhen the flaps air will travel ups'ard through
''\rilng dotvnrvard, usually makes it necessary tc interconnect it. This l'ill divert the main air stream and c&use burbling; thus
thc dlag at lou' nngle." of attrrck is much greater rvith the fixed
" ll,;rn rvith the stabilizer; otherlisc the airplane rvill bc throrvn slot than l'ith the simple rving.
, ,'l lrrLlnnce longitudinally.
i,' l,'ry,12.2 is shorvn the typical effcct of flaps on the lift cocffi_
,,t vr,r'Buo angle of attacl< curvc. Whcn the flups are dorvn, the 12.4. AUTO](ATIC SLOT
' ' rn rnoved parallel to itself, uprvard and to the left, eo that at 'fo I{andlcy-Page should go the credit for obviating the
l'.
, "n. onglo of atiack deflccting the flaps dos,nrvard givea a highcr
i, ,,,rlllicieDt. The moximum iift coefricient is increased greatly; inr:rcascd minimum drag of the fixed sl<;t. The auxiliary airfoil is
, tl,r, typical case Bhown, with the flaps in neutral position, held by a linkalre lrrech&nisin, or by a scrics of st,utiu w6rking in
p*irs of rollers in tho moin wirtg, so that it rvill rnovo freely from n
,,., - 1.28, whereas, with the flaps down 45o, C1,^.,. = 1,g0.
closed position whcre the auxiliory !i; butted agoinst the leading
,r I ItlxED sLoT cdgc of the main rving to an open position rvhcre thcre is a gap of
ri l,o(:hm&nn in Germany :".rd F. Handloy-pago in England an insh or more beirveen tho auxiliary airfoil und tho main wing,
y,,u By cxamining Figrl.8.1,8.2, and 8.3, it rvill be secn thrt rrt low
!r Lo have developcd tho elot[ed rving at aLout ihe ,"rnuii*., lrngles of lttock thcre is & prcesure on the nose which is utilizcd to
 AUXILIARY LIIIT DEVICBS
tl

, ,, nr I heauxiliary airfoil tightly against the main wing' rvhereas at

negative pressure to draw the auxil-
t6.
, ,pl' ,,,,lles of attack there is
"
,ir, uing to its "open" position' The automatic slot requires no
,.,,,,1,,,1utiot on the part of the pilot' At lorv angles of attack'
the
r,,,p, r,i <lnly very slightly greater than with the ordinary
rving'
l',',',gru;. of both fi*ed automatic slots are given in Fig' 12'3' Drag
"nd

13.1. PARASITE DRAG

When an object, moves through air, a resistance is encountered.
The air florving around the object exerts a forcc on the object.
This force alrvays has a component acting parallel to the rlirectir-rn
of movement of tne body rvit'h respect to the air. This component
is drag.
Parasite drng is the drag of any part of the rrirplane rvhich docs
uot contribute useful lift.
Struts, ivires, landing gear, anC other parts of the airplane offer
resistance to forrvard motion of the airplane. The force of the air
on these parts is all drag; there is no upward or lift compo; ent.
This is called parasite drag.
Formerly the total drag of an airplane rvas considr:red to be
composed of trvr, parts, the wing drag an.l the parasitc drag.
Cla"ssified in this way, the parasite drag',',,as the drag of all parts of
the airplane except the wings.
The wing drag, horvever, is composed of trvo parts, the induced
drag and the profile drag. It is now the custom Lo considel the
profile drag of the wing a part of the parasite drag. Parasite drag
being drag that is not associated with the production of useful lift,
if is quite correct to consider profile drag as parasite.
The drag of the fuselage, landing gear, etc., is non' referred to
as structural drag. Parasite drag is the sum of the profile drag of
the wing and the structural drag; in other words, it is the total drag
of the airplaae miniis the induced drag.

13.2. STRUCTURAL DRAG

Structural drag is caused by impact pressure on the nose of the
body, by skih friction, by eddy currents set up by interference with
2L3
 1
DRAC CYLINDENS AND ROTJND WIRES 215

'lo decrease lhe interference drag' sectional ares of the nerv fuselage to obtain its equivalent fl.rl
. rritrg bodies, and b;' w&ke'
1,1,,
plate area. Data on the resistauce of various fuselagcs may be
| ;rr'o used rvherever tlvo surfaces join' Whenever possible' iound in N.A.C.A. Reports 230, 23$, 271, 313,314, and others
, ,,,,," i,*ri, inat rvor'rld cause
drag are ma'de as neR"ly as possible
and in Army and Navy reports.
, ,,,rlrrtcd in shePe.
area rtsed in the Fuselage drag may also bc estimated by the "rvetLed area"
, t".,,.l,,s, in coniputing the drag of rv].ngs, i'ire
, ,,l.rtion is an area more or lesJ parallel to the direction of
air methqd. The rvetted area at is the area of thc surface of the fusclage
pro-
,,' r'omputitrg structrtral drag, the area used is [he
nrea
t-tf nir flor'" Dr..- :0.0034 ! o'V'
' 'l ,n rt plane llerrllcrr<lit:ttllu'
t'<; lhc tiilcclion 2

,IINI'ISOiI\II'ASURITN{IINTOFSTITUCTURALDRAG the fuselage has a rvell-roundccl nose itntl t -si.root,lt surface

If
rrrlr.:;s r\,iI)d-ttrnncl tCst,s lt.t'rl trtlr.ClC tli Zrtr CXt't'ctnrrly itt:cttratC rvith fcs' plotttl;eranccs, lhis crtlualion l'ill givc ir iairly close
l, I ol Llte til'plilntr, it is net:essluy to cstiln:ILc
tlre dlrrg cot)- approximation.
,,rt,'rl 5y t,ltc prl.ts of thc st'ructril'c' a<ltli.g tltc dr:lg of
'.t'iottsilrttl making sottre sttiLlrblc :lllo"'tintte for I3.5. FINRNIISS
,,,,livitlttlrl it't'Ins
,, r lIl('llCe. Fineness is thc I'atio of the lenglh of a llorll' (i.t:., prrr:rllcl t,o tlie
qsuzrl fli1cr:tiol of lnotigtr) to its maximuln Illit:kncss [Jest. r't:srtlts
I,,tir oll stlrctrl'lil tltiig nrlll'lle givr:n in vlt'iott-* ttttits:
'llte dl'ag of erich item is givcrr can ite oblailrecl l'ith a finencss nrtio of itllrttt {. '\ fint:rlt'ss less
, r l',rlrtivalcrnt fltrt, lllrtt'ct li'rcrr'
bo bhe tir.rn 4 shorv-* zr big increase in drag coefficit:nt. A finr:tre-ss ratic)
r' rrrrs of thc alel ol':r {ictitiorrs flat platc pcrpentlicultrr
synrllol o is greater tlran 4 gives a slight increase probalrly duc cntirel;v'to the
tl,,rv, l.liich hls the satnc 'lt'ag as Lhc itern''lhc added skin friclion.
(lt'F'P'A ) in stlttilre fcet'
,
'l l,,rl ccltti.',rlcnt. fl:rt, plltte area 'fhe preceding remarks a.bout strcamlining and lincne"s nppl.v
: I.28f,oY' (13.3.1) both to sclids of revolution lilie the gas liag of dirigiblcs and io
D"
the cross section of objecls like sfruts about rvliich bhe florv is
trvo-dimensional.
,i,t l)rag a,t i00 mph. If the clrag in pounds is knorvn at 100
speed (Y in feet per second) is given
by
1'1,, tlre irug ot artother 13.6. CYLINDERS AND ROUND \YIRES
Drn,, X V2 (13.3.2) Circular cylinders and wires are rarely used in aircraft con-
D" - -t;-ou- struction. If round tubes are used, they are faired rvith faiservork
of a fictitious of balsa or sheet metal.
,, l')cluivalent drag nrea l)r'ag area is the area
r
Equivalent drag The drag of a cylinder in an air stream u'hose direclion is
,,r ,,,,, iraving an absolute drag coefficient of l'0.
itl's the same drag as the item' perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder is
", ,'\1; is the drag alea thttt D:0.00026 Xdy.V2
11" : Lrsov,
D : drag per foot of length
'vhere
d : diameter in inches
,r I IIUSELAGE DRAG 7: airspeed in miles Per hourl
nelvly designed
ll rrctual',1'ind-tunnel tests are not available; 'uhe
or
compared rvith a.hnorvn luselage having
the snme y.dXV2
,,'"tt. i. D= 0.000121
p, r,, r'&-l shape, protufurances such
&8 turrets' etc' If the form
,,,, t,,r of this fuselage is knorvn, it is multlplied by the cross- r','here I/ : airspeed in feet Per second,
 DRAG STRUTS 2t7
ir",rlrtg of round lvires may be found by the above equations. i3.8. STRUTS
, t,, rvire is less than 0.2 in, in diameter, the result rviil be slightly
.,t,
Round tubing is the most efficient structural shape, but its
r,nrrrled cable drag is high. Nowadays all struts in the air stream have a stream-
will have greater drag than smooth wires, arid
t,rlIrwing equations should be used: line-shaped cross seotion. The drag'of a streamline struu depends
on the fineness ratio. In air of standard density, the drag in pounds
D:0.0O03tXd:z.V2 per foot of length of a strut whose leading edge is perpendicular
to the direet,ion'of the air stream is
',' i/ is in miles per hourl
D:0.000144Xdy.V2 KwV2

', 1' is in feet per second. rvhere u is n'idth in inches

it lrv. parallel *'ires are in the air stream and one rvire 7" is in miles per hour;
shielcls
',tlu.r by being directly behind it, the t,otal drag rvill be less FrNrNrss K
,' l,rr trvo single rvires; it rvill be approximatel1 lrh times 2.5 0.00Oui94
the
'rire. If the distance center to center of the rvires
,, ,'l rr. single 3.0 0.0000180
3.5 0.0000175
=.",rlr,r than 3 times the diameter of the rvire, the shielding
t rrr rrcgligible and the dlag of each individual rvire should 4.0 0.0100171
be 4.5. 0.0000175
',t,,1 scparately. Quite of.";n thin strips are fastened on the
,1,[. \vires, in rvhich case the pair of u,ires has or
approximately
,,,,r,r resistance as a single u'ire.
D : K'wVz
';i'l'IIEAMLI\E,' l\,iRE
rvhere I/ is in feet per secorid.
, "lrrl lvire or rod, called ,,Streamline,, wire, is manufactured Frxpnnss K,
,,rrr.rt:i*ily. It is not tnrly streamlined, but it
is much better 2.5 0.00000902
.' llrr: standpoint of decreased air resistance than round 3.0 0.00000836
tvire.
'lrrrg of this wire is found by the equation J.J 0.00000812
4.O 0.00000795
D:0.00C08gXTlr.V2 4.5 0.00000812

" l) : drag in pounds per foot of lengtL By comparing coefficients for round tubes and for streamlined
'/' .= thickness in inches
struts, it will be seen that, for the same width, the round tube has
i' = airspeed in miles per hour; approximately 15 times the drag of a streamlined strut.
If a strut is in tension only, its strength depends on its cross-
D-0.0000414y.Tlr.V2 sectional area. The aree of a solid circular rod is approximately
., l' : one-haif the area oi a'iolid streqmiine-section strut cif the same
airspeed in feet per second.
i ",rnll.y, in flight, some vibration is present widtb. '1-o have the same cross-seetional area as a round iod, a
in the rires. Owing streamliae-section strut would have less thickness and more
rapid reversal of stresses, hard rvire is liable to fatigul
=,,,1,1,.n
, t trrrlrlre with little or no warning. Stranded wire cable depth; therefore, the drag of the streamlile strut rvould be about
wiii Xa of the solid circular rod of the same area.
=,.llr r;l,retch, and one or two wires will fray so that the need
i Hollorv streamline struts are made of tubes rolled to the proper
,1,,rrl will be noted.
shepe. The cross-sectional erea of metal will be the same for
 r f-t i t-
\
:rlrt Ir i-

DRAG PAR.A.SITE DIiAC BY "\\'ETTED AREA" 2I9

r,rrpr.s &rd the tensile strength rvill be the same, but the a carefully designed plane, the end of lhe.struf is buried inside the
,,r,rr,. form will have lls the resistance. rving and bhe inter{erence effect is plactically negligible. In the
t,,,., 1, compression, the strength of a piece depends on are& ordinary planes, the socket on the end of the strut and the fitting
rrul.s rtrs used in aircraft act as columns and are subject holding it to the wing surface cause extra, drag.
,,';,r,.ssion and bending. Failure rvill occur about the axis A very good wey to allorv for the extra resistance is to follow the
i, lrrrrrthe least moment of inertia. A stleamline strut rvill prectice of the U. S. Navy: For resistance of cables and rvires,
,, yr,.,Ltei'momen'u of iner'uia about any axis than a round "Add one foot tc length of cnble fc'r trrrnbuekle, and one foot for
"','ill the eye and fitting. . . . l-or total resistance of struts, use total
,r tlr) s&me diameter (ttrickness). If comparison is tnade
,, ,, r',xrnd and streamline rods having the samc arca and length including space obcupied by sockets and fittings, and add
'1rr,,rrl,ly thc same l'eight, the streamlinc strttt rvill brc found three feet per strut for the additional resistence of the trvo end
' , rr greater moment of inertia about its shorb axis than the fittings."
. i trrrt;but rbout its long axis the stieamline strut u'ill have Another i'ule for fittings is to find the projected area on a plane
,
'll'r rnorlcnb of inertia than the round rod. normal to the air stt'ctrm. This pi'ojected area is multiplied b1' 2
irnd figurcd ns flet plate area. 'i-ire leasott for figuring cn dottble
EXA]{PLE the alea is the interference effccl of the nealby sttrfaces.
at 100 nrph, at sea lcvel, of four ntain st,ruts
',,1 ,lrlftrlence in drag
r, ll, long if they are rounrl tuins 3r( in. in outside diarnetcr or 2.r0
.,,,lrrr"rl 76 in. in width and have a fineness of 3.5.
t,,ti, l. Ilound: Po
2.08
230 serie
4
,'t
D : (0.00026 x i x ro6'l x 4 x 6 !o z.oo
: 46.8 lb *L
,,,,,rrrluto:
! z.o+
o
n z.o?
D : (0.0000175 x *x 100') x4x 6
: 2.6 Ib t.00
0 2468l0t21416l8
Per cent thickness ji
PROBLEMS
I

rl.i.l. Whot is lesistance in pounds of eight standal'd sti'earnline Fro. 13:1. Wettcd area of rvings.
ir
,rr r, {rch /2in. lhick and 21 ft long, at an airspeed of 90 mph at sea
.,WETTED AREA"
' ,l? 13.10. PARASITE DRAG BY /
t tx 2. What is the resistance of the rvires in Problem 13.8.1 at I
r l;ro ft &ltitude? This is a method for estimating i:arasite drag, i.e., structural
t.t l{.3. What is the drag of the four interpiarre siru+"s of a bipiane if drag plus profile drag. It gives a result in equivalent perasite area. ll
rr,' !, rrre streamlined in shape with fineness of 3, thickness of I
in., and It presumes that the design of the proposed airpiane has progressed
r' ,,1'l,lr of each 5 ft.10 in.? Airspeed 100 mph. so uirat three-vierv drrrvings ale available' The "rvetted area" or i
t:t lJ.4. What is the drag of 40 ft of standard "streamline" wire, fu in. surface area of the fuselage, rving, and tail surfaces is computed.
rl,r, k, tt 125 mph airspeed? The general "cleanness" of the enbire airplane is thcn corlpared
l:t ti 5. A radio antenna mast is a round tube 6 in. in diameter'. It is rvith that of existing airplanes. An "equivalcnl skin fliction faclor" /
rrr lt, high. What is the fcrce on the rnast in a 5O-mile rvind?
C7o is selected on the basis of lhis comparison, and tiri'' factor

'
r'r !'ITTINGS rnultiplie<l by the rvetted area gives the equivalent parasite area.
/
strut, rvhere it meets the rving or the fuselage, the
\ t. the end of a In determining the l-etted areo of the rvilrgs and tail surfaces,
llrrv is distributed by the conjunction of the trvo surfaces. lrl use is mede of ih: graph in Fig. 13.1 tt,'letermine ti factor bgsed
',r i
 PARASITE DRAG BY "WETTED AREA'' 22L

DRAG
give the are& of t,)re stlip. The sttmmation of the area of thcse strips
,i',,l.rr.ss laiio, by rvhich the proiected area is multiplied to gives the total rvetted area of the fusela'ge'
, llr.rl area. After the total wetted area has been found, it is necessary to
determine the equivalent skin fricficr faclor' A smooth flat plate

Ollirid plnlquph' l'f 'S' 'lrar' 'lit (:orN'

Fro, 13..1, Nort!. Aurorit:urt llucit: !r'rr,irritrg uirplrlrrc (07e 0't)t)l):J)'

t tficial phologroph, U.S.

Frc. 13.2. Curtiss pursuit airplane (Cyo 0.0095).

Ofrciql photosraph, tl.S- Atmu Air Copt'

Frc. 13.5. Martin bombing airplane (C1o 0'0093)'

a frictiori
Ofrcial ?holosraph, U.S. Army Ai Cupt. parallel to an air flow (at a Reynolds number of 107) has
..,f 0.0030' If an airplane had only the skin fliction
Frc. 13.3. Boeing bombing airplane (C1o
i.ug
0.0063). "oeffi"ient skin friction factor'
of iis surface, 0.0030 1\'ould be its equivalent
Therg are always, however, some turbulencet wake' and cooling
t ', lirrd the wetted area of the fuselage, the lengbh is divided into
r,,,rr;.'lh€ widttr cf each strip is multiplieo by its perimeter io I'

di
 . -l ; I
I
DRAG
i
POLAII- DIACRAM 225

r' 'l'he factor 0.00ti0 rcl)rescnts &n tor'o(lynrlmically frtilly clean

i 13.12. POLAR DIAGRA]I
'r.
',1,lrrnc. Photographs of some ti'pir:rrl military uirplancs tu'e givcn 'fhe plotting of C 1, against Ci2 has special merit \\'hen used in
,, l,'igs. 13.2 to 13.6 rvitli their cquivaleni skin friction ftctors C7,,. combination rvith the pa,ras,ie coefficient, the latter being expressed
as a function of the rving &re&, i.e., 1.28a/S.It l'as pointed out in

1.4

0!llr:'! plwtoqrtph, U.S. Arnrtt .lir ('t1't,

Iiro. 13.0. Plinrlr'.y l.r'titring tirlrl.urc (()70 0.0134).

I.I.II. ..I)AR.{I]OLIC" \{I,:1'IIOD O}' TITI.]ATING I)RAG

\ method thut is fle<1rtt'ntl.1'tt$ed in detling rrit6 11t. drag of t,ho
,.:rl,ile airplane follou'e. 1)r'rg vulues of the entire airplane al vririorts
rrlues of C r ere obtained from wind-tunnel iests. The total dnrg
'
, ,nfficient is then computed and plotted egains0 Cr, as in Fig, 13.7. o 0.04 0.08 0.12 0,16 0.20
'lhe resulting curve rvill greatly resemble a psrebola, A true cD

l,rrrabola is then drarvn to coincide with the polar curve as neally
rrs possible. It is customary to make the parabola coincide with the
l,rrlar exactly at trvo points in the flf ing r&nge, such as C t : 0.25
',rrcl
Cl = 0.75.
1'lre 1;alabola is of the form of Cp : a + bC 12; it is rvritten
1t.2
Co:Cor"+fu
--3-
The term Cpo"is called the effective parasite drag coefficieni;
rt, is the coefficient of the part of the drag that is independent of the
:rngle -'f attack. The expression r(/cb)2/S is termed bhe effective
:uspect ratio. the factor e taking into account any deviabion from
olliptic lift distribution acloss the span.
' FIc. 13.7. Airplane polor curvc.
Section 8.14 that, I'ithCr, plo',,Led against C 11, if a straigl,b line
I
is drarrn through thc origin tangenb to the ctlrve the point of
tangency rvill locate the maximttm L/D for the airfoil alone. Lay-
ing off the parasite drag coefficienb in thc form of 1.28a/5, to the
left of the origin, gives a point such as P in Fig. 13-8. A line through
pcint P ta,ngent to the curve locates the maximum L/D of the
entile airplane. In dig. 13.8, il is assumed thai the airplane has a
Clark Y rving 36 ft by 6 ft, and that the parasite resistance has an
equivalent flat plate at'ca of 8 sq ft. Then the distance OP is
1.28 X 8/216 or 0.0+7. The point of tangency shows that the
angle of aitack fol this combination of rving and parasite that has
maxirnum L/Dror^r is 8". The ordinate (C1) for the point of tan-
I DRAG

v is 0.93, and the abscissa, measured

,,,
from P' (Cptou't)' i*
,,,i in"r"i".e Lhe L/D for the entire airplane is 0'93/0'108
or
11.
tangent
,r ,t'his should be compared rvith Fig. 8.18, where the

Engined

14.1. UNSUPERCHARGED ENGINES

The power of an engine depends on the force exerted on a piston
being tiansmitted through a connecting rod to a crank to produco
a turning or twisting moment on the shaft. If a pressure-indicating
i:rstrument were connected to each cylinder and the pressurc
measured throughout the cycle, it wot'ld be posHiblc to calculotc
thc horsepoler of the engine. This is the indicntcd holsepowcr'
Orving to various friction losses in the engine iteelf, not all thc
indicated horsepower can be used for outside work. 'fhe indicated
horsepowe'less the power required to overcome the fricbion in the
engine leaves as remainder the brake horscporver, rvhich ie the
power of thc engine to do out;ide rvo;k. The ratie of brake horse-
po*ur to indicated horsepower ie the mechanical efficiency of ibe
engine, usually about 90 per cen't' The ind;lated horseporver
-Jtipti"d by the mechanical efficiency gives the brake horse-
poriler.
The mean effective pressure, in pounds per square inch, multi-
plied by the area of the piston, in square inches, gives the ever&ge
ior." r"tiog on the piston during a cycle. If this forse is multiplied
by the strike, in flet, the product is the work' in foot-pounds,
parasite drag' applied to the piston during a cycle' If the work per cycle is
FIc. 13.8. Polar curve for Clark Y airfoil with *,rttipn"a by thl number of cycles per minute, which in tho four-
cycle engine is one-half the revolutions per minute, the
product
,lr;Lrvn from the origin rvould locate the angle
of maximum L/D
L/D of' the wing alone is the.votk per minute' This may be expressed as follorvs:
t,rr the rving alone as 1" and the maximum
PLANT,
,,'l 21.5.
hP (indicated) : (14.1.1)
l3,ef0
where P : mean effective Pressure
L : stroke in feet
t25

I
 ENGINEII EFFECT OF ALTITUDE tz7
I pisron area of one cylind,, in square inches shows the fuel consumption in pounds of fuei per horseporver per
, rv^rking strokes per minute hour for various engine speeds.
%XrPm The load on the engine is furnished by the propeller. The pro-
,, - number of'cyiinders
peller is chosen for.the engine so that at a selected airepeed and
,,r,LI<e) : mechanical effielency X indicated horseporver rated engine speed the propeller will offer enough torsional resist-
ance to absorb all the power of the engine and the engine rvill not
,, ,rHing the compression ratio will have the effect of increasing
,,'rr cffective pressure and thus increasing the horseporver. Epeed up. If ihe propeller is of simple fixed-pitch type, if the air-
,'r lhe foregoing formula, it rvould appear that horsepotver
u0
,lrrcctly rvith revolutions per minute. Within a range close I
E

'rrt,od
rpm, this is true to a reasonablo degree of accuracy, r{
rq
rm.

140 6t go
x
130 to
P.rCrnt 0rll& Alrrp.ed
t20

v
Fro. 14.2. Vuriutions oi revoh,tions per rninul,e with airspood
110 for fixod-pitch propoller (unsuperchargcd cngine).
\r'utt.tni'ottie'ura kl horJcpo* 0r
100

90
rpeed ia lcss than that for rvhich the propeller rvus designc:!, the
propeller rvill offer more resistancc to +"urning, so that, even if the
80
throttle is at the same setting, thc rpm rvill be less. In Fig. 14,2 is
0.65
shown this slorving-up of tite engine speed l'hen the ar"plane is
0.50 flying at less than design'airspeed. This groph ie based on a fairly
'Full'throttle fucl con 'sumgition
0.55
/ ttt lr large number of tests, and it represents an average eflect.

050 L-
1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000 2,2@ 2,400 zffi 14.2. EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON POWEF, OF AN UNSUPEP-
Rcvolutions per mlnutc CHARGED ENGINE
Frc. 14.1. Unsuperchergod engino charta, An engine is an apparatus for burning fuel. If insufficient oxygen
is supplied, thc fuel cannul burn properly. Each drop of fuel needs
,' rrted power and speed. Above rated speed, the frictional a certain quantity of air for complete combustionl'that quantity
' 1',cL to be very large and the mechanical efrciency is very not being supplied, combustion rvill not be complete. Bv quantity
, . t lrcrefore, above rated speed the horsepower no longer
is meant mass or u'eight, not volume.
,, ,, ,,.s direcbly as speed.
In a carburetor, air picks up gasoline vapor to form a mixlure
t l,r. with engine speed has been tested
vrr"riation of horseporver
rvhich is drawn into the engine cylinders. Under normal concii-
number of engines, both air- and rvater-cooled, and the
,, l:rrge
tions, the mixture drarvn into the engine is at sea-level deirsity;
,'lt:, conform closely rvith the relation described above. Ior
if the carburetor is edjusted properly, there rvill be an adequale
, l,rrlLicular engine, the manufacturer can furnish information
,rt,, r't:lation of horsepoivertc speed forits type. In Fig. 14.1 is i supply of air to support the combustion of the gasoline vapor.
, , , rr the typical variation of full-throttle horsepower rvith
I At ",ltitudes, the air is less dense, so rhat, although the same
I
volume of air is drarvn into each cylinder, the mass of air rvill be
..y,rrr' 5pssd for a small unsupercharged engine. The figure aiso I
less. The mixture rvill be richer t,han at ground level, and a good
I
 I'IIFJ'CT OF AI,TITUDI' O:{ STII'I'P.CII.,\ITGIID ]iNCiINI]S 2N
,l , ,"*.
his mixture ,' his carburetor adjustment
L,,rrr th€ cockpit) and ":T;":
opens his throttle.
Ihc cylintlels on cach strolie.'lhis lcight, u'ill var'.\'rlilcr:l l.y ts tlrc
dcnsity of the air. 'l'hc valiation in thc air tcmp<trrrturc is slight
I'he brake horseporver decreases with allitude. Tests of engrnes
:rnd can be accountcd fol lly a
t,rr vc been made in an a!',itude chamber, rvhich is a room from
correction factor, so that,, for' 100
,l,ich air can be pumped so that the air densilies in the chamber
practical prlrposes, thc density
, ,'rrsimulate various altitudes. As a result of these tests, ib appeared
rlrrrl, &t constant rpm, i.e., maintaining the same rpm &s at the
varies as the pressurc. With supcr- b90
]
charged engines, it is rtracticalll.' o
a
t, r ll:ld:
universal custom to use constllnt- €eo
bhp l-t/ p \t'8 speed propellers. l'hcrr, at any con-
c
5
bhpu \.,.u/ stant engine speed, tire pol'er o[ ito
-:
the engine 's'ill vary dircr.tly lrs tlrt: c
o
intal<c manifold prcssur'o. 'lhis is ,An
o-
shos'n grapiricolly in Fig. J,1.-1.
With increased I'pln, tlre cngine 50
po\rer incrclises. With irrcrr,:ascd
60 70 80 90 100
Per cent full-throttle
spcred, tlrc gcar-drivcn supcl'- manifold pressure

r:lurrger rot:rl,es faster, so t,ha i highcr

I:rc. 1.1..1. litir:r:t r,'f nrlrrifold
manifold pl'essurcs are obtained. l)fossuIc ol) I)()\\'(jr.
Ib u'ill be noted that on the left-
hand chart of Itig. l.{.5, lit}r hig}r.'' r.pm, tl)(r frrll-t,hr.ot,Llc poinL
or right-hand end of the lines of constanb rpnl reach higlicr. urani-
fold plessu.r'c and higher po\\'er.
AltltudG in Flrl

tr\o. 14.3. Variation of brake horsepower with altitudo at I4.4. EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON SUPERCHARGED FN.
constent rptn for unsupercharged engine' GI}{ES

Some slight modilcations have been made to this relation at

l,r11lier altitude, and the variation of horseporver and altitude that
, , lrelieved to be most nearly correcL is shorvn graphically in
l,ryi. 14.3.It is to be noted that this graph applies only to unsuper-
,I,:rrged engines and is for the same rpm as at sea level. Since the
,,.r;istance to turning falls off more slorvly than engine power, &
:,rtil-pitch prcpeller runs slo',vcr at altitudo, g;:d this nust be ccr-
for in calculating thrust horseporver at altibude.
',.r:t,ed
I.I.3. EFFECT OF I{ANIFOLD PRESSURE ON
CHARGED ENGINES
If an engine is run at a constant fuel-air ratio and at a constant
, 1,ced, the power will vary directly as the weight of air going into
It has been shorvn by repeated tests that the engine porvel at
constant rpm varies linearly rvith altitude-density ratio. It rvrll be
noted that, on the right-hand chart in Fig. 14.5, the lines of con-
stant rpm are straight lines rvith negative slope, i.e. less porver
with increased altitude. Note also that, orving to increi,sed friction
losses, these lines converge at higher altitudes.
Charts similar to tr'ig. 14.5 are furnished by tne engine manu-
facturer for each type of engine. To use the charls to find the
power at altitude, it is first irecessary to find, from the left-hand
SUPER- chart, the sea-level power at the rpm and manifold pressure
desired. This sea-level power is then transferred to the zero altitude
(vertical) line on the right-hand chart. A straight line is then drarvn
from this point to the intersection of the constant rpm line and ihe
manifold pressure curve. The intersection of this line with the line
 ENGINES

,t,,,,lcsired altitude'will gite 'the brake horsepower at that

, ,,L. 15.
I t(n
I rt)0 .gj €c_
.: ,{n i{ $

:. ,o0 f) Propellers
l. F
/00
r,00
A
n
ll 7=r I5.I. FUNCTION
! ,,Ln cl
:,
400
//7
c
-oF
.[he air-screrv propeller is the device which changes *,he torque
7 6l
tl po\ver of the engine inlo lorrvard thrust, thls impelling the zrir_
r()3
222630343842460 plane forrvard. In the United States it is termed sirnply the
Absolute manifold pressure
in inches Hg propeller; in Europe, tl,c air srrew.'
Sca level Performance A rvood screrv forces its rvay into tvood by the l;ack face of thc
' Fro. 14.5. screrv thread pressing againsi, the n'ood. A bolt enters a fixec.l
Typical supercharged engine charLs.
nut by t,he back facc of the bolt thread sliding aga;nst the front
face of the n.it thread. With a m&rine propeller, it is the rear
EXAMPLE
face of the nlades u'hich pushes aga;nst the water. l.he very
l,',rr lhe engine of Fig. 14.5, 6nd the horseporver output at 5.000 ft first aircraft propellers rvere built rvith tLis viel-point; verv shortly
',,rl,rrrle fcr 1,800 rpm and 30-in. rnanifold pressure. thereafter, horveler, it rvas conceived that the blades might be
,\olulion, On the left-hand chart, find point,4. at intersection of 1,800
,r'r,, and 3G'in. manifold prtsaure lines and read off the horsepower'as
considereci as wings, or rather as a number of rvings of infinitely
Msrk'point B at 600 hp on the right-hand chart. Find point C, short span set end to end. Treating the blades as airfoils makes
'irrt).
rl,u intersectionof 1,8fi) rpm and 3Gin. manifold pressure lines. Draw the front face of the blades, i.e., the upper surface of the air$rils,
ttr,o BC, The intereection of line 8C with the 5,00G.ft altitude line is of primarv importance.
lr,rrrt D. Read the horeepower oD the-verucal siate as 640 hp. A propeller should be efficient in transforming the rotary power
imparted to it into forrvard tractive po\ryer. Since the propeller
is attached to the engine, at rvhatever speed the engine is run the
propeller must be able to absorb the porver furnished by the
engine. The fixed-pitch propeller cannot be most efficient at ali
engine speeds and all airspeeds. It is desigrried to give maximum
efficiency at +"he rated revolutions per minute of th" engine and
some one air speed; either maximum speed o $'ha,tever is decideci
upon &s cruising speed. At other r&tes of revolution or airspeeds,
the fixed-pi'och propeller ',"ill be less efficient than for design
conditions. Blades of an adjustable propeller may be changed in
pitch while the propeller is at rest. .lrlades of a controllabl: pro-
peller may be changed in pitch while the propeller rotates.
Ntl
 PROTELLERS AXIAL MOMENTUM THEORY %3
\ \IAL MOI\{ENTUT,I TEEOR.Y is the same,
r,, rnomentum theory, developed by R. E. Froude, deals rvith AxV : AV(r * a): AyV(r + b)
lr:rnf{csin energy of the mass of air affected by the propeller.
, tlris theory, the propeller is assumed to bc a disk rvhich As no energy is added to or subtracted from
the air from X
point immediately in front of the propeller disk, gurrouiii,. toa
' rr uniform pressure or thrust over the cross section of the tion may be applied:
uq;
,'lrrrnn passing through the disk- It is further assumed that
l, .i< inrparts no ttvisting or lotation to the e,ir ccluitn, and that
o *;Y'' : pt + + a12
f,v21t
arce--A
vcl.= Vl
+
l+ al
+ pt:p+f,v'ztt - (1 + @)21
x
Y + arcr=Al
.tea= Ai whV
vel.= v I l+ bl + ( Pcl3t As no energy is added to or subtracted from
Ptess= P
P the air from a point
immediately in the rear of the rlisl< to point I,,
the totrf f,"oi.
Press= P2 Prcss=Pl+ these points may likel'ise be placed equal: "t
+ a)2 : p +
nz
f,V2Q + f,v'z{t + tt1,
Ftc. 15.1. Momenturn theory of propeller action.

p2 : p+ b)2 - (1 + o)21
r,'rnrrins streamlined rvhile c.ming to the disk, passing through f,v'11t+
,,1 be1'ond it. I

It '\'ill De noted that the vslssitr, immediately

in front is assnmed
",
l,'ig. 15.1,X is a point in the air stream far enough in front, to be the same as the veJocity immediately in the rear t

,1,'. I)ropeller so that the pressure is atmospheric; Y is a point of th" ;;l;

otherivise there *'ourd be an instantaneous inc.ease
,1,'' rrir stream far enough to the rear of the propeller so that the
and an infinite acceleration, which cannot be. The
r. ,"r"riiv
ulc is atmospheric. p.op"ll;;
disk does exert thrust.on the air column, and the
IrL thru$-t
equal to the difference in pressure created by the propeller
;; ll
n: propeller disk area the area of the propeller disk:
timcs
A x: cioss-sectional area of air column .t X I

,4 r : cross-sectional area of air column at I T:(pz-pt)A

Strbstituting values of p1 and p2 abeady found,
tr, I,hat, owing to difference in velocities, ,4.16 and r4.y are not I

r : Al, *tvz[t +D),- (1 + a)2] - p -

I

':iltllle,
: Iz velocity at X ir,t - (1 +o)1] L

l'(l * a) : velocity at propeller disk

y(l + b) : veloc{ty at Y : slipstream velocity I/,
: f,.tvr11t + b)2 - ll
p: atmospheric pressure : static pressure at X
and I
pr : static pressure just ahead of propeller disk
- f,;^r1U, + zU1
(15.2.1)
Pz : static pressure just behind disk
tl

_ Thrust is also equal to.the rate of change of momentum, rvhich

r|rrcc the volume of air flowing through each area in unit time is the mass of air affected per second tirnes the change r"
""r;iiir.

r{r
 L li I

i -
I
AXIAL MOMENTUM THEORY 235
PROPBLLERS
The kinetic energy at X is
it,, rnss of ai. handled per second is the density multiplied by
t,, r,,lu[r€, and the volume is the sross-s€ctional area at any point K.E.x - +tpAV(I * a))Vz .{
,',, ,1 I.lrc velocity at the same.point. At the propeller disk, the
,,,r t:i A and the velocity is I/(1 * o), so the mtrss of air passing
: f,tv"1r +
")
r,,,,rr1,,h the propeller disk in'I sec is pAV(l * o). At point X,
,,, rlkrcityis I/;atpoint Y, thevelocityis I/(t + b) or I/ * bV; 'I'hc riiflcrcncre in kinetit: r'nergies ilt I/ irnd X, l'hich represcnts
t,' r.lole the change in velocity imparted to the air column by the thc r'.''.rrli :rbsrr:'lrccl l>1'thc pllpeller i' ultif, f imt', is l'he porver irlprrt:
, ,,,;".1k:r' is b7.
I Irr,rr
I'orvt:r input : f,,ev"<t * a)(t + Dz - f,lv'1t, + ")
f,:pllr(l{a)bl,'
: pAV20 + a)b (r5.2.2) : 2 AVs(t * a)(b2 +.2b)
t,lrr.rling llqs. (15.2.1) utl (15.2.2) givcs
Subst,it.rrting L : 2rr givrrs

pAl'"(l * o)b : !.tv)1tf + zb)

2 Porver inprrt - f,,1,v"{t
+ a)(z&b + 2b)

.2b+2ob:b2+2b : p"rvrb(I + a)2

b
a--t Therefore
_ porvt'r ortt,ptrt,
'l'his means that. of the total inclease in vclocity imparted to Iifficitrncy
porver in1ltrl,
tlr. tir column, one-lplf is added before the air passes lhrough
pAvrb(l +
llr,. propeller disk. : a)
'lir find the ideal efficiency, the potver exerted by the propeller lVtttlt * "1"
,, rlivitled by the power absorbed.
Oot". exerted by the propeller is the thrust times velocity :l
,,,.'t',r"
l*a
Porver outPut : TV This is the ideal efficiency of a perfect propeller having no losses
: pAV2 (t * a)bV due to rotation of the slipstream, profile drag of the bla<1es, inter-
ferense of blades, or r.adiai florv. The enly loss ponsiclereri iu the
: pAVs(I + a)b mornentum theory is the kinetic energJ loss in prtrd trirnslabion.
'lhe porver absorbed by the propeller is the work cione on the The momentum theory rvould apply equally $'ell to any device
:ril column in unit time, u'hich is the kinetic energy added in unit rvhich applies thru',t or aclditi<-r:,ral piessure to a'n air column'
l,irne to the kinetic energy at X, to give the kinetic energy at Y.
PROBLEMS
l(inetic energy is onehalf the mass times the square of the velocity,
rurd the mass can be measur'ed at auy point. 15.2.1. By the momentum theory, rvhat is the maxialunr efficiency
obta,.mble from a propeller if the airspeed is 150 mph and the slip-
The kinetic energy at IZ is
stream velocity is 185 mph?
K.E.r : +lpAV (r + a)lly(l + b)12 15.2:2. If the airspeed is 210 knots and the slipstream velocity is
230 knots, (o)' what' is the maximurn obtainable efficiency, (b) how
: f,ev'o + o)(1 + b)e
 ill PROPELLERS BLADE-ELEMENT TTIEORY 237

.,, lr lrelorv atmospheric is the pressure immediately in front of the disk. This resultant velocity 'rvill be in a direction making en
, , ,1 ,,.1Ior?
angle + witF the propeller disk such that
t1,2.3. By the momentum theory, what is the thrust tor a ProPeller
tr ti in. in diameter if the airspeed is 140 knots and the sliPstre::n
,l',,.it,y is 170 knots?
lcana:J-
' 2trtn
i ,,t IILADE-ELEMENT THEORY The magnitude of thi:, resultant velocity 7n is

\ t,he blacle-elcment thccrl' was f,rst put in practical form by to:.*d:."r0

'
tr,,,,r,$'iecki, this conception of the action of the propeller is usually
,,t|r.r.t)d to as the Drzerviecki theory. This treatment involves
,rr ,i,lcring the blades as being composed of an in{inite number of
,,,,,11 [irfoils. The span of ebch airfoil is an infinitely small distance
Frc. 15.2. Blade-element Lireorv'
joinecl
rl,rrrg th€ length of Lhe bla.de. AII lhese small airfoils ale
t,,1,,r'lher,',.ving tip to rving tip, to form one.trvisted or rvarped rving
,' lrrch is the proPeller blade.
l,)ich small section of the blade may be studied separately and
rtl. results summed up to get the total action of the blade. Figure
r , 2 shols one of these elements of the blade, which is located
o
The blade element has a cross section rvhich has the contour
of an airfoil section, usuall-,' modifications of ilrrr Clark Y or
RAF-6 sections. The angle rvhich the reference chord of this
section makes l'ilh the plane of rotation of the propeller is the
blade angle B. The angle of attack a of the blade element is uhosen
as tire nngle of maximum L/l,t of the airfoil section used. It is to
be noted that every blade elcraenL moves fors,arcl l'ith the same
velocity I/,. but the linear spcrrd sf rotation is greeter fo" bladc
elements nearer the tip of thc propeller, so the relative velocily tr/6
rvill be greater at the tips. The angle { is less for blade elements
near lhe tip than for those nearer the center. Since
a:g_6
if the same angle of attack is maintained along th" blade, the blade
angle p become Iess as the tip is neared. This is rvhy a propeller
blade has its rvarped or trvisted appearance.
The air florvs around each element and causes a resultanb as
rvith any airfoil. The area of the element is the span dr times
the chord, rvhich is b, thc blade width at that point. The velocity

'lr lance of r feet from the axis of the propeller' In one rotation is Vn. The lift force on the element is
,
'l lhe propeller, this blade element travels a distance of' 2tr
t,,.t around a circle.in the plane of the propeller disk' If the pro- dL:C,2bdrvo'
"2
,,, 1k:r is turning over ?? revolutions per second, the linear velocity
,,1 tlre elementln the plane of rotation is 2trrn feet per second lf The resultant force is acting in a different direction from the
rlr,,irirplane has an airspeed of 7 feet per second, the propeller is lift component; let the small arrgle between these lrvo directions
,,,,,"ing forward rvith that speed-Since the motion of the airpiane be called angle d. Th:n
, praJically in the direction of the ihrust line of tlre propeiler'
L
,,,,.e it is suffieiently i.ccurate to state that the motion of the cot,0:
per second D
t,l:rrle element is the resultant of a vglocity ol 2trn feet
of the propeller disk combined rvith a velocity of
,rr the platte If the propeller blade is so constructed that under design con-
I feei per second perpendicular to the plr'ne of the propeller ditions (i.e., iormal rpm and design airspeed), every airfoil section
 r-t f-l r-]
r---l
i-t !-,.
r---1 r--'1 r-.1 f-r
.,1
f----l
T ll r-1 t-t
., :.

tr i;d r . ; .. i a I ; I t I

BLADE-ELEMENT THEORY 239

238 PROPELLERS

is meeting the air at the same angle of attack a; lhen, if the same substituring ?" : Q1T1Qj9
srn-{cosd *iu".
"
rrirfoil section is used throughout, d will be the same all along the
blade. In practice, for strength, sections near the hub are thicker
rhan bhose near the tip.
'l'he resultant forcc on the blade elernent lvill be
#:;r,r"
dL ?" varies for each blade element. The expreSsion dT/dr is the
dFp: eos d
thrust per unit length of blade radius; therefore, if ?" is plotted
-^ ti
c ,.f,u d.r v n2
:-
1

g
""-o- 'l

E
'fhis resultant foroe, irrstead being divided into lift and drag
of o
A cl
.t'
cornponen[s. is dividerl in components pnralitl kr the propeller o o
o E
nxis arrrl parallel tti the planc of rotai.it-'n. 1'hc component parallel .E E
dt
i,r l)ttr prollellt:r nxis is crrllcd the t'lrrusb t'omp.nent'thlt paralle) o
c
t,6 l,lrt: plale of rot.alion is <:allcd tlre to.ngcntiai ol t,ortlitc cgnrponent. E
'fhc lift comprttrcrtt is pel'pcntlicttla.r trr thc diler;tirln of the
|rrLrtive wind ltn, und tl,c relative rr,ind urakes &n rr.ngle of f rvith
ilrc pluue t-rf rotation; thcrefore the lif t colrtponenl makos the same Rrdlus
ongft 4 rvifh bhe dilectir.rn of the propcllcr axis. 'l'he resultant
foric is at unglc 0 * d rvith thc direction of the propeller axis' Ito. 16.3. Typicai bhnrst and torqu, gradino curves.
'fhe thrust comPoncnt is thcn
d,T : dqn cos (C + d) against radius as in Fig. 15.3, and the aroo is obtained under this
curvo, this area multipliod by (p/z)v2 givee the thrust for .ne
,rrtbdrvnzT# blade.
Similarly, rubstituting Vn: V/ainS in Eq. (tb.B.2) giveu
The torque or tangential compr:ttenb is
d,I,' - dFn sin (O + e) oa=;",[ffi#,J*
'lhe torque itself, which is the momenl, t'hot must' be applied, iu
Lb sin (d *
at
o)r
the bangential force timos its mcrnon!' &l'm r' Let[ing Q repre- Subetitutins Q, =
sont torque,
ei-Slffi- nves.

dQ=rdfnsin(O+0;
(16.3.2)
# - tn',,
ir pfotted againet.r in_Fig. 15.8. The aroa undor this ourvo,
.]ol,, r;i'J,.,l.*..
_Qo
whon multiplied by (p/Z)V,, givoc the total foot-pounde uf ;;;;
From Eq.,0.8, r),
;equired to turn one hlade.
ol
dr - 22'y'zlc t'b.cga J9-+
L ainr0coso J-
dt The efroiency of eaoh element ir the power output divided by
 I
I

t
PROPELLERS THRUST AND POWER COEFFICIENTS
24t
1,,,\\'or inptlt or The quanti|y V / (nD) is dirnensionless. The.symbol js
VdT _ I some_
Efflcicncy : times used to represent v / (nD). Both in the sirnpre
uha"-eru,nlnt,
2rn dQ theory and in rnodificetiot' of it, since ?
",
e", and,tf,u .m.i*.y _,=
VclPacos(d*d) frllcti-ons of 6, rhey are funcrion s of v / (ni). r" propuiioi il";;;
2rnrd,F a sin (0 + d)
v/(nD) describes thc condition. und.r *,nicn ine p."p;ii;;'li
operating.
it.rrtins
I' :
rl,, 1
" 2rrtt tr,n { gives 15.5. THN,UST AND FO\VEI. COEF}.,ICIENTS
t?nd The thrust gradient curve as shorvn in Fig. 15.3 sho*-s
Bfficiencv:
- tan(6+0)- thrust varies along the blade. .lhe shape of the cur'e, the
horv

nleans the height of the ordinatcs, depenc_ls on

*h;;i;
llr,, simple blaclc-element tlreory treglects the inflorv velocily. horv ,h; ;i;;;
l'idth b and the blade angle p change along the blnde. Fo. geo_
,l ,) ncglccts thc fact that.air passing around a u'ing is giren a metricallr simila. pr'pellers, the shapcs u,uuir rr. thc
,rr:trrl vclr','itr', ol if circul.rting around a propeller blade is same- if-tfre
abscissa r'ere r,'1? instead of the actual clislancc
in feot .ncl ii,!,,r
',, ,, sirrril&r'li,:'r'.'l'he blade of a propcller, instearl of nreeting *'ere usetl insteiid of the acr.uar blacie *.ir.lth rr in
,l.rlrvr: rr'ind !':'om thc directi<ln I/4, &s shown in Fig. 15.2, is tlrc comllrrtaliun
of the o.c'linates, the curvcs ivo.lt.r be iclenticrrr fnt g.u,r;";.i;,,il;
, 1u;; ail riistulbecl by the previous blrr.de passage. 'lhe tlicor5' similar propelle.s. 'rhe same is t'ue for the torrlrre gr.adient
rr.ulects tip losses. c'l.ves.
At an1- blade elen)ent, the blade angle p being fixcd, if is
r , orrrnination of thc tivo basic theories, the momentum and changed the thrust (anci torque) on thaielemenj
d
t,,l, r'lcmcnl tlic'rl'ics, rvith certain corrcctions has been found to cirange.'Fo, uny
fix-ed-pitch propeller, for each different valuc
, , ,'xcclle rrL resuir,s in thr desigr, or selection of propeiiers of V / (nD) theie
*'ill be different shapes to the thrust ar'.i the torque g.^ai*i
curves. For any one value of V/(nD), the shape
PR.OBi,II]\,IS of the L:u-rve ancl
consequently the area under it could be definitely
tr';t.1. By the simple blade-element theory, what is the efliciency of knorvn. For
geom-etrically similar propullers, curves
, k'rnent of proyreller blade, 2 ft 6 in. from the center, if the blade
could be dra,r.n to.
", possible of v / (nD), and the areas rv'uld. be a measur" "o.r,
.,,'1,' is 24", the blade section is strndard Clark Y (see l'ig. 8.8), the 'alue ;h;
,,,.,1 of rotation is 1,900 rpm, and the airspeed is ll0 kn<lts?
thrust and the torque for that particular V/(nD). "i
t , lt.2. \\rhat is the efficicncv at a point 3 ft out from the center of the
For geometrically similar propellers, increesing the
- size increases
,"1','llt:r' if the blade angle is 20"? the blade r-:Cth as rvell as lhe radius; therefore thrust .,ru.i",
u. n!,
t',:l:l I'rove, by differentiation of tan g,/tan (O + A) rvith respect !_ojqy"
and pou'er var.y as.B3. Thrust, torque, and pon.er.
uury u,
' ,y,, I,lrat, for maximum bfficiency, { should equal 45o - (0i2). tr/2' Pou'er as rr. 'r'his may be a mathematicall'
'aries "*pr=it as
, ' I
AI)VANCE RATIO V/(nD) T: T"p\r2D2 (15.5.1)
tr: angle {, shorrn in Fig. 15.2, is the angle-the helical propeller
I rvhere ?: thrust in pounds;
,, ,tlr r,rakes iviih -l.he plane cf rotaticn:
p : e"pV2nff (io.5.2)
d:tan-'I*(#) rvhere P: pcwer in foot-pounds per second. ?" and
stants dependent on dhe shape of the thrust gradient e" are con-
1,,.r'.: V is in feel per second and the
torque gradient curves, respectively, and are
n is revolutions per second different for each
V/(nD). (.Vote; This Z" is not the same as the ?" used in
D is diameter in feet. Section
15.3.)
 D
PnoPnr,lEns
THRUST AND POWER COI]FFICIENTS
r,, ,'r(l(jr to eliminate velocity -r- from Eq. l1o.b.l), q, new
rlr, r,.nt, Cr is introduced:

cr: r"(#)'
r,rrli{)n (15.5.1) may be reu'ritten as
/ v\2 pv2D2
r = r"\nD)
w
=r,"QL) pn2Da r*Jl r

: Ct'pnzDa (15.5.3)

l,rrrli{rn (15.5.2) may be similurly transformed, eliminating I/, ii

,r irrg & <:rxrffieient, Cr: Q"lV/(nD)12.llervriting I)q. (15.5.2), 71-- P"t'- \ oPai-*-- -
P: Q"\d / r\,/ \'\2 olt2n.l)3. :l\1:]
\;;/
: C ppdD6 (r5.5.4) angle at
0.75n i

l"or' &Dy given propeller, dp and C7 rvill be tiirTerent for each I

,rlrrc of V /(nD). For a fixed-piich propeller, a single curve ma,y be

'lrrrrvn of Cr verslls V/(nD), giving the value of Cr for each con-
,lrrirrrr of 1//(nD) under rvhich the propeller mey be flown. Like-
r,r, for a fixed-pitch propcller a siugle curve m&y be cirarvn of Cp
' 1.2
'.,.r;na V f (nD), For a varinble-pitch propeller, a family of curveg V/nD
,,,rry be drau'n, e&ch curve representing the votiation of Cr rvith Fro, 1b.4, Typical powcr coofliciont curvos.
l'l(rt.l)) fur onc prrrticular sotting of tho blade. Anothcr family of
,,uv(rs is dnrln to give th6 variation of Cp wiLh V/(nD), each output, to porvel ahsorbed; that is,
t,r' or)c particular blade sctting. Blads Bottings aro deaignatod by
tl,c blndo rnglc p &t, s'Jmo point on tho blade, uaually at three- rv
,l=T
rlrrnrtors raclius. A est of such curveg for a typioal two-bladed
g,ropeller ie shorvn in Fig. 16,4. Correct curvos for'any particular
QrnzDrv
l,ropoller aro fu;niehod br- the manufacturer. - C ppnsD6
If tlro valuee of Cr and Cp at &ny V/(nD) are known, tho
nfEcioncy 11 cen bo found as follows, The officioncy i'B tho ratio of CrV
(r5,5.5)
CP nD
 llt.
I
I

'POIVER-SPDED
PROPJ'I,LIIRS
COBFFICIENT 245

angle of 27" c't 0.7bn. Its p*lormance is as slrorvn in Fig. ri,{.

EXA\,IPLE prcpeller is rototing at 2,100 rpm o'd the airplane is flyini at
If the
rao tnots
, fl, dismeter, constant-speed propeller rvhoee performance is as
rr at sea level, (o) rvhat is the thrust, and (b) what horsepoo.u]';,
I.'ig. 15.4 is on en engine rated at 500 hp at 1,900 rpm at 10,000
r, rrr 15.5.4. The fixed-pitch propelrer of problem t;.s.a is r.otating"tr*,t*iiot
rrrtrrrlc. Thc uirplane is flying at 10,000 ft altitude at an rirspeed of 2,000 rpm' \Yhat should be the oirspeed at sea le'el to rrbsorb
,,r1,1r, (o) \\'hat is the thruet? (b) lVhat is the propeller efficiency?
sooifr
15.5.5. What is the efticiency of a l0-ft, fixed_pitch propeller, ,r.,.th
o
,l u lt ott, 30o blode angle at 0.Zb^R, and performance giuuo inFii. r;,i, *tun
500 hP : 500 X 550 rotating-at 1,g50 rpm, the airplane having an ", lirspeed oiliO tini, ol
sea level?
'
= 275.000 ft-lb per sec

180 nrph: 264 It per sec 15.6. . POWER-SPEED COEFFICIENT

1,900 rpm : 31.67 rps In the preliminary design of.a propelier, it rvould be lielprur to
," l)11. (15.5.4),
have a formula for po*'er not i'v'l'ing the cliemeter, ul,icrii,
nut
usually kno*'n at the beginning the pr.oblcm. F. E. \\'eick hrrs
Cr:
27 5,000 'f
introduced a po\\'el'-specd coefficieut Cr, s.here
0.001756 x (31.67)3 x (9)6 ,',,
V
: 0.0s35

lt 264 ,:w
C, "D
nD 3l67Xg
Flom Eq. (15.5.4),
: 0.93
| ,,,rrr l"ig. 15.1, f"r I'/(nt)) : 0.93 lrr'! Cp : 0.0835, it is found tlrat,
P : CppnsDs
0.071 af l blrrrle lrtglc of 25".
L"nr Eq. (15.5.3), :#fr,,,,to'
?- 0.07+ x 0,001756 x (31.67), x (9)1

: E55lb
pv5
l,'ront Eq. (15.5.5), C'5n'
0.074
_:___
n:
' 0.0835
x 0.93

:
n-o"v
"s -
E2.l per cent 1>Ysrrls

PROBLEMS Substituting o : p/poand pe : 0.002378 gives

l;r.ir.l. For the propeller used in the preceding exa,nple, rvhat are
,r thnrst and (b) the efficiency, when the plane is flying at 210 mph
r lhe
n -TEF-
v": o.2ggotaV

,r l(),000 ft altitude?
15.ir.2. Calculate the static thrust at sea level of an S-ft diamcter, where I/ is in feet per sccond
,,,rrrt,lnt-speed propeller whose perfbrmance is es given in Fig. 15.4 with P is in foot-pounds per second
urr r,rrgine of 420 hp at 2,000 rpm.
n is in revolutions per.seconcl.
;.,.5.3. A fixed-pitch propeller,8 ft 6 in. in diameier, has a blade
 .fi

PROPEI,I,:RS POWER-SPEBD COEFFICII'NT 217

R. P. M.
In engineering units, this becomes
Brakc XoBcadcr
gggg RE s Eg 8
,a- soo v":
^ -@0.638 X ox X mpii
(15.6.1 )
N '-pm%
280

270
- : 0.735 X ox X kn,rts
2&
t" (ri.6.2)
otPSCTIONS' hpl', X .O-.% -
ThtouSh gont' wh6e
ordrnatc rs velcrty and
2*
abscrssa ls r. P. m., draw
240
I Therefore, the available horseporver, engine revohrtions, and air-
hne lrom dlSin rn lowet
lcf - hand cornet. Whe(c speed being knou'n, C" rnay be founcl.
210
lhrs lrnc cr65a5 vcrtical
powet hne, read C: m : Equation (15.6.1) does not lend itself reaclill'to slidc-rule
22oe
lelt - hand scalc' E operation. Ib rncy be solved by logarithms or by usc of thc charl in
2r0 5
Fig. 15.5.
200:
rt;
: In using the chart, a line is draivn from the origin O through tlrr:
intcrsect,ion of lines represcut,ing velcrcitJ- ancl revolutious pr:r
r8.o_Q nrinute. The intersection of this line rvith the horsepolcr line
I70 givcs the value of C".
I@
150
EXAMPLE
140 The en;;ne gives 400 ho at 1,900 rpn.r. \\'hat should be the C, of the
propeller for an airspeed of 150 mph?
130
Solution. See bloken line on Fig. 15.5. From O drarv diagonal line
r20
through intersection of lines representing 150 mph ^nd 1,900 rpm.
ll0 \\-here diagonal line intersects line representing porver of 400 lrp, read
l@ on C, scale 1.40.

IROBLEMS
(Use logarithms and check by nomogram.)
15.6.1. A Stinson ailplane uses an engine rated of 95 hp at 2,400 rpm.
\Vhat is the C, of the propeller for an aiispeed of 90 knots?
15.6.2. A Monocoupe uses a l\Ienasco engine rated at 125 hp at
2,200 rpm. What is fhe C, of the plopeller for an airspeed of 125 knots?
15.6.3. An airplane is porvered with a Lycoming engine rated at 2.10
hp at 2,300 rpm.',y'hat is the C, of the propeller if the airspeed is 180
knots?
15.6.4. A Curtiss airplane is equipped rvith a Wright engine rated at
700 hp at 2,150 rpm. lVhat is the C, of the propeller at an airspeed of
xee RE q
Braha Ho.$9owet
230 mph?
15.6.5. A certain engine delivers 500 bhp at 2,200 rpm at !,,000 ft
Frc. 15.5. Cbgrt for finding C'' altitude. What is the C, of the propeller if the airspeed is 290 mph at
that altitude?
 -tst--i I-iri-l-i
l. J ---I I l.-J -
-I -
E tr ni
t t I r I I a___.1 I r_--J r__j-l t 1.,,i I IL Ir I t .l r____J i i
I

PROPELLERS
.DETDRI'INATION oil BLADT' ANGL]] 21J
I)I.]TI'RMiNING BLADE ANGLE AND DIA}.IETER OF
V/l?O)a plopellcr with lesi pitch l,ill shou, a highcr cfficicnc1..
I'IXED_PITCH PROPELLERS
The eflioiencl: vers's rt /(nD) clrrves are practically horiz.rntal
ttrr. rlesign po\ver, airspeed, and rpm being Knou'n, the polver- irerr tire rnaximum point, then drop rather sharply. If a propellcr
' ' I coefficient can be found as shorvn in tlte preceding section' is seiected rvhicir h:ts pcali efftciency fo. the vi(nD't of lci..cl flight
,,,,1 n being knorvn, the ratio V f n can be found. It is desired to
have an efficient PrcPeller for the
design conditions, but, therc are
trvo variables, the diameter and
the blade angle.
The diameter is limited in size
in thab too iarge a diameter rvill
not allou'sufficient ground clear-
ance in landing and taking off.
Also, r-ith gir.en nurnber of revo-
i 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.1 hrtions pel nrinrtte, a larger cliam- s
V/nD eter ri'ill mean g'eeter tiP c
i , r 15.6. Typical cfficicncY spceds. With tip specd abovc .g
.9

curves. 900 ft per sec, the tip losses alc

very gr:at, and thcY cut dos'n
tlrr, efficiencl'. Tf design I'' ancl n are fixed, increasing the
',,,,.1,rrr decreases the design i /(nD).

llrI
1
r,,, rl)asing the V i(nD) by decreasing the diameter means that ,. I

r,r1,,r: georleLric pitch (iarge blade angle) s'ill be necc:saly to

Bltde..nSlr !t.75R
,,,,, cfficiency uuder design conditions. A large blade angle lvill
, lorv static thrust lcsulting in poor take-off and poor climb.
'r
\ rr r:xamination of Fig. 15.6 n'ill shorv that propellers l'ith lalger
,,lr nltios (blade angles) have grc:iter maxitnum efficiencies than
1.2 t.r ,ao. 1,.5 1.6 t.1 t.8 1.9
, 1,,.lkl's rvilh sn-rallcr pitch ratios; also tha.t these gt'eat'el maxi- 2.O

,,,, cfliciencies fol the large pitch l'atio propeller are for greiiLcr
r,r/)) values. This rl'ould seem to inctrcate that a I'ery small
'rrr'Lcl accorilpanied by large pir,ch ratio rlould be desirable'
,,, inighb be tr.rc if the propeller allays operalcd al Ccsign
r,r/)). In level flight, throttling the engine to give slightly
',,r' revolutions per minute rvill decrease the airspeed approxi-
,t,ly the same ratio, and, since D is constant, V/(nD) rvill be
i,l,r{)ximately the same as design V/(nD). In climb, hou'ever,
'rlr frrll throttle, the airspeed rvill decrease gr":rtly so thlt /(nD)
V
tl lrc much less than design V/(nD). Refelring to Fig. 15'6, if
1,r,rpell€r has been picked rvhich has a higher efficiency than any
r l r. other propellers plotted f or some given V / (nD), at a smaller
Fro. 15.7. Efiicienc;r vemus C, for various blade angles.
maximum speed, at the \, / (riD) of cruising conditions the propeller
will have almosb the same efficiency.
In Fig. 15.7 is shorvn efficiency a plotted against e for a metal
propeller with a type J-5 engine mounted in a high-wing caLin
monoplane. with a different engine or mounted in the nose of
a different type of airplane, o*'ing to the difierent intr:rference
immediately behind the central part of the propeller, the efficienc1.
uurV€s will be altered slightly. The curves of Fig. 15.7 are quitc
typicr-lly r^presentative, however
If the peak efficiency of anv one blade setting is scllcted, it *.ilr
.''II PROPEI,LERS I DETERN{INAI'ION OF BLADE ANGI,E 251

l,r. not€d that, at the same value of C", a higher efRciency is obtain- angle is chosen rvhich gives the greatesi efficiency for that
C;.
,,1,1: rvith a larger blade angle. If the utmost efficiency is desir'ed
This wili resul[ in an extremel.v poor take_off
t,,r':r given C", a propcller *'ilh'"he blade angle giving the highest The blade angle rvhich iras peak efEcicncy foi i,his c'" rviil permit
a reasonably g,od take-off but, or'ing to the srr:tlrcr. .ftir:iency,
u,iil
red.uce the top speed.
A propeller rvith a blade arrgle which is the rncir,n l;ct*,cen those
described in the last ttvo paragraphs rvill resrilt in a take_ofl
approximat,ing that for the 1r"*r Im.i".rcy-, rvher.os thc
rnaxi'rrrrn
speed obtainable will be p.actiually that of the pr,p.ile.
seretl,.r.r
for high speed. This is the propeller usually selecieJ.
\I/ith the blade augle clecided orr, Leso.N is matle t, u ch:rrt. _qirrrillrr.
to Fig' l5'8, *'here Q is plorted agai'st v (rD) ror .r-rLriorrs lrrecle
/
angles. Trvo refere'cc lincs :)rc on this diagr.rnr. .irc trr:siglirrtirrr
22 the maxinrurn efficierrcf i,lr pllr'es, t,lrc ot,rrt:r. sr_rit.;r.l.rrr, frir.
general purposes. 'l-hr: use of '^.r:i'g
Figs. lJ.7 antl iJ.s cri' lrrrst be
2l explaineil b1' an illustral,ivc cxlLrnplc.

oH20 llx.{tlPLrt
I
-g 19
c
A cabin ruonoplane hus a top speerl of lbO nrplr. Its engine gives
400 hp at 1,900 rpnr. Find dirimeter, blacle angle, a',1 effitielcy
€t8 oi the
6 propel!:r for g,,neral ut:lity. What is its efficientr-y if airplune flies
t00
t7 mph at 1,600 ipm?
Solution. From previous work:
l5
C, : L.40
t5
From Fig. 15.7, for C,
t4 : 7 l.!0, blade angle of 19" is at peali efficiency,
0.79; blade angle of 20o gives efficiency of 0.g0, it"a*
n
22ogivesZ:0.81.
li "ngt,
t3
From Fig. 15.8, for C, l.4O and bladij angle lgo,
t2

ll
L:
nD
o.rru
but
0.8 0.9 l.o l.l 1.2 I.3 1.4
Cr
1.5
7 : 1b0 mph

FIo. 15.8. C. versus blade angle for various values of V/(nD)' : 220 ft,.per sec
n:31'7r's
At slightly lower values of
,,lliciency for that C" should be chosen. Then
(1., the efficiency of the bigger-blade-angled propeller rvill have
,lropped sharply whereas the efficiency of the smaller-blade-
^
Ll=-
220

,rngled propeller rvill have decreased only slightly'

31.7 x 0.725

If high speed is the only objective, the C, being known, the blade :9ft7in.
 IJIJ tl

PROPELLERS TIIX THRUST. OF A FIXED-PITCH PROPELLER 253

I

If p and D are both conqtant,

7: 100 mph
: L46.7 ft per sec
Cpono2 - Cprnf
C po /nr\z
[ilrI _:t_t
(15.8.1)
n: 26.7 rps ch \no/
v 146.7 If p is not consta,nt,

"D:: 2rl,:- x g.5?

pc (!:.\"
p,
C
: (15.8.2)
0.574' C pt n\u/
l"rrrrrr Fig- 15.8 for 19' blade angle and V/(nD) of 0.574, From Eq. (15,5:3)
C" : 1.08 To : Crapno2Da
lrrom Fig. 15.7 for 19" angle cnd C. : 1.08, Tt : Crrpnt2Da
n : 0'75 Then
'l't _ Crpnrz
PROBI,DI{S
'[r, C ropno2
1ir.7.1. Find rlilmeter, blade angle, and efficiencl' for a gener.al-utility
r',,,trt:ller for J' : 130 mph,210 hp, and 1,900 rprn. Conside^ring p as r:onnl;ant tnd substituting, frcm Eq (15,8.1),
15.7.2. Find dirmeter, blade angle, and e.lficiency for.a gener.ll-ut,ility (nr/a)': CpofCprgives
1'r,'poller for I' : 200 mph,300 hp, and 2,100 rpm. Tt _ Cr, Cpo
li-r.7.3, Eind tliameter, blacle angle, and efficiency for a general-utility
1'r,,1reller for It : 190 mph, 400 hp, an ' 2,250 rpm.
To C,rs C p1

15.7.4. Iind diameter, blade angle, .rnd efficiency for a general-utility

1'r,,1reller f.or V : 168 mph, 250 hp, and 1,750 rpm. rr: ro:#,# (15,8.3)
15.7.5. Find diameter, blade angle, and effieiency for a general-utility
l,rr,1reller f.or V : 95 mph, 75 hp, and 1,900 rpm. EXAMPLE
I],IJ. DETERI\IINING THE THRUST OF A FIXED-PITCH {oi a_&lt-diameter, fixed-pitoh propeller having a blade engle of 2Bo
PROP9LLER at 0,76R, find the V/(nD), thrurt, and effioienoy at an aiipeed of
!26
nplr snd 2,200 rpm; rlro the thruet &nd ef60ienay ;i V / (nD)'ot 0,60,
'l'he diamet,er and the blade angle of a fixed-pitch propeller being
0,60, 0.40, 0,80, 0.20, 0.10, and zero.
Lnr)wr, if may be desired to know the thrust at some va,lue of Solulion,.
l' l(nD). This knowkjdge of thrust is quite desirable in computa-
lrorrs of talie-off rttn. /tr\ _ 126x88
lVith unsupercharged engines, the torque is constant with a \nD/o 2,200 x 6
r.rr$t&rt thronle setting. This may be considered to follorv from From Fig. 16.4, for F - 28o and V / (nD) - 0.88,
tlur straight-linc relation between full-throttle horsepower and Cro.- 0,076 aqd Cpo - 0,078
rt)rn &s shorvn in Fig. 14.1. If the torque is constant, then, from
(i5.5.4), From Eq. (16.6.3),
l':r1.
p
i : C roono'Do To - o.ot sx o.oo2378 x /2399\'
\60/x(6)'
- C rrFr_.rDu = 310,9Ib
 ttrt1,r
,..'{ PROPELLERS
\l I
THE POWER OF A FIXED-PITCII PROPELLER 255

directly n'ii,h rpm. The propeller efficiency being 4, the thrust

l'r,rtrt Dq. (15.8.3),
horsepower (thp) is the product of the engine brake horsepower
,0.O76 Cr
T : 310.9
UArS C"
multiplied by q:
thp:bhpXa (lb.9.l)
: i;r4.sg!
Cp The thrust horsepower is also called the available horsepower.
The diameter and blade angle of a propeller having been chosen
TABLE.15.T by the methods described in Section 1i.7, Lhe thrust and pcwcr
v /(nD) Cr CP Cz'iCr T 1 coefficients are found from charts similar to Fig. 1b.4. The rpm at
(l ) (2) (3) (1) (c, (6) any V/(nD) may be found by means of Eq. (t5.g.l). Th" rpm
0.83 0.075 0.076 0.09 3u 0.82 being knorvn, the brake horseporver of the engine can be read off
0.60 0.120 0.103 t'L7 367 0.70 from manufacturer's charts, similar to Fig. 14.1. If such a chart
0.50 0.132 0.108 r'22 385 0.6r is not available, use .is made of rhe relation (bhp)/(bhp)o :
0.40 0.144 0.i i: l'2fi {05 0.51
(rpm)/(rpm)q, where bhps is the rated horsepou,er. and rfmq is
0.30 0.160 0.118 1 36 ta l 0.41
the rated speed of the engine. The propcller efficiency
0.20 0.I 73 0.122 t jtz l.r6 c.18
-ay-be
0.10 0.186 0.124 1'50 0.15 found by Eq. (15.5.5) and thc tlrr.ust horseporver by Eq. (15.-9.1).
0 0.i98 0,127 1'56 191 0
I.,].\A}I I'LD
l,lxPLAN.trroN tlr l',rsLu
f i (nD)' A 6-ft-diameter fixed-pitoh pr.oprrllcr rvith a blude angle of 2Bo at
Columns (2) tnd (3) frorn Irig' l5'4, lor -23" and Dropor 0.758 ie to be used with an unsupcrclrar.ged engine rnted l2b hp at
itoms in column
Oolun::r (4), itcnrs in colunrn iz) aiuiOoO by corrosponcling
2,200 rpm. The design airspeed is l2i mph. Find thc thr.ust ho.-.epower
(;r).
anC corresponding airspceds f.;r scn level at v*r,ious r.Jues of ,rri@q,
Column (5), itoms in colutnn (4) tt)ultipliod by 314'0'
il,onre in
c"iunrn ioj, it,rl. iri colurnri it; tuultilrli.r(l by c0r'rcxpondirrg The engine performonc^ is as shorvn in llig. l.l, I ; the propeller perform_
urlumn (4)ieoe Eq. (16.5.5). ance ie as shown in Fig. 15.4.
Solution.
PI}OBLEIYI!
of 25" at0'75R
/v\ t2bx88
16.8.1. I'or a fixed-pitch propeller rvith u blade nngle
.na purto*"nco as shown in lig. 1S'+, w!a! ie the thruet at It / (nD) ' \nD/o z,2oo x 6

0.6 ii the thrust at Y / (nD) :

l'0 ie 750 Ib? - 0.83
15.8.1 for
16,8.2. lVhat is the efficiency of the prol)ellor in Problem TADLE !5.2
(a) V/(nD) = 1,0, (b) V/(nD) 0'6?- v
ir.A.S. Whut i* tho.thrusb of tlre propeller in Problem 15.8.1 at
,tD
v't' cr # rprn rrhp
k # ? rhp v
'15'8.4.-
V /(nD) 0'5? (nrph)
A fixed-pitch propeller havi4g o blade angle of 22" a-t !'?!-{ (1) (2) (3) (4) (6) (6) (7) (8) (0) (1c) (lr)
,,"i pu,t"it*ucu a, .hotn in Fig' I5'4 hae a thrust of 600 lb sf V /(nD) 0.8i1 0.076 0.076 1.000 l.oq) 2,200 126.0 0.989 0,82 lo3
: 0'4?
- O-g. -What !s its thrtlet' ar V / (.nD) propoller 0,80 0.0a2 0,080 0.910 0.976 2,i60 123 1.030 0.82 l0l
t26
118
f6^8.g. Wh"t ie the thrust of the in Problem 16'8'4 when 0.70 0.100 0,0€8 0.818 0,907 r,000 lr7 1.074 0.76 89 95
V/(nD) - 0t 0,00 0.120 0.108 0.798 0.869 1,886 rr2 1.103 0,70 78 77
0.60 0.132 0,108 0.706 0,840 1,850 u0 t.222 O.6t 67 68
16.0.DETERI\TINING THE THRUST HORSEPOWER OF A c.40 0,1440,u2 0.079 0,825 r,810 !09 r.28r 0.51 60 {9
FIXED-PITCH PROPELLER AT SEA LEVEL E;nr,erruow or TmLu
For an unsupcrcharged engine, it is presunrcd that' within
a Columna (2) and (8) from Fig. and rho y/(nD)
16,4 for p - 28o tn
the varies oolumu (l).
,riOt t*g. belorv the ratod horsepower, horsepowor
 Ir

''' THRUST HO&SEPOWER 257

,,,,,',' (4), the :0.07b) divirre,r by irems
,,,t,rrrrn (3), ".,"..,";::::",,:"t"I"". -hasThe brake horseporvel at altitudc at the
-.erne r:prn as al, sea level
the relation to sealevel brake horseporver shotvn in
r ,,lnrnn (5), the square root of items in column (4);see Eq. (15.8.1). Fig. ia.3.
, "lrrnrn (6), the items in column (5) multiplied by rpm6 (: 2,2t)0). The engine is, however, going at ferver rpm, so that,
for th"e sarne
t ,,lunul (7) Irom the manufacturer's cbartl see Fig. 14.1. v /(nD),
, i'l,rmn (8), the items in column (2) divided by the coreeponding items
','lrrrnn (3).
' r,lumn (9), the items in column (8) multiplied by r,he correeponding items
, ,lrrrnn (1); sce Eq. (15.5.6).
r,,i,rnrn (10), tho itcins iri columa (7) nultiplied by t!:: ccrresprnding For the 5ur q v/(nD), if r: i: dccrecscC, I/ n.iu:;t Cccrcase in the
",,, in colunrn (9); sco Eq. (16.9.1).
,
eame ratio:
,,,lrrnrn (ll), thc itema in column (l) nrultiplicd by thc corresponding
r' , ill sslgmn (6) and thcn multiplicd by D78n I/"lt.-,rPmnlt..V
: ror s&me -;
,Iil DU'I]JIR}IINING TI.IU T}TITIIST HOINAPO\VDR ITOI} A
r-..- .p;;;; (15.10.3)

IrI X ljD -I2I TC H I'ROI'DLLI-j It A r\ D UNSUPIIRCIIARGED

I']\CINL .\T ALTITUDE EXAMPI,E
Find the thnrst lrorscllorr.or rrnd rri1s1tr.:cd for tlre p16,.llcr.
llrrrl engine
l,rl rr fixetl-prtch propcllel', &t rny givar l'/(nl)), lhe C;, nnd combination of the cxample i'section l5.g rrt a'riltitirrr..f
i, /'/' ur'(: fi.sctl trrti conseqnclrlly [lte e{Iicicnr:y r7, rvhich is a r0,000 ft.
Solution. Florn 'Inblc 4.1,
cl ('p, ('7', and 1r /(nD)--sec lir1. (15.ir.,5)--is fixcd.
,rr, l.iorr
o : 0.7384
\i, rrltilutlrr, since thc torqu,r roquircd to robati & propeller is &
t,rrrr:(,ir)n r.rf the dcnsii.,y, if 1,hr: rpm is kept oonstent tlc porver From Fig. 14.3,
,,,1rrilcd vuica directly os the drrnsity. 'l'he rer:stance of t,he J''e- / bhp,o.ooo \
if this lcslstnni;.
llr,r t.o t.urning furnishcs the lond on the enginc. - utt
1,, \bhp,- r*'/*n.r. ,r. '-'
, ,krcreo:ic(1, the engine rviil tcnd to spcccl up, If the cngino he$ l'rom Eq. (15.10.t ),
1lr: ts&rne po\\,c!'&s B,t Bea lovel, thtr lesscned re8i$t$nce -i thc
1r{)lxrllcr rvill tcnd lo llcrmit, thc engine to irtcrcane speed. If this Itau:ug 0'873
-
',,r'o thc only lactor involvecl, the spced lvould var) iuvcrocly as tcvcl 0,738
tPrllru
r1,,, rlcnsily, i.e., rpm,,1s,/rPh.orlavot would equel 1/o. Anot,her
rrill)oftont fnclc,r, hotvcvef, efrtefs in.
- 0,911

r\s oxlrhinod in Chaptcr 14, oling to the lesncnctl densitl'of the , TaBLE 16.8
,r'01.(jll cxplosion of tho powcr strokc is lese pou,erful, so that,
, r'r:n if the samc t'pnl is muintained eB et Bce le'vtrl, the porvcr of an 10,000 FN Altitudo
, rrgine u'ill decrease as olbitude is increascd. 'flris is shou'l in v/(nD)
Y
l' rg 14.3. bhp
(mph) thp
t)rving t.o the decreased resistance to thc turning of the propeller,
r lro rpm tends to incre&Be, but, orving uo the lessened engine power,
(l) (8)ltrlltol (7) (e)
llrc rpm tenda to decrease.'I'he net result is, th.at, for t.he same
0.88 rri l126 lO.e3 76,6 63.6
0.80 l18.6lll4.olo.8o 72.8 68.1
t'l(nD), 0.70 108.2 191.0 10.?8 06.2 61.6
0.60 104.0 175.0 lo.?4 83,7 47.t
rPmort. 11 bhp",r. \ 0.60 loo.ol60.2 10.65
rphc"a lc,or- r \uno"""
(15.10.1) 61.2 ss.7
0.40 96.3 1 46.3 10.61 69.0 32.0
"-,r/"unrt,, "o-
 r-i
I

PROPELLERS POWER OF A CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLER 259

I

''rII.IN OF TABLE TABLE I5.4

r,lrrrr (2) is from column (6) in Table 15'2' v
t,rrrrrr (3) is from column (7) in Table 15.2. V / (r'D) Cr T (mPh)
r,rrrrrr (4) is from column (11) in Table 15.2. (1) (2) (3) (4)
(5) is from column (9) in Table L5.2.
t,rrrrrr
t,lrrrr (6), the items in ctrlumn (2) mrrltiplied by 0'911.
0.5 0.09u 1,570 97

r,rrrrrr (7), the items in column (3) rnultiplied by 0.911 X 0.673 (: 6.6121.
0'4 0.101 1,760 78

r,n,r (8), the items in column (4) multiplied by 0.911. 0.3 0.112 1,950 58

t,,rrr:r (9), the i'-e:ns in column (7) rnul*"iplied by ecrrespording iterns

' 0.2 0J22 2.130 39
0.1 0.132 2,300 19
',, ", " (5 ).
0 o.r42 2,480 0

,r lrI,)TERNIINING THRUST OF A CONSTANT-SPEED ExpulN,rrro. or T,rnr,o

I'I(OPELLtrR Column (2) from Fig. 15.4 lor C v :
0.066 and for l" i iz; ')) from column (l )'
Column (3), the items in column (2) nrul{.:plied by 17,130'
' rlr rt corstant-speed propeller' the blade angle changes so
Column (4), the items in column (i, multiplied by 194.3.
, 'r r .nst&ot rpm ;; maintained. With constant rpmr the engine
,, r, ('onst&nt and consequently CP is constnnt. PiTOBLI'I,IS
' ,tlr .onst&nt rpm, V /(nD) r'aries directly as the airspeed I/.
15.f 1.1. For the propeller rnd eltgirle of t'he extlniDltr obove, find ths
thrust and velocity for a V/(nD) of 0.6.
EXAMPI,]I 15.11.2, What is the static thrust of a ?-ft constant-speed propeller
i r rr 1).5-ft-tlinnretel pl'opeller. whosc chat'actelistics &l'e &s shown with an engine r&ted at 300 bhp at 2,100 r'pnr, if the propeller char-
r ,r, I ir.4, set for a consttrut speed of 1,800 rpl,r anrl on engine deliver- a.cteriBticB el'e 8s shorvn in Fig. 15.4?
r,rrrt lrl'p at l,ii00 rpm, find the thrust a,nd con'esponding airspeed 16.11.3. What rs the thrrrst of ohe enginc-t)ropeller comL'nation in
Problem 15.11,2, when V/(nD) is 0.4?
''r'us vrllucs oi I';'(nl)),
,,lrrrion. Ftont Jjrt. (15.5.4), T}IE THRUST HORSIIPOWER OF A
16.12. DETERMINING
600 x 550 CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLER .^-T SI'A LEVEL
Cr =
0.002378 X luee--\- x (0.5)6 For the fixed-pitch propeller discuss,ed in Section 15'9, the blade
\oo/ angle being conBtant, associated rvith each V /(nD) w&8 onc v&lue
of br and one value of Cr. With a constant-spe€d propeller, tho
= 0.066{
powor coenciont Cp is gonstant irrespective of the value of U / (nD)'
,,' l'lo. (15.5.3), bho procedure for finding thrust horsepower is therefore slightly
difrerent, from that for the fixed-pitch propeller; At each desired
r = cr x o.oo23z8 x (!#)'x (e.b)' valuo of V /(nD) it is merely necessery to find the value of the
thruet coemcient Cr from the propeller performance curves' If Cr
- 17,430Cr and tbe constant C p arc known, tho propeller effioiency is found
7- Vrpr,X88 by means of Eq. (15.6'5). With constant rpm, tho btake !1one-
power of tho engine is assumed to be constant, so that the thrust
nD 1,800 x 9.6 Lorr.po*.t is found by multiplying this constent brako horse'
I/npu - 194.3 -;i' power by the Propeller efficiencY.
'with colut&nt rpm, tho airspeed Y varies directly with 7/(n'D)'
 t_ J t__J ttrl rt
I

PROPELLERS I

I
GEARED FTTOPELLERS 261
EXAMPLE Tirc porver coefficient is a function of the altitucle, but
at a fixed
r ,,',1 tlre thrust horsepower and airspeeds for various values of
,',,) for a constant-speed propeller, 9.5 ft diameter and pcrformance 3lti!u!e, since rprr( is constant, Cr will be constant for all values of
v/(nD).
.r"'rvn in Fig. 15.4, with an engine rated at 600 hp at 1,800 rpm.
',lrlrozr. Ftom Eq. (15.5.4),
EXAMPI]D
600 x 550 A f'ilft-diameter constant-speecr
Cr: prope'er lvith perf'rnlance cs
0,002378 X (30)3 x (9.5)5 shown in lig. 15.4 is on a supe..ho.ged ."ginq ,"ho..';;;;;,.;;;;;.i;
: 0.0664
given in Fig. 14.b. With l,g00.1r,rr, ,nlot,,r.'th"
airspeed at 10,000 ft altitutle?
thrust horse'orve'and
1,800 x 0,5 l' ..Solulion. Irom Fig. I4.5. at 10,000 ft altitucle and 1,E00
/moh: - 88 ?ti) bhp : 599. From Table 4.t,
rpn.r,

v Pro,ooo : 0.001756
: 194.3
nl) From Eq. (15.5.4),

T-4,1ll,lrl 15.5 Cp: 590 x 550

l' 0.001756 X (30)3 X (9.5)6
t' /(nD) Cz' Cr/C r 4 thlr (ru;rh)
: c.0882
(l) (2) (3) (4) (5) ((i)
1,03 0.066 0.83 0.856 6t2 2$.t I'AIILD 15.6
l.00 0.066 0.816 0.8.16 6r0 l{)4
0.{) 0,002 0.036 0.8.t2 606 t75 v'
0.8 0.008 1.028 0,820 402 156
ViQD) Cr JTiCp thp (nrph )
0.7 0.076 t.148 0.802 482 r30 (l ) (2) (3) (1) (5) (6)
0.6 0.086 !.800 0.780 408 tt7 1.0 0.073 0.829 0.829 489 104
,.r|^NATION Or TADT,E 0.9 0.081 0.920 0.828 488 t75
0.8 0.087 0.989 0.791 467
, -
',lumn (2) from lrig. 16.4 for Cp 0.000 and lor V / (nD) fronr colurnn (l ). 0.7 0.096 1.Q91 o.7M 450
156
136
' "lumn (8), ths itema in colutin (2) dividcd by 0.000. 0.6 0.108 1.228 0.797 435 tr7
t irhrmn (4), tho itorhr in column (8) multiplicd by oorrosponding itoma in
(1)isc! Eq. (16.6,6):
r,rrrrn Expr,ex^rrorv or TesLp
,'"6rnn (6), bhp (- 800) multiplicd by itoms in column (4).
(2) from Fig. 15.4 for Cp:0.0gg end for
t',rlurnrr (0), tho itoms iri oolurnn (1) multiplicd by lt)4,3. .Column V/(nD) as givcn in
columu (1).
Colurirn (3), the items in column (2) divided by 0.088.
Iit. DT'TERMININC THD THRUST HORSUPOWICR OIf A Colu.rrn (4), the items in cqlumd (3) multiplied by
CONSTANT-SPEDD PROPELLEI1 AT AI,TITUDI' column (l); see Eq. (1S.S.E).
corresponding itema in

ll lhe constent-speed propeller is on an unBupcrch&rgcd engine, Colu:nn (d), thc items !n col,.u:l (4) nultiplicC by ihc
bralie ho;oepower
,r,,,1116[s horsepower of the engino rvill drop off with the altitudo
(: 5e0).
Col"-n (0)r the itemsin coiurnn.(l) multiplied by 194.8.
.. nhowr in Fig. 14.3. Since the rpm'is constent, thi6'is the only
-tlrrr:fi f,hsf altitude will have on the engine power. 15.14. GEARED:'PROpELLERS
ll the constant speed propeller is on a Bupercharged engine, tho
r',nkrr horsopower of the engine will be found on chartb, similar to g"omeLric pitih, i.e., targe.blade angle, have
, {rolellers:tith.hjgl
,brgh
eticiencies. A high- geometric pitch postulates d large
I iy, 14 5, obtainable from.the engine manufecturer. 7 I @Ol.
The horsepower of airplane engines is proportional to
tf,e d;J;;
 t.J

PROPELLERS APPROXIMATION OF PROPELLER PER}URMANCD

r,rt',n, so that, to kecp down the size and n'eight per horse- 15.15. BODY INTERFERENCE
, , Llrc rps should be high. With a fixed-diamcter propeller, for
, , n :Lirspeed, increasing n has the effect of decreasing V /(nD). The presence of the engine and fuselage immediately in the rear
of the propeller modifies the florv of air through the propeller disk.
rn('r'ease in horseporver rvith increased rpm increases the
The air coming through the central part of the disk is diverted
,,,,,,,:rlor t ffi*# and therefore decreases the value outwa,rd,'causing a change in the direction of stream flow back of
the propeller.
lrr tddition, high revolution.speed rvith ll,rge-diameter pro- The :rct cffect of this lnterference is tc incrcasc thc C, slightly
r, , rnouns high tip speeds with consequent loss of efficiency.
I for all values of. V / (nD).It also causes the p,sa,li value of efficiency
t, , rrltine speed is desirtr,ble, but high propeller speed is unde- I
to occur at a slightly higher V / (nD) than it n'ould rvithout the
.r,1,.
1." interference.
{

100

b90
c
o
-6
Peo E'3 80
E
'6 zo EE^
c
o
o
EE
'E
60
so
860 E

50 lllr@
I
* uo
flrl3r,?eio
rmrro120r30
0.2 C 3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 Ll I 2 1.3 r.4
Design V/nD Fro. 15.10. Vsriation of efficiency wiLh V /(nD).
Ftc. 15.9, IVlaxintuur cfticiency ventus dasigtr V/(nD).
15.10. QIIICK APPROXIMATION OF PROPELLER PER
F'ORMANC},
ti,'rrred propellers have the folloling disadvantages. Thcre is
, t,l,',| rveight and loss of porver in gear friction. Owrng to high In prelimrnary calculations, where a high degree of accuracy is
, speed and lorv propeller speed, cooling of the engine becomes
not needed, the graphs in Figs. 15.9 and 15.10 may be used to'
."riilr{)
l,r,rblem. The necessary greater diameter involves greater
obtain a,n a,pproximation of the performance of f.red-pil,ch prc-
,,',lir1g-gss1 height. There is an added cost. pellers. These graphs are based on tests of a fairly large number of
I lrc advantages of gearing dos'n propellers follorv. There is
xed-pitch propellers.
fi

,r' r.ilS€ in performance of the airplane due to greater efficiency Figure 15.9 gives an approximation of the efficiency at design
.t t lrc propeller consequent on larger pitch ratio, on the absence of Y/(nD). Figure 15.10 gives an approdmation of the decrease in
rrp losS€s, and ou the iarger diarrreter involving a prcportk:nar,ely efficiency when not oper&ting at design V / (nD).
,,'rrller interference efrect from thu fuselage and engine. A geared
l,r,,pcller is practically noiseless orving to the lorv tip speed.
\Vith gearing, the propeller must be mounted ouiboard of the
l,.rrlings, and, since the propeller shaft is very
"hort,
it must be
l,rrr.tl upperfectly or the rvear on the gears rvill be excessive. The
1,,'rLl teeth must be cut a.ccurately, anci the gears. must be rvell
t,rl,ricated at all times.
 | , -t

BASIC EQUATIONS FOR StrEADY FLIGHT 265

being iu steady flight, all the forces must be in equilibrium. Any

16. small force on the tail being neglected, the forces perpendicular to
the flight path must balance and the forces parallel to the flight
path must Lralance, or
L + T sin z - lllcosd:0 (16.2.1)
Level Flight ?cos r - I4lsin 0 - D:0 (16.2.2)

I Directlon
of flight
I

r lrI'IFINITION OF PIIRITORIIANCE l\-

)

I l'. ability to clo certain things.

IX)r'folrnance of an ailpl:rne is its
l,rrrr:tilning iu respect ti,
sotne ciralactcristit:s is tliflir,rrlt'.ti
,
'rrr:
qtrantitatively, and the stabilitl', ntrttteut'r.rl'itbililr', rttrtl
, ,,l corrttol can be described in orrly a general or qrrrilit:rlivc
',',,,.r. Other ieatures of its behaviol in the air u'hicli clttt be
, ' rlrlrl quitc exaetly are t,ermed t.he perfollnancc. 'I'he iLems

,,llv listed as perlormance characl,erisiics arc maximtrtn and

,,,rrunr speed at sea level and at various altittrdes, al.rsolute
,lrrr11, servic€ ceiling, time to eliutb to variotts allih,ds's, l'st
i,rrrrrnrf{ speeds, angle of glide, radius of glicle, range, lntl
"n-
!l llt(:O- Frc. 16.1. Forcos in steady flight.
lr. pr€s€Dt state of c,ttr knorvledge permits the prediction, l'ith
I
t,r1.lr degree of accuracy, of the perfornance of an airplane in ils The angle z betrveen the line of action of the propeller thrust
rr',n stage. This is especially true if rvind-tnnnel measttremetrts and the direction of the flight path is always small. Negligible
,'r. lre€n made of the drag of the fusclage and landing-gear error is introduced if ? sin r is omitted in Eq. (16.2.1) and cos z is
, rrrlrly. considered to be unity in Eq. (.16.2.2). When these changes are
llrl stalling speed of an airplane can be found il only the s'ing ma_de, Eq. (16.2.1) becomes
,,,lrrrg and the maximum lift coefficient of the rving section are
,','n rr. All other performance characteristics of an airplane require
L-lVcosd:0 (r6.2.3)
r,',r (lota on the engine and further aerodynamic data on the and Eq. (16.2.2) becomes
,
I'lrr rrc b€ knon'n.
T-Wsind-D:0 (16.2.4)
,";l llastc EQUATIONS }'OR STEADT FLIGHT
Multiplying Eq. (16.2.a) by Ir gives
lrr steadyflight, the forces acting on the airplane must be in :
TV - DV WV sin? (16.2.5)
l,rrlilrrium. Steady flight means unaccelerated fiight, or flight
1,,'r1' 1|r" veiocity is not changing.in either maguruttde or direction. The term ?7 ie the thrust poli'er or power available. The ierm
lrr Fig. 16.1 is shown a diagram of an airplane in st:ady flight DV ia the porter required to overcome the total drag .D. The
.,',rrg o path making an angle of 0'with the horizontal. The plane
expression I/ sin 0 is the vertical comironent of velocity or rate of
264
 r I r----l n I-t I-1 t-l r-l t-l r-l r-t r-t
L__i r .j L i L_i L ; L__i L I r i [ , [ , t t ] t ! t r t i

LEVEL FLIGHT soRsEpowER REQTTIRED AT SEA LEyEL 267

,,r llr:t per second:
dh
Vsin?: *
'I VI,;L FLIGHT
i.e., maintairting constant altitude, the angle d
, ,,',,1 flight,
,, l.he flighb path and the horizontal is zero, so that, for
Il,1'.lrl, oniy,
7sin0: ,L:O
,','r, (16.2.5) becomes
I'V-I)V:O
'I'-l):0
' ,rnrrccelt:t'ateci level flight, the thrtrsb equals the toi-al drag
i,, t,{)\ver available equlrls the porver required.
,'lrrle the airplane is flying steadily at a velocity I/, the thrust
,,,,,:rscd to some gl'eater value so that it no longer equals the
t,lr':rEr the unbalanced {orrvard-acti:rg force lvill cause a
r,r,.u,cceleration or increase in velocity- Drag varies as tr/2, so
i t,he velocity increases the drag increases- When the total
'r it
equals in magnitude the thrust, there
,, lrrrs increased until
,,,, longer be any unbalanced force to cause acceleration, and
lr llight rvill be I'esumed at this nen', higher velocity.
' rrlrile the airpli.^re is in steady flight, the thrust is decreased
,t,,rt, its magnitude is less than the magnitude of the total drag,
,,,rrrvard-acting unbalanced force rvill cause a negative accel-
.r,rn or decrease in velocitl'. \lrith decreasing veiociiy, tire rrraS-
,,',l,.of the total drag decreases. When the drag has decreased
,'l rt, again equals the thrust, no further decrease in velocity
rt r''r'urr and steady flight rvill continue at the lesser velocity.
r,, r,t,udying the performance of airplanes in level flight, use may
,rrrrrlc of Eq. (16.3.2). The thrust of the power plant at various
, p.r,rls may be found, and the total drag of the airplane at
.,r"us speeds may be found. This method has some merit in the
: ..', ,rf jet-propelled airplanes, rvhere the thmst is practically
in this c-rapter, it is more customary to make use of Eq. (16.3.1)
and to investigate the power required and the power available.
(16.2.6)
16.4. HORSEPOWER REQUTRED AT SEA LEVEL
The total horseporver required to move the airplane fonvanci
through the air is the sum of the horseporvers required io move the
various parts of the airplane through the air. The parts may be
'' gr<rt.,pe.lin vai'ious rvays.
If there is available a graph giving the characteristics of the air-
foil section data for.the aspect ratio of the actual rving, it isprobably
simpler to find the horsepou'er needed for the rving and that for
the parasite. 'fhe sum of these twcj is the total horseporver required.
It is not cornmon, horvever, to have at hand chare,cteristic
curves for the proper aspect ratio. Curves for airfoils of infinitc
(r6.3.1)
aspect ratio, rvhich rrsually are obtainable, serve in c.rlcrrlating the
profile rlrag .rf the rving. This may be joined rvilh the parasite
(16'3.2)
drag of the stluts, landing gear, and rvheels, etc., rvhich, like the
prcfile rving drag, does not vary with the angle of ai,tack. The
horseporvcl' required to overcome this combined drag varies only
as the cube of the airspeed. As the parasite drag of the fuselage
and tail surfaces is presumed to change with angle of at,i,a,cL as
*'ell as with the cube of the velocity, the horseporver needed for
this ma.y be computed separately. The horseporver to overcome
the induced rving drag is calculated by itself.
Since the increased drag of the fuselage and landing gear wibh
angle of attack is manifest only atJ high angles, i.e., low airspeeds,
rvhere ampie engine horsepower is available, little error is pro-
duced in the final result if these drags ere assumed to change not
u'ith angle of attack but only with velocity. Making this assump-
tion permits all the parasite resistance to be grouped and simplifies
the ccnputation Tbis aoprbximation causes verv small error
at high speeds but introduces inaccuracy &t low speed.
EXAMPLE 1
Find the horsepower required for a monoplane weighing 2,000 lb
and having a Clark Y rectangular wing 36 ft by 6 ft. The parasite drag
has an equivalent flat plaie area of 3.8 sq ft. Result to be given as plot
of horsepower versus vekicity.
Solution..From Fig. 8.8, read off and, as shown in Table 16.1, tabulate
C t and, Co for various bngles of attock from near t]:: zero lift engle to

l, lrlrrd€trt of the airspeed. For re&sons that will become apparent beyond the burble point.
 ,'l
. HOR.SEPOIqER NEQUIRED AT SEA LEVEL 265
tll8 LEVEL FLIGST
For +,his airplane,
'fhe velocity is found bY using,ff;mu|.
hpoor. : u.00327X3.8XY3
375
,:T !o.oozsos :0.0000331V3 '

throughout . The results of the computations are tabulated in Table 16'1, and
any particular airplane, t/(W/$/u}0'z56 is constant
l,'rrr h<lrsepower for the wing, horseporyer for the parasite, sDd.tots,l horse-
tlre series of calculations. For this airplane, fo*"i ,"qoi..d bre all ptott*a against velocity in Fig' ttl'z'
2.000
Wing loading :
;" TABLE 16.1

: 9.261b per sq ft d Cr Ci V ' hF.q. *ior bP".o. o*.' hP'cq. bbl

(2) (4) (6) (7)
fw (1) (3)

-4 0.07 0.010 228

(5)
392 '566
/ s /s.zo
-o 0.14 .010 161
174
61 138 lug
\l o'oozso 1o'oo2oo __t 0.215 .otz 130 38 73 lll
: 60.2
-l 0.285 .014 rtz 29 46.7 76

,/:TC 60.2 0 0.36 .017 r00 2(t.5 33.6 60

4 0.645 .033 74.9 20.3 13.9 34

each angle of 8 0.93 .060 62.3 ?1.4 8.0 29

Holsepo*-er required for the rving is deterrnined for l2 1. lo .095 .5F.2 23.6 5.5 29
rrttack by the formrrla 4.2
t6 1.435 .r39 fi.z 25.6 30

hPdng = 2y.J l8 r.545 .164 48. r 25.5 3.7 3l

375 3.7
19 1.560 .180 48.1 m.5 33
CoX0.00256XSXVg n 1.540 .206 48.5 s4.5 s.7 38
- 9=A
ol V

Exnurx,r.toN or TaaLs
Columns (2) ::nd (3) read from graph of Fig' 8'8'
= crv, x (g.q4qg\
Column (4); 60.2 divided by.the square root of items in column (2)'
is constant;' for this Column iS), tt" items in column (3) multiplied by the cube of thc corre-
For.any given problem, the term in parentheses spondiug itcurs in column (4) multiplied by 0'00147-
problem,
' Cotuirn 1O;, the cube of.items in column (4) multiplied by 0'000G3r' .
(6)'
0.00256s:0.9911 x49 Column (?), the sum of the oorresponding items in columns (5) and
375 375
'' EXAMPLE ?
= 0.00147
Find the horsepower required by a'biplone weighing 4,225 lb' The
and
upper span is 38 ft, the lower span is 35 ft, the gap is 5'35 ft' The
area
!P'r'r : 0.00147CP73
sq ft; the area of lower wiug is 150 sq ft' Both. rvings
oi upp"i wing is 214
For flat plates' ,." li.A.Ce,-Z+12 airfoils. At high speed, the parasite trasan equir':Ient
0.00327XoXV3 flat plate area of 9.4 sq ft.
hp: J,J
 l' {
l*
'
I

I
7t0 I;EVEL FI,IGET I IIONSEPOWER EEQUIRED AT SEA LEVEL
: 0.737
(0.e2)r(r + 0.737)2
K2: (0.92)'
+ 2 X0.56 X 0.737 X 0.92 + (0.737)2

: 1.185

K'btt
E.M.A.R.':
s

_ I.i85 X t8"
150 + 214

- 4,7

Un,: + C}
r X4.7
: 0.0677C t
Ya..-Jffi
8o lm 120 l'10 t6O lEo
lllho par Hout
0.00256x1.02x304
Fro. 10,2, Horaepowor required for veriour airrpeeda.
(Exemple 1.) - 64 mph

Equivalent flet plate srea of pararite drag ia ageumsd to bs constont

Solulion. with an anglo of attack of 9.4 eq ft:
Dr
P-- 0r d x
t.2g g.4
vD?
-164
-86
38 - 0,0331

- 0.92 If volooity is arrumed, oorrolponding valuo of C r, cen be found by

Gap 6,A6 cr -
Moon rpan 86.6 o-;669T',, di
- 0.140 For thir problom,
4,226
Irrom Fig, 10.10, ^ 0.00260x864xy|
. c-0;56
fr-
160
214
- ldlg
vt
 l:

rn I,BI{EL ETJGET I
HORSEPOWER BEQIIIRED AT SEA I,EVEL tr3
for this problem; Solulio/.. From Eq. (8.5.2),
CoX0.N256XSXF
h$.o..c.r - 375
V :19.77- @
\365 X Cr
CoX0.0256X364Xt{
375
:G, 109,5

: A.OO248CoY!

Cpo is found from Fig. 10.8 for the corresponding ds,.

Co : Aot * Coo* Cop
The results of the computations indicated ubove cre tabuhted in
'l'ublc 16.2, and the total horsepower re<luired is plotted against velocity
rn Fig. 16.3.

TABI,E 16.2

v Cr. Coo Cp; Co hp*.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
54 1.62 0.043 0.175 0.251 98
60 t.26 0.019 0.107 0.159 6J
70 0.93 0.013 0.050 0.105 89
80 0.7r 0.or r 0.034 0.078 99
$0 0.56 0.010 0.021 0.064 l16
r00 0.45 o.oio 0.014 0.057 t42
110 0.37 0.010 0.009 0.052 172
120 0.32 0.009 0.007 0.049 2to
r30 o.27 0.009 0.005 0.047 256
140 0:232 0.009 0.004 0.046 314
150 o.wz 0.009 0.003 0.u5 378

l,lxpl,r:v,rrKr.s r.rr Trrnlp

Column (2) is 4,550 divided by sguare of items in column (l ).
Column (3) is read from graph in Fig. 1Q.8.
Column (4), the items in column (2) squared and multiplied by 0.0677.
Column (5), the sum of corrcsponding items in columns (3) and (4) plus
0.033r.
Column (6), the cube of items in column (l) multiplied by corresponding tr'ro. 16.3. fi6rsepower rcquired for various eirspeede
in column (6) timts 0.01248.
iterns (E:.*mple 2.)

EXAMPLE 3 Fmm Eq. (8.16.1), '

Find the horsepower required for an airplane rveighing 11,200 lb, ,hp,rc.:W^ffi
Co .. (1r,200)r
with a wing ares of 365 aq ft. A wind-tunnel test of an accurate model
shows that the curve of dp versus Cr, is very close to the parabola
: * :- ,,Ja,
oVll CD
Cp 0.023 0.0445Cl2 (see Section 13.11 and Fig. 13.7). fr
 !--.] !- -l !-l t I

-
f _, tl -_-r t_-l i a,-J n_ i a )

LEVEL FLIGIIT HORSEPOWER AVA'ILABLE AT SEA LEVEL tr;

TABLE 16.3 16..5. HORSEPOY,'ER AVAILABLE AT SEA LEVEL
v The horsepower evail&ble is the thrust horseporver of the pro-
t't, Czz Cz% Cr,% co Co/C r,% hp"oq. (mph) peller-engine combination. This thrus! horseporver is computed
(r) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) by the m'ethods described in Chapter 15.
|') 0.04 o.447 0.0894 0.0248 0.277 905 245 The airplane used in Example 1 in the preceding section is
t,:t 0.09 0.548 0.1643 0.0270 c.164 537 2W a,ssumed to be pon'ered by the engine rated at 125 bhp at 2,200 rpm
rt I 0,16 0.632 0.2530 0.0302 0.119 390 173 and the 6-ft fixed-pitch propeller f:r rvhich the thp et vericus
r)lt 0.36 0.775 0.4648 0.0390 0.084 278 l4l
il r{ 0.64 0.894 0.7156 0.0515 0.072 236 122 velocities w&s computed in 'Iable 15.2. The data from this table
I () 1.00 1.000 1.0000 0.0675 0.0675 22r 109
I '.t 1.44 1.095 1.3145 0.0871 - 0.0663 217 100 140
t,r r.96 l.183 1.6566 0.1102 c.0666 218 93
t20
rr TNATION Or T,lnln
,'lrrrnn (2) is the squoro of the itcms in colunrn (l\.
' ,,lurnn (3) is the square root of thc iterns in column (l). o
, ',lunrn (4), the iteme in column (f ) multiplied by the corresponding itoms :80
o
"l,rrnn (3). 8eo -o|

."F9.
550 40
{- I
500 20

1 0
450
o 20 oo 120 l4o
Po* -"/ ,,,T o.,Tourt*
F Frc, 16,6. Powor curves (LNxsmple l),
b 350

are used to plot the horseporver-available curve of Fig. 16.5. The

300
horsepower-required curve is the total horsepower curve repeeted
250 from Fig, 10,2, Thc intersoclion of tl;ese two curveg at 126 mph
ehows that that airspeed is the maximum airspoed foq level flight
200 L
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 at sea lsvol for this airplane, engino, and propeller combination.
Mlbs pcr hour At arry grcatol v':krc,ity, gre&'ver porver ia iroeded than ia availablo,
Fro. 16.4. Powor ourvol (Dxomplo 8). It is essumed that tho airplano usod as Examplir 3 in tho pro-
ceding section is powerod by tho 60&hp ongine and conatanhepeed
r',,lumn (6), tho conrtant, (0.028) addod to tho produot' of itomr in oolumn ' propeller used in the example in Section 16.12, The data from
Ir ud 0.0445. Tqblo 15.5 ar€ used to dralV tho horeepowor'&v&ilable curve shown
r',rlumn (0), tho itomr in oolumn (6) dividod by oorrolponding itema in in Fig. 10.4. Tho intersection of the ourve of horsepower available
.,t,rrrrn (4),
with tho curvo of horsepowor requirod gives',he maximum airrpeed
r',,lumn (7), tho'iwrnr ln ooluntn (6) multiplied by 8,271,
,i,lumn (8), 109,6 dividod by itomr in oolumn (8), of 197 nrph for level flight ot sea level for this airplane'and engine
Iho honopower roquirod, oolumu (7), ir plotted agairwt oirepood, oolumn combination.
tr, ln Fig, 18,4. If it is desired to fly levol at an airspeed loss than tho maximum,
' ! -, | -r r -j L l_ ,' I - r .; r_.1 a I i I 7 l:'i i 7 t l-) i.) i_) i_.)
I
,ryrr rr,rirnt | powEl ar BEA r,Ey'rr m
I "rNrMUM
r. ,{gine power is rgduced u;til the powe! availbble equab t}e I not i" bta night
'\\',r required at the'reduced speed. (See Fig. 16.6.)
w - c rf,sv,
,, ri 'IIIRUST AND DRAG CURVES
lrr Section 16.3, it rvas shown by Eq. (16.3.2) that, for level
r'1,1r1,, bhrust equals drag. The curves for total drag at various L: f,sv'
Then

,,--?*

'SBo
o p9 400
-\\
Thrust
I
"--
I
o E
5o
soo J
(L

w^#,# 2ffi
rotat a] ,43\
)./ B

100 L
40 60 80 100 t2O 140
) @ 80 100 120 14C Miles per hour
Miles per hour
16.7. Thrust and drag curves.
Frc. 16.6.' Effect of throttling.
For a given rveight W of an airplane, the drag rvill be least when
.,,,,lxrcds and for full-throttle thrust at various airspeeds mal' be the airplane is flying at the angle of attack .where C pr/C t is the
i.l,rl,l,cd.Their intersection gives the maximum airspeed. minimum (or C r/L rt, is the maximum). By drarving a horizontal
lrr Fig. 16.7 is plotted the iotal cirag for the airplane used as tangent to the tc"al drag curve, such as line ,4..B in Fig. 16.7, it is
I ,nrrrple 1 in Section 16.4. Oi the same graph is plotted [he full- found that, at the point of iangency, the airspeed is 70 mph. When
rtrrrrl,tl€ thrust for the 12&hp engine and Gft propeller used for i,l,e the airplane is flying at this airspeed, the least thrust is required.
k',1{cl)ower-available curve of Fig. f6.5. The thrust is computed
l,r l,lre method shown in Section 15.8. 16.7. MINIMUM POWER AT SEA LEVEL
l'lre intersection of these two curves at 126 mph checks with the The horsepower required for an airplane in level flight is
,r'Lrr:itj at the point of intersection of the horsepgwer-available
url herr"Oo*tr-required curves iu Fig. 16.5.
-r.vY!
hp,"q. : c,t"
?*".. -wk (16.7.1)
l'he total-drag of an airplane is
5so x$)-u
Dt,: Cptit t With weight W and wing area S both fixed, the least power is
 t--.t f-l l-t !-t f-1 ; r---.1 !--l r-r r-r .-r!- I
I I j I j I I I I I I I I tJ I I I r t I i I t t:t I i I i I -i,[ -.[
' r,EvEL Fr,ro'r I FL'TNG 'r.dr .iEri'ptr zn I
',*l ehen tJrc eirylsn€ is Sying ut the sDgle of siteak wber€ I . :cxor----Ei
.ffi2niC
O
^.aSVz I
,r.'i is the minimum. I
;:i'il*'.",":*l;r#:,:;::"'#;ff#1li:::Jh!
' ',,',,imuru vslue, but ir the speed decreasas lurrher the horse-
i
I .
"o,.*'o'+,, Y :
II
', ,,( rcas€s. The minimum borseporver ls found by drarsing I C, o.nzsssv, I
..,,,,hta] line tsngenL to the hoNepowerrequired curve (see gi"es
I Sutstituting I
rrl, Fig. 16.5). The velocity at the point of iaDselcy, which i
:""!"1*
'L' ,rloc-rl.y ol minimum F,-.ver requ;rcd, corresponds to the
,. ,r :rua;k where c",ri* l" ti.l-*i"i",.;l'c;;;""; I
II
Tol,rl fuel consumed
375 *?cL |
I
stl. To cot"r e given distance. rv;th n', wind, tji*l,t should hc main- I
''''
, k"oline consumptiu'r, in gallon6 or pounds ner hour, , tainea aL ttre a,ngle of uttack Nhe't Crtlc, is-the nrinimum. 'this I
'"1 ' lhe horsepotvcr be;ng develaped by l,l,e engine (see j Nill b€ a smsller angle of attrck than the anglc of Brtack for I
','rru uf Fig. 14.l). Approximataiy, however, the l"asu fuel i minimum Co,!C1".lnFig.16.5, l,he lineO,isLlBsn from the I
' '' l uD.d per hour when thc cngine is throl,tled do\Nn so thri I oriein rangent l,o Lhe powcr required curve.'l he poirr ol tansency I
r , r l,orver is bcing used to mainuain icvei flight. That is. for iI a*o'* tlie conrlition undcr which the ratio oi rhe horscp,r'ue. I
.lJrneofFig. 16.5, tl,e k'asr po\yer is rcquired and the letr.si required lo the velociLy is thc lelst. It is the condition ar \\ hich I
''"r "f fuel is coDsumed pcr hour when it is flyins at,58 mph, i thc lcast thrust i! rcquircd. lL Nill bc noled that the dFpeed cor- I
,l' lLy corresponding to the point of tangency of the line,{8. I responding io the poinl, of ta.ngency of O, iu Fig. 16.5 is 70 mph, I
' , rcly desired to stay in lbe air with l.his &iIplane, airspeed f which is the sarne a,irspeed as that, of the point of tansency of l,he I
'r'l "uLc maiatained at s8 mph. As fuel is turnea so'tfiai ttrc i Une,{A ia Fig. 16.7. The mstler of luel cconuuy is dis;usced mor€ I
rr,r is decreased ftom the original 2,OOO lb, the aiEpeed coIfe". I ruty io Ctr"p*t fz. I
'"1',,j{ to l,he engle of attsck of Einimum CD,/drtis decIes€ed. I, I
rr ,r rs desired tofly to some given destinatj; the totst amo'nr 16.8. FLYING TEE "IIUMP"
f
" ,'lrl'e consumed on the flight is the product of the rs,te of fxel I m* nyng st the angie of atkck forminimum CDJCLh,Lhe tr
-,,"'t,tion per hour multiplied by the numb€r oI hours required j t"a.t po\yq is required for level flight. When flring at, either tr
rl' llight. IL rvould be bett€r to fly faster l,har the speed for i geater or l€sser uirspeeds than the ainpeed conesponding to this ll
' ',",tnpower:equ;red. Flying fasl,er tlrc rat€ of fuel consumt,ion I an8le of ar,ta(k, gre&ter po'wer k neederi. F;gure 10.5 shosB thel, ll
I 1", cfcal,€i, bui i,l,e linre requircd for rhe flight would be le$s. I -ioi-urn por*€f, is ljquired sl,-58 mph. At some l6s,er spced, mor€ ll
rr rs l,he distance jn xniles to the d6tiDation aDd if ther€ tu no
'/ I power is requidC but there is some speed, $ester than 58 mph, at ll
'' I. rhe number oI houls r€quired for the flight is d// bours, J which the ssne $ester power is required. For example, from tr'tS. Il
'','q tbe ai,-speed in miles per hour. While the rate of fuel con- ] tO.S, ot g0 mph the same porver is requiiqd es at 66 mph. Il
-rrhrt c, in pounds per horsepower per bour, varies ilighrly U'tU" of Fig. rb.s is being flown at 50 mph, the eagine ll
I' Ih. manner in which tbe eqine h beiDg ruo, if thiF rst€ is rcduced 60 tha,t.the 30 thrust hoNepower D9eded is being
power ig "irplane
I tl
' 11 t'o b€ const€,nt the total number oI pounds oI fuel con- | aevaop"a. If it j.s d€sired to fly st 66 xoph, et which speed the Iuta ll
-, ' I nskiry tle flight of d miles wilh Do wind will be
'n
i of nrcl is thc same, cither of two procedures may be followed. One ll
. I prmrdure is to open the throttie sd sl the saille time porb l|
o m25* DdSv"
Total fuel cons',,ftd = y x- ! J iorward on the atici( so as to msjntain level flight. The added tb-rust, ll
c'- 375 V I Uing greaer rhsn the dra& rvill cr.use the airplane to eccelernte
l
 I f-'l t-l f---1 !*'r F--t r-r !-'--1 !----'1 !-r .-- I

|
______E____l
, Lj L_.,1 L t L J I I r I I I r_l: r t ..l ti I l l t.l 1' L_j. .t I t j i I
I

" r,EvEL fl,rcEr I **o RF4'TRED FoR LEVEL Fr,rch.r AT ALTTT'DE 2.r
.'l,rrrlly to the desired speed. In the other method, rvhen the Then
,,,tth: is opened, the airplane is-permitted to climb. When an
, rrrrlc has been gained that is roughll' a thousand feet above the' Vo2 : PJ
Vo2
:,rrlh: &t'rvhich it
is desired to fly, the nose of the airplane is 'Pa
.,rtr.rl dolnlard. In gliding dorvnward, speed is gained, and on
,, , ry1 at the desired altitude and leveling off, if the maneuver has
rr n,: En,
rr lrecut€d properly, the desired inoleased airspeed has been
, ,,rr,rl. For large airplanes especialiy, the second method causes
Since tlre density is alrvays greatest at sea level, {ffi i,
nr('r'ease in speed to be gained more qtricl<ly than the first
alrvays greater than unity, so that, at the same angle of atta<tlr,
'lr,,rl. The second method is terined getting "oler Llte hump."
the velocity at alLittrde must al*'ays be greater than at sca levcl.
r l'oWER REQUIRED FOR LEVITL }'LIGI{T AT ALTI- 'Do: (C" l'284\P{)so.02
*'
I'IIDE
\''" s /2"
l)clformance of an airi:lanc is affect.'.i b1'bhe dcnsity of the
t1,,.
where Ds : drag in pounds at sea level;
Lrlt,, drag, and horsdpower requirecl tre *ll frtnctions of nil
', rtr'.'I'he thrust trnd po',ver al>sorbcd by the propcllcr arc frtnc-
,, ,,f air density. The l,ralie horsepon'er of an internal-combus- :\""*
Do. / ^ 1'28o\ P"
^
s /-itr",
,, , ngine depends on densitY.
llr,, lundamental equation for lift is where Do - drag in pounds at altitude o. But

L : r,ttn,
C vo' : lo- voz
Pa

l,'r level flight, lift equals rveight. The rving area S is fixed. Therefore
'r,, rr, i[ air density p decreases, either Cr, or I/ .or bolh musr,
,,rr.;rse. A given airplane fl-r'ing at a higher altitude must either o,: (c,. #) f sit"v;
',t r bigger angle of attack or it must fly faster or both.
I lvrng at the same angle of attack, Cr, constani:
(", * !?8o\'n svo'
' ,.:t level,

rY:cr.fsi'o' :D,t
.
That is, rvhatever the altitude, at the same angle of attack, thc
,r llt,itude or drag or thrust required for level flight is the same. While the
w: cr.e;sv", density is less, the airspeed musl be greater and the product
remains constant.
lir'r't) ps : geA,-level maSS denSity DoIo
po : &ir density at altitude o
hp"uq.o :
DDU
I/o : velocity in feet per second'at sea level
/c : velocity in feet per'second at altitude o' 'np'uq.q: DoVo
Eb-
I r-1 l-l a-t r---t r----t t-i r-t r-t t--r F-1 l-r t-r r-r r-
t J, L t i_ l' L J I I t I I J I i,,..,"L
=i:..;.,!- -J .i',i---t't:',1'i--J . L-J i I r -l

PCT"ER REQUIRED FOR LEVEL FLIGHT AT ALTITLTDE 283

LEVEL FLIGHT
200

DrVrC
550

:
r
hpreq.o * {*a
' lrlrt) hPreq.o : horSepower required at sea level
hp."q.o : horsepower required at altitude a.
.
t20
'lr:rl, is, at the same 4ngle of attack, the horsepowcr varies ln-
, r,r'ly as the square root of the density. o
l'lrc minimum speed yr increases with altitude, since
3 roo
o
=
Vco : 80

V,o:

T
:
'* 4*^ 0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130140 150 160 170 180
1,, 1t: /ro : stalling speed at sea, leYel
I'-r, : stalling speed at altitude o. Frc. 16.8. Power curves at vorious altitudes'

lrt' square root of the reciprocal of the densities is tabulated

I Solution.From Table 4.1 ;
, I'rrble 4.1. If the power requirements a.re known for sea level Foro:10,000ft,
'r,11[,iens, the requirements for any altitude are found by rnaking
,, ,,f the factor from Table 4.1. For any point on the tctal horse-
r
t'tu
,'\r,f versus velocity curve for 8e& level, a point may be found, t/*:
,tlur same angle of attack, for any altitude by multiplying Foro:15,000ft,
,, rrlrscissa by \/ po/ p"and the ordinate by 'vQo/ n to give coordi- r-
,,r,:i of the horseporver required versus velocity curve at the t'*
{*:
,,trrrle o.
These curves r.re plotte:l in Fig. 16.8.
EXAMPLE
It is to be noted that, since Ir and hp are always in the same pro-
r,,r the airplane described in Example 1 in Section 16'4, find the portion for one angle of attack, a line drawn from the point 0
,1,,rrver-required curves for 10,000 ft altitude and 15,000 ft altitude.
 rt
'.--1.-l!--..-.-r
-
ai la ta lt lt tt I I
:'l I

:r84 LEVEL FLIGITT

'lu' POWER R'QUIRED FOR LEVEL FLIGIIT AT ALTITUDE 285
I
i

TABLE 16.4 triangles, Ol'rcprnf OPo : {pr/ p*s*: 1.164. Thep, after the
line oPo is drawn and the length of ops is scaled, this length
From Table 16.1: For 10,000 ft For 15,000 ft multiplied by 1.1M gives the length of Op1s,ee6. Similarly, the
For Sea Level Altirude Altitude location of Pzo,ooo (the point corresponding to flying at the same
hpr"q. Ilpruq. hft"q. angle of attack bu.t on the power-required io. 20,000 ft
altitude) js found'by multiplying the length of "urrr"
Opo by 1.370 and
-4 228 coo 264 | 656 288 715
--3 161 199 187 I zsr 203 251
iaying off lhis length fiom the poirrt O.
-2 130
rt2
lu
76
151
130
Ilsgrzs r64
l4l
140
96 \"
The airspeed indicator used on airplanes is a gage operatrng on
the difference in p'essures of a pitot tube and a itatic tube
-1 lsec
0 100 60 r16 lzo 126 76 section 2.9). The indicator, being calibrated for sealevel density,
4 74.9 34 87.0 leg 94. 4 43 rvill indicate a speed Z; such that
8 62.3 29 72.3 le+ 78. 5 37
ls+ 69.5

f v,' : f,v'
t2 55.2 29 64.0 37
16 50.2 30 58. 2
lut 63.4
606
38 (10.e.I )
t8 48. r 31 55.8
558
136 60.6
39
19 48. 1 33
133 4',2
R.earr:inging gives

vclocity, 0 hp, through a p<-rint, otr Llrt: ltorscltclrver-t'ctluit'ctl t:ltl've V;: y

rE: r* (16.e.2)
lor sea level, if prolongSed, rvill pnss through thc poinl corespontiitrg
l,o that same angle of attacl< on tlttl horsepolver-required curve for The term Pl is thc indit:ated air.speed. For examplc, \\,lrcn an
rLll altiiudcs. ilir.lane flf ing al a t.ue ai.spcecl of 200 mph at an altir,.rlc of
20,.d0 ft, thc speed shorr,n on the air.speed indicatrr (inrlicaterl
200\/r"osor: 140 mph.
airspeed) rvill be
Analagous to this indicated airspeed, a convention has been
adopted of an imaginary "indicated" horsepower, hp;, such that
hp; : hp y'7 (16.e.3)

When this devise is use,:l, the power-required curve for.sea level

o vo vro'ooovzo'ooo
VelocitY
Fla. 16.9. Power and speed variation with albitude.
For example, see Fig. 16.9. If P0 is a point on the power-required
r:un e for sea level, draw the line OP6 ancl prolong it upward and to
thc right. All points corresponding to the same augle of attacl< as
l'r, i', ^ll lie on the line OPo extended. Let l',o,sss be the point <-rn the
porver-required curve for J0,000 ft altitude lvhen the airpllrne is
tlving at the same angle of attu,clt :us at Ps at sea level. Since:
oi'rc,co,tfoVo - Pro.ooo7lt.uoo/Pul"o - ""';J;;,o* by similar
js valid for any altitude, the abscissae are labeled I/;, and the
ordinates hp;, as in Fig. i6.l0o. This procedure is used to some
extent in England. In a variation of this method multiple scales
are used as in Fig. 16.10b.
The point of tangency <,i the line OD in Fig. 16.8 i-q the point on
the power-required curve corresponding to flight at the angle of
attack f.or (C 1/C p)-"".. This point may be termed the point of
minimum drag. Porver-required curves for any altitude rvill be
tangent to the line OD prolonged.
Examination of Fig. 16.8 u'ill shorv that the pon.er-requirccl
curve for sea level intersects the pou'er-re<luircd curve for 15,000 ft
rltjiudr corresponding to a velocity of 7li rnph. tr'or this particular
 H L: L- =-= I

I ) 1__-t LJ I r I r t_J I r r Lt Li i l.r i-l I I I -

:Il(j LEVEL FLIGHT

POWER AVAILABLE AT ALTITUDE L{t

nirplsne (the airplane of Example I of Section 16.4) the:, at
ll.ying speeds less than 78 mph more power is reqnired to fly level
rt 15,000 ft altitude than at sea levell whereas, at spceds greater
l,han 78 mph, less power is required st an altitude of 15,000 ft than
than the speed of minimum drag for that altitude. The anglc ol
attack at the higher altitude will be greater than the angle of attacl
at sea level, but the ratio of. Cr/Cp will be the same for bot,lr
angles of attack. The flight at the higher altitude will be at such trr
angle of attack that C u/C r,al! : d.

6sr-
600 l- I
80
/
hn 60

40
il[ Pd i{s(
Lo"o'Jsfo1

4501- *
20
G
40 60 80 100 t20
*o[,
Vi
(a) (&
350 l-
6r
*
t ilL 80 100 120 140 160 180 2N 220 240
T
. I'to. 16.11. Power ourve: (Example 8).
VcloclV ln mllcr pcr hour
o) 10.10. AVAILABLE AT ALTITUDE
"OWER
Fro. 16,10. Powor roquired rt oltitude. Methods for computing data for ihrust horsepower verEut
velocity ot altitudes are deecribed in Chapter 16: for a fixed-pitch
propeller and unsupercharged enqine in Section 15,10, and for a
at rca lvvel. For this airplane, the inter.s.rction of the polver-
<lonstant-speed propeiler and supercharged engine in Section 16,13.
required oun'e for sea level with the power-loquired curve for
By means of these methods, the power-available curves at altl-
30,000 ft altitude is at 89 mph. Then flight at speedr less than
tude are found ond plotted for Example I in Fig. 16,8 and for
89 mph requires rnore power at 30,000 ft altitude than at sea level,
Example 3 in Fig, 10.11.
whereas at epeodr in excesg of 89 mph lern poler is needed at
The int€rseciion rf the power-evailable and the. pow€r-requirod
30,000 ft altitude than at the ground. For evgry altitude, thero is s
at lower altitude, curveB for the same altitude givoB the maximum rpeed for that
rpeed below whioh mors powor is noeded than
at higher rpoeds leos power is needed than at lower altitude, For cxample, in Example 1, the maximum speed at
wherraa
10,000 ft altitude in levol flight (seo Fig, 16,8) ia 116 mph. For
altitudea,
Example g, the maximum rpeed at 10,000 ft altitudc (ree Fig.
Tbe point of interseotion of thc ourve for power required at rea
level with tho ourve'for power requircd at altitude is of come
16,11) ir 210 mpb.

intcrest, For cea levol, this point ir alwayr greater than thc apeed
for minimum drag, !'or aititude, the point is alwayr at a npeed leao
 r ----l r---l t-_.l t-] f-l l'-l r-T f-r t-r t-t F--1 r-!
i.a

.,oLIMBING" PRQPELLERS

17. throttle power available is greater r,han the required po*':r. Tlrq
nmount by which the power available exceeds the porvel required
is called the excess power. 'l'he excess horsepos'er multiplied by
the constant 33,000 and divided by the rveight of the airplane
gives the rate of climb in feet per minJrte; see Eq. (17 .1.2). Ai eac!
velocity less then the maxipum, there n'rll be a different rate of
Climbing Flight climb.

800
700
I IIORCES IN CLIMB
p 600
llrl Sarle eclrlrltions hold t,rue for steady climbiug flighr as for .E
c
soo
,,,, (,lher form of straight, steady flight (see Fig. 16.1), namely, I loo

L-tVcos0:0 (16.2.3) 3 soo

,E zoo
T-lVsind-D:A (16.2..r) 100
0
TV - DV : IYV sin? (16.2.5)
Airspeed in miles per hour

I lrc term 7 sin 0 is the vertical comp"nsnt, of velocity or clirnbing Frc. 1?.1. Rate of climb versus speed.
1,, ,,1 r'ate of clirnb. From trq. (16.2.5),
1-r1

For the iilu-irative probleni used ;s Example I in Section 16.4,

ry:vsind (17.1.1 )
the ratcs of climb at different velocities (at sea level) have been
computed by Eq. (17.1.2) and are plotted in Fig. 17.1. It rvill bc
l lrc term ?I/ is the thrust power, and DV is the polver required, seen that for this particular combination of propeller, engine, and
' ,,r lr lcting along the line of the flight path. Expressed in engineer- airplane, the maximum rate of climb, 702 It per min, is achieved,
,,,1' rlltil,S, at sea level, rvhen the airspeed is 73 mph.
Climb may be made at any sPeed belorv maximttm, but, if the
R.C. (feet per minule) (17.1.2)
pilot desires the greatest rate of climb at sea level, he should o1.,"n
the throttle rvide and pull back on his sticli'until the airspecd
ll thc angle of climb,0, issmall, the curve for
porver required in indicator reads 73 mph, the best climbing speed.
r, flight may be uset.l rvith no appreciable error for flight along a As a speed of 73 mph equals 6,-1?4 ft per min along the flighb -
','l
1,,,1, irrr:lined aL an angle,.rf 0" to the htrrizc,nlal. Wlten tiie angle path while the vert.cal gain rn altitude is 702 ft per min, the angle
,t r'limb is more than a few degrees, this procedure may lead to 0 of the flight path above the horizontal is sin-l (702/6,424) or
,,,rr,;iderable error; the actual power required along the flight path 6'10/. This angle is small enough so that using the po\\'er required
t,,,rrld be used. for level flight in the calculations introduces no serious error.
I; :I RATE OF CLIMB. AT SMALL ANGLES 17.3. "CLIMBING" PROPELLERS
lly examining the porver curves of Figs. 16.8 and 16.11, it will
I'r, so€r that, at flying speeds less than the maximum, the full-
If a fixe{-pitch propeller is being chosen for an airplane, it is
usually selected to give maximum efficiency at the maximum speed
288
 t.,.t.
E r. Ert IT E N ET
t-l--t-t-
I -rf &.
I f __l t- .r r.__ -, I r L _t L_-_J
-f I n:I L-l.L-J'.',lL-i' I l; i l: L I t.
:

. CLIMBING FLIGITT OF CI,IMB

ANGL.bJ ml
,1,,,rrirplane or at the "cruising" speed of the airplane. To secure hp."q.c for power required in olimbing flight,
lu,st climb, a propeller should be selected-to give maximrrm
r,, rr,ncy at or near the best climbing speed. Figure 17.2 illustrates Vc : V r{Go (17.4.3)
,,t t propeller chosen for maximum efficiency at a speed near
,,t ,r[ the speed of best climb will give a greater excess porver and
hpreq.c : hpreq.tr (cos 0)r (r7.4.4)
,,',,.,1rrently a. greater rate of climb than a propeller ehosen lor By meqns of these two equations, power-required curves &re
, ,,"rum efficiency at higher speeds. plotted in Fig. 17.3 for climb at angle of 20o and 40o. Interpolatjons
uan be nrade if
'iesired. Excess horseporvers based cn ourles such
as these will give a slightly greater and more nearly correct rate of
Prop.llcr wilh r mrr. rt 135 m. p. h.
Prcp.ll.r wlthr mrx. rt ll0 m. p. climb.

t20

mrr. rt E3 m. p. h.

V.lociv ( Mll.r p.r hour)

F-
T
l"rq. 17.2. Hor:epowor availabls with propellers of difforing pitch.

I I,]XACT METHOD FOR FINDING RATE OF CLIM.B

llrc power-required curves used in Chapter 10 wero based on
,, velocities end on the porver required for level flight; that is, o 20
#rr-?nrrffp.,iffi, t2o t4o
,r ,,r1ualed \veight and ths polver required was the power needed
rvtlrcorlo the total drag rvhen flying at the speod necessary for Fro. 17.8. Power required et varlou olimbing angler.
I to equ&l rveight.
,\,:tually, in climbing ffight,, 17.6. ANOLE OF CLIMB
In Fig. 17.1, it is shorvn for the illuetrative problem used in
,.r, -l49! (17.4.1) Example I in Bection 16.4 that the greatest rate of climb, 702 ft
per min, ig obtained when the airapeed ir 73 mph. The angle of
ct
f,s olimb is eo10'. If thc airplane fliee slcwer, tho aciual rate of ;lirnb
-hnro 7 lr in feet per Eeoond; will be lesa, but the rotio of olimb to fomerd rpeed may be groater.
When E line is drawn from the origin tangent to the rate-of-olimb

;(#
(ilt cos 0)x
oule, line OA in Fig. 17.1, the point of tangenoy will give the
hp*o,-
# (17,4.2)
maximum angle of olimb.
For this airplane, the point of tangenoy it 68 mph airupeed and
626 ft'per min rate of olimb. Thir giver an anglo of olimb of 6o28'.
the "ymbolr Y t f or velocity in lcvel flight, 7c for velooity
Ilr ing
In military msne.,lvero, retc of olimb il very importint. While
",,rimbing flight, hp6q,s for power required in lcvol flight and "dog.ffghting," tho airplano thet crn 3ain altitudc on ita opponent
 rl -l

CLIMBING FLIGHT ABSOLUTE AND SERVICE 293

'IEILINGS
l, r!'r: an advantage even if a wide circle is necessary.to attain It is custornary to assurne that the rate of climb varies lineally
. ,,1 t rl,rrde. with altitude.
r,, tirl(ing off, an airylane goes straight, and it is the angle c2f
,,rr, rrr)t ihe rate of climb, that is the decisive factor in clearing gJ 800
,.,, l,'s. In taking off from a small field, it is better to fiy at the .E 7oo
.! Anglc of +limblrather than at the best rate of climb' For the
b 600
,,lnrrr used in Example 1 of Section 16.4, with wide-open throttle, '6o- 500
'r,'li should be pulled back until the atrspeed indicator reads o
, I l,rrt 63 mph.
: 400
IE 300
r ' ,rrr liq. (16.2.4), ; 2oo
Ab: ;olute cl riling

T_D : stn0 (17.5.1) Et* I

W Po o 2,c00 r.*
Service :eiline- i\
r2,5oo ls,ooo r7,so0
(? - D) o,1ii3l.1o,ooo
t ll'is fixed,8 rvill have its greatesl valrre rvhen nas
, :rl,cst value. An examinaiion of Fig. 16.7 \'ill slrorv thaf the Flc. 17.4. Ilnr"r.: of t:linrir vcrsus lltitude.
t, 'r,crtical <lislancc lltltrvectt tlre thrrrst and drag (:uives
rt {i3 mph. 17.8. ARSOI,UTI' AND SI'RVICE ('I.]ILINGS
i.\.IIi OF CLIMB AT ALTITUDE If the rate-of-<:lirnb venius altitucic <;ur.vc is t:ont,iuuerl to intcr-
secL the base line, this interseclion nrarlrs the alrsolute ceiling o.
' , :rbility to climll is dtt,elmined by the excess of the horse-
r - altitude rvhere
,' ;Lvatlzririe a,t any speed over the horseporver t'eqrtirc'r al that the rate of climb is zero. This is the highest altitu<ie
that i'r, is possible for the airplane to reaeh.
altilrrtles above sea level, t,he ordinat'cs of the tobal horse-
'\b
,, required cnt'r'e.become greater and the ordinates of ihe At this altitude, the horseporver.available curve is tangentto the
horseporver-required curve. Tho airplane can be florvn at only
, .',,,n'"r-utoilaltle curve become less' The differences betrveen
, , rrdinates at the same speed l'epresents the porver for climbing'
one speed. At either greater or iesser velocity, there u'ill not be
t,, l"ig. 17.1 are ploltecl, for,thc airplane used in Exampie I of
sufficient available horsepower to maintain level flight. This one
,,,,,,-16.4 the raies of climb at each velocity for 10'000 ft alti- velocity of flight rviii be very close to the best elimbing speeds at
altitude near the ceiling.
, ir r.rr{-1, for comparison, se&-level ratcs of climb'
|., :rirspeed for maximum climb is gleater u'ith incrcased alti- At lhe absolute ceiling, control is very sluggish. The rnte uf
climb has been steadil)' clecl.easing with altitude, so that as one
, l, Lntl is very close to the airspeed fott minimttln horsepo*'er
climbs very near to the absoiute ceiling the rate c,f clinb becomes.:
r'',rrl; bhat is, the angle of att-ack fol l-rest climb is almost the infinitesimaliy small. An infinite time will therefore be required
.,r,' :rs the angle of maximum C /C or- TSerefore lvith increasing
,rirtr,rle th€ speed for maximum "9u
climb increases' to reach the absolute ceiling, and no airplane ever reaches it unless
oue conceives of .l,n irrfirrite fuei supply.
; CIIANGE OF RATE OF CLIMB WITII ALTITUDE More practical is the seryice ceiling. rvhich is the eltitude where
the rate of climb is 100 ft per min.
ll ',he ma.ximnm rate of climb is plotted against altitude as in If the rai"e of climL is assrrure<l ttr changr: lineri.lly u,irh altitude,
i,rl 17.4, it will be seen that the resulting curve is practically a
., line. Actually the slope of the rate'of-cl;inb curve varies
,,,.,4hi li l(Jt.C.,t6' - 1001
'',, r,.[y with altitude. - (lt.C. )o
 I
L

CLIMBINS FLIGI]T
'l-
TIME TO CLIMB TO ALTITUDE M5
,,, .EI : absolute .ceiling in feet 17.8.5. The service ceiling of an airplane is 21,300 ft. The rate of
11" : service ceiling in feOt climb st sea levdl is 950 ft per.min. What is the rate of climb at 13,000 ft
(lL.C.)o : rate of climb at sea level in feet per minute.
I
altitude?

EXAMPL,b) 17.9. TIME TO CLIMB TO ALTITUDE

,, lrr airnlnne weighing 4,000 lb, the excess horseporver at sqr level
,r rrlr; ;rt 10,000 ft altitrrde there is an excess of 17 hp. \yhrt is scrr.ice
If it is assumed that rate of climb varies linearly with altitude,
the slope of the ratc..of-climb irersus altituCe cu:".,'e is constant and
is equal to - (R.C.)o f H, where 11 is'absolut,e ceiling. The rate of
'lrrltlon.
climb at any altitude h is
(R.C.)o: 60 X'33,000
4,000
(R.c.h : (R.c.)o - ry) : (R.c.)o (?)
495 ft pcr min

17 x 33,000 If rate of climb is expres.sed ;n differential form as dh/ dt,

(R'C')tu.ooo :
.1,000
Hdh
l{0 ft per min #:ro.".r,(?) dt
(R.C.)o(.F/ - h)
F1.,,- 10,000 140 Integration gives
II* 495
tfh Hdh
495H- :
4,950,0fi) t10H (R.C.)o(,F/
- h)
3'o5ll : r,950,000 H t_f^dh
Absolute ceiling : 14,-: 13,970 ft l.' (R.C.)oioH-h
H;: ,r.oro
' 1lE\ -H I
: (ofrlloc' (r/ - o) lr
\1e5l 1.

11,150 ft : los" H - los, (H - h))

PROBLEMS
Ch
(Assume that rate of climb varies linearly rvith altitude.) -Hr^-H
-(R.c.)o'"""H-h
8.1. An airplane weighs 4,600 lb; its rate of climb at sea level.is
1,
ro{l ft per min; its absolute ceiling is 1.1,000 ft. \Vhat is its sen'ice
,,, r rli?
:2.Bol*kt"*,r(u{')
ri eirplane is 15,000 ft. Its rate of clim)
t1.2. The service ceiling of an
, ,,,,rr level is 890 is the absolute ceiling? t ee1 1-5r
ft per min. What whero t: time to climb to altitude h in minutes
t/.1J.3. An airplane weighs 4,200 lb. What is the excess horsepower at Il : absolute ceiling in feet
(R.C.)o :
," ulrvice ceiling? rate of climb at sea level, in feet per minute.
t/.t'1.4. The absolute ceiling of an airplane is 18,400 ft. The rate of
i,rrrlr at s€& level is 1,070 ft per min. What is the rate of climb at 12,000
If the service ceiling I/, is known, either the above formula may
',,ll,itude? be used a.fter the absolute ceiling has been found by means of the
 -rtt

',l i CLIMBING FLIGHT TIME-THLIMB FORMI'LA

r r.lrrl,iOn second altitude is twice the time interval from take-ofi
to the tirne

L(n.c.)o 100
,:r,l "
(R.C.)o
-
of taking the first altimeter reading. I€t h be tUu
from takeoff to the attainment of attituae of h,
in mi'utes from rake.off tilr alrirude
li_";;;;il;
f";t;;; ilr;;;
,,r l,he following formula for time to climb may l11lt*. i.Lii, ,."dii"il
be used: f,nen "fir,
H. (R.C.)or/"
I : 2' 303 los'o
(R.C.)o(n,-h)+root tt - 2.803#t".,.(;ft)
Gc-. o --1so
;
I

DXAMPLE
,\t ,.ea level an airplnne's rate of climb is 1,000 ft per min. Its absolute
tz:2,Boltrhr*,,(#A)
i.
,,rlirrg is 15,000 ft. Hol'long will it take to climb to 7,000 ft altitude?
,\rl:ilion.
l2
15,000
/ 15,000 \
r - 2.303 X X lo*"\15,000
1,000 It ,loSro / H \
-7,000/
- 9.5 nin
\t/ l?,/
t2, H H
lor
PROBLEMS ;ro9 - hr:
11 H-:E
17.9.1. At sss lgvel, an airplane weighing 5,200 lb has 135 excess horse-
1urrr,er. Its absolute ceiling is 19,000 ft. (c) How long will it take to
,lrrnb from sea level to 7,000 ft? (b) How lorrg will it to.ke to climb fron.
("4)""': H-lb
H

,.rr level to 8,000 ft sltitude?

17.9.2. A Beecho'ft airplane hes a service ceiling of 18,000 ft. Its rate
If 12 is twice !1, t2f t, : 2.

',f climb at sea level is 1,2fi) ft pCr.min. How lon; will it take to climb /
l-l
H \2 _ H
Itom se& level to 10,00Gft altitude?
17.9.3. A \\taco airplane, ,fiose service ceiling is 14,000 ft, climbs
\H-h/ H-hz
!r50 ft per min at sea level. How long will it require to climb from sea H2_Hh2_lr2_zilh+hf
l,'vol to 8,000 ft?
17.9.4. A Piper Cub, rvhose absolute ceiling is 14,200 ft, climbs 650 ft
zHh - Hhr:7r,2
1,r'r min at sea level. Horv long will it require to climb irom see level to its br'
/;T;:tl"i?u..o*u. T.ainer ctimbs 900 ft per'min at sea level. How
i::-
' 2h-h2
l,,ng does it take to climb to its service ceiling, 15,000 ft?
EXAMPLE
t7.IO. FINDING OEILING BY TIME_TO-CLIMB FORil{IILA An airplane ta'es Z nin to reach g,000 ft altitude. fn that same
a-0 sec
tiTe intervel (i.e, 16 _oin from iea level) lt reaches ta;C00
Since the time to climb is a function of ceiling, i+" is possible to
What is tbe ceiling?
#ffi;;:
rrsr: this relation to find the ceiling of an airplane by noting the
(8,ooo)t
rrltitudes attained at two tinres in a continuous climb. The simplest lf-
1'rocedure is to use trvo equal time intervals, so that the time 2x9,000-13,600
rrrten'&l counted from instant of take.off to the time of readiug the ft
= 28,667 ceiliug
 :lrl'

CLIMBING FLIGHT

PROBLEMS 18.
17.10.1. An airplane climbs in 9 min from ses level to
7'64Gft eltitude; I

,.,,,,ii*iog the climb, I min later the altitude is 13,6fi) ft' lYhat is the
,,,iling?
altitude; in
ti1O.Z. An airplane climbs in a certain iime to 9,500 ft
15'200 ft
,l,ruble that time counted from sea level the airplane reaches Gliding Flight
'l;.;0:. Whet is the ceiling?
nll,itude.
;; eirpiane w1f, a ceiling of 2ri,000 fr climbs to a heigirt
r-'f

r,,(D0 ft in a certa'in time. What height rvill it atbin
17.10.4. An airplene rvith a ceiling of 19,000 ft crn
ur 20 min. \\'hot ireight will iU have reached
in 10 nrin?
17.10.5. An airplane clirnbs in I celtain tirne to
2'200 tt; in trvice that
trrrrc it climbs to 3,800 ft. What is the ceiling?
in trvice that time?
clirnb to 12'450 ft
r8.I. GLIDING ANGLE AT SEA LEVEL
There is no marlied difference in the rneaning of glide and clii'e.
A very steep glide is called a dive. Ordinarily a glide is corrsitlererl
to take placu u'ith power partly or completely off. A divr rnry
occur with po\\'er either on or off, altborrgh usually the rvord riivc
by itself means t,he manerrver rvith the po*'er olT; rvith pcr$'er or).
the term po\\'el dive is used.
Giiding angle is the angle belorv the horizontal of the flight path
when the airplane descends with the engine either completely
throttled or "turning over" so
.lowly that there is. no appr"-
ciable thrust. The forces actirg
on the airplane, a small force
on the tail being neglected,
are rveight, lift, and total
drag. These forces are shou'n
in Fig. 18.1. The component
of -weight parallel to th- flight
path is the force that pulls
the airplane along the flight FIo. 18.1. Forces in glide.
path. When the airplane at-
tains a steady speed along the flight path, the rveight multiplied
by the sine of the glide angle just equals the total drag.
The lift is equal and opposite to the componeut, of the rveight
pcrpenrlicular io ihe fli3bt path. Ii the irft is less ttran Il' cos f.
the airplane will "squash" or settle and the flight path will be
steeper. If the lift is greater than 17 css 0, the airplane u'ill noi
descend on that angle of glide but will tcnd to level out, so that the
glide angle will be flatter. For any airplane there will be rn angle of
299
 t

GLIDING ELIGHT
GLIDING ANGLE AT SEA LEVEL 2OI

In all three of the above equatiuns, (18.1.4), (18.1.5), and (18.1.6),

r,.lr(le associated with each angle of attack determined by the
IZ is in feet per second.
lollowing equations.
A table such ae Table 18.i may be calculated. It is for a mono-
L - W cos0.:0 (18.1.1)
plane with Clark Y wing, 36 ft by 6 ft, and pa,rasite of 3.8 sq ft
lI' sin 0 , Dl -- 0 (18,1'2) E.F.P.A. weighing 2,000 lb.
'l'heso two equations resemble Eqs. (16.2.3) and (16'2'4), TABLE 18.1
ll,r. (18.1.1) being identical to Eq' (16.2.3)' In Eq. (16.2'4)' the
t.rrn for thruet is omitted and the component of rveight acting
rrlrrng the flight path, W ain 0, is of the oiposite sign to the total
,*Tt.2t Iz rin 0

,llrg to give Eq. (18.1.2).

I)ividing Eq. (18.1.2) by Eq' (18.1.1) gives t -4
l4
0.032 8,300 s0
-3 0.032 3,640 36.4
D, -2 21 0.084 8,680 20.2

. tanU=T (i8.1.3) -1 3.030 9,000 l{.0

0 0.030 ;,610 10.8
' 1.28a
I 0.042 8,6 i6 9,0

:TCa+ ,
o 60 0,046 I,C20 7.8
3 67 0.060 3,620 7,0
( 18.1.3o )
.4 0.066 r,olo. 8,020 8.4
5 0.060 4.8t0. 3,620 6.9
[rom Fig. 18.1, it rvill be seen that 6 0,067 8,820 6,8
7 0.074 8,620 6.6
W' : L2 ',.Drz 8 0,082 8,620 6,4
12 0,u7 8;616 6.4

= (C12 *Cot t (isv')' 16 0,r61 8,610 6.2

l8 0,180 3,696 6.8
19 0.n2 8,690 6,2
20 o.228 3,580 7.0

(18.1.4)
In Fig. 18.2 are plotted angle of glide versus angle of attack and
velocity versus angle of at,iack for this monoplane. It is to be
noted that the angle of glide is big for negalive angles of attack,
l,'rrun Ee. (18.1.1), that as angle of attack is increased the angle of glide decreases
l=
ffio (18.1.5) until at one angle of attack, in Lhis case 5o, the angle of glide is a

J *;" minimum of 4.8". Further increase of ongle of attack increases

the angle of glide.
In this monoplane, with a dead engine, tlie pilot pushes forward
Itrom Eg. (18.1.2)' on the stick. The airspeed will increase. When it reaches 71 mph,
the pilot rvill manipulate the stick to maintain that speed' The
l= (18.1.6)
angle of attack will then be 5o, and the angle oi glide will be the
Crrf,S flattest possible, namely, 4.8".
 I r .{i r .

I
302 GI,IDING FLIGIIT WORJ(

18.2. HOHIZONTAL GLIDING DISTANCE I

By maintaining the flattesi possible glide, the greatest hori-
zontal distance czon be Ln veled in descendir,g. The prlot can thus
re&ch an emergency field ancl lancl, even though tire field is at a
same optimum gliding angle whether empty, partly loaded, or
I
fully loaded.
Since the angle of glide d is cot-r (L/Dr), examination of Fig.
18.3, which is a plot of. L/Dl versus angle of attack for this airplane,

L/ ,D.
l0 F<
\-( L {z /go,

/
g
a
to OL
-40 160
?
. Frc. 18.3. .L/D voraus angle of attack,

shows that the maximum valuc oI L/Dj is at the angle of attack

of 5o, This checks with the angle of attack for flattest glide as
computed in Table 18.1.

18,3. WORK
In gliding at a constant anglo and at a conetant speed, thc
kinetic energy is constant. With a dead engine, the tvork done in
Flc, 18.2. Anglon nrrd volooit,ioa in glide.

confliderable distruncc irom t,ho opot whore his engine quit, The
nr:tual horizonbnl distantrc that, muy be achioved iu a function of
the altitude of ths tirplu,ne when tho engine qu.ils. If /r, is tho
original altitudo,

Horizontal gliding ciietancs -*

Tho minirnum gliding anglo, ar fourrd from a graph similar to
thot of Fig, 18,2, rvill givo tho flattost ponriblo glide. It rvill bo
noted thot this anglo of glido is oot-r (LlD) and therefore dependa
only on the oirfoil section nnd tbo ratio of parasifc erea to wing
aroo. It iu independont of woight. That is, an airplano will have tho
fto. 18,4. Olido poth.
overcoming drag is equ&l to ilrh, wherc W is the weight of the
airplanc and b feot is tho altitude lost.
An airplane starting at point .4 in Fig, 18,4 followa the flight
path lB, looing h (-AC) feet of altitude, The length of the flight
 t ii..' - +

,XII GI,IDING FLIGHT \TERTICAL VEIOCITY 805

1,ll,lr ,48 (: s) is found.by trigonometry to be descent is

50 X sin 6o : 50 X 0.104
,:4f".t
sin 0 - 5.2 mph

l,rrl,, frorl Eq. (18.1,2), The data on glides and dives are frequently presented in the
D:Wsin0pounds form of a polar diagram as shown in Fig. 18.5. The radius is the
ve.locity, to.scale, of the airplane wheh gliding or diving in the di-
'l'he work done in overcorning D pounds of drag over & distance rection indicated.
,,1 ,rfeet is D X o foot pounds of rvork, but

DXs=(I{z.sinil.X+
---sind

= Wh foot pounds.

rX,I CLIDING VELOCITY

'l'hu velocity plotted in Fig, 18,2 is tho velocily with dead
, rrrrino. This velocity vnrics ae the Bquero root of the rveight. A
trrlly loaded airplane rvill therefore glide faster than a partly
l,,,mled plane, l'en though it glides at tho same angle. The slowest
,lorcent, along the flight path rvill be at a large angle of attack. The
,lnnger of gettir,g out of control rvould n;ean that some angle l:ss
tlrtn that of maximum lift should 5e used.
Velocity is a function of altitude. If the glide is s+srted at a high
tho velocity increases as the airplane reaches the denser
'll,itude,
hrr ne&r the ground.

VERTICAL VELOCITY
Itt l-,.
Vertical speed of descent is the sine of the angle of glide multi-
Ftc. 18,5. Polar diagram of velocities in divee.
l,licd by the velocity along the flight path:
Vu : V sin0 For angles less than 45o it is better to use the formula
lfor the airplane under discussion at the flattest angle of glide,
I 8o, the airpseed is 71 mph. The rate of vertical descent is, then,
I w*ro
v- !c, I-
x o.oo2s6s
71 X sin 4.8o : 71 X 0.084
and for angles greater than.4S" it is better to use the forns
: 5.9 mph

At a greater angle of attack, the vertical descent may be slightly

,rkrwerj for example, at a 16" a.nglc of q,ttack, while the angle of
alide is 6", the airspeed is only 50 mph and the rate of vertical {F*:' L'-*
| -l
!-l f-l !-f l--l !--l
.- ,
!---t r-l f-r r--l r- t---:l n n r--.li
t, 'L --,. r -ii;.., r .i ii
a_
, ti. -l -l 'l .1.1.. lrl
ilxI GLIDING FLIGIIT
ACCELEPATED GLIDES 3O7

Decreasing the. angle of attack belorv

thst for minimum gliding angle will make
the angle of glide increase and the velocity
increase. At the.angle of zero lift, tan-
gent d will.be infinite; that is, d rvill be g0'
and the airplane will be iu a vertical
dive. For this case, the weight of the
airplane pulls it
down faster and faster,
until the total drag equals the rveight,
rvhen the airplane tvill ngt go down any
fasler. This speed is called th: terminal
velocity.
Angl! ot It should be emphasized that, in a ter-
/oro Llll
minal or vertical dive, the angle of attack
must be that of zero lift. If tire angle of
attack is such that the lift coefficient has
l,'ro. 18.0. Forceg in a'even & small positive value because of the
termrnal dive, high velocity, there rvill be a horizonlal
(lift) force acting to pull the airplane out
,rf its vertical flight path. At, the angle of zero lift, there is a couple
,rr:ting to twiet the wing, as shown in Fig, 18.6.
w - (coo," - #) x 0'002s0s (7to,'in,,r)2
/tcrrninnl: W
PROBLEMS
18.6.1. Plot angle of attack versus angle of glide icr an airplane with
a Clark Y wing 42 ft by 7 ft, having 8.5 sq ft equivaient flat plate area
of parasite.
18.5.2.'If the airplane in Problem 18.5.1 weighs 3,500 !b, what is the
airspeed for flattest gliding angle?
18.5.3. What horizontal distance can be traveled if the airplane in
Problern 18.5.1 glidea from 2,000 ft?
18.5.4. If the airplane in Problem 18.5.1 weighs 4,500 lb, rvhat is the
airspeed for flatteet gliding angle?
18.5.5. What is the airspeed of the airplane in Problem 18.5.4 when
gliding do,vn on a 50o path?
18.6.6. lVhat ie the terminai velocity of the airplane in Pr.oblem
18.5.4?
18.5.7. Plot a polar diagram of angle of glide s.nd airspeed for an
airplanc rveighing 5,000 lb ond having a Clark Y rving 39 ft by 6,,i ft and
7 sq ft equivalent flat plste area of parasite.
18.6. ACCELERATdD GLIDES
In the preceding Bections of , his chapter, the conditions for tn
airplane in a steady glide were examined. Aclually an airplane
does not immediately &ssume the speed associated rvith the con-
dition of equilibrium; it may lake several seconds, and tho airplane
muy descend a considerable distanco before steady gliding speed is
attoined.
If thrrict iu neglected, the force aeting along the flight path ie
llz sin d - D and this force may be placod equal bo the mass of tho

J(t,," -#) xooo2ios airplane multiplied by the acceleration along the flight path:

For tho airplano undor discussion, wsino-trt8v2=i"#

2,000 dh da
Tr.r,nrnnl = J (0.032)x0,00260x216 -Ys **dn x Ax A (18,6.1)
- BBg mph but dh/d,a - Bin t - I/; then
a,nd d8/dt
This is at aea lovol dcnaity, rince 0.00250 - (po/2)(88/00)2,
Aotually,'if the divc ig gtartod at high altitudo, tho airplano will
wcino - r";sr3 - V rnev# (18.6.2)

ottoin a groator v.lodity, rlorving down to thir volocity as tho air

If tho ohange in altitudo Ah is quite Bm&ll, it is approximately truo
donsity inoroases.
ihat
In all.the forogoing, the d:.ag r€dltanco of thc propellor has bo€n
neglootcd, and anglcr of glide arr in rtill air,
Av dv (18.6.3)
Ah
-I- dh
 GLIDING FLIGHT ACCELERATED GLIDES

is the velocity at a certain altitude and I/o * AZ is the

lf [o at a^r altitude.of 5,000 ft with an initial velocity of 100 ft per sec.
in albitude Ah, the velocity I/ during
.ehrrrity after a small decrease Soltl/';ion. From Table 18.1, when 0 : 9", Cot: 0.034.
r[tr ;hort period of glide is approximately equai to the a,verage
ehrlityl that is, Kr= 2 X 2,000 X sin 9o
32.17 x 200
AV
,--vo+T = 0,972

Kz- 0.034 X 216

AV :2(V - Vd (18.6.4)

0rrlrrlituting (18.6.3) and (18.6.4) in Eq. (18.6,2) gives - 3.67

Kz:4X2,000Xsin9o
w eino - cnlsv2
'2-' :Y ain,vz(v - vo)
s Ah - 1,252
,'l

("n#+cDtt) u' v-wsino=o (r8,o.b)

lat'ing p be the a,vor&go air density, i.e., tho denoity at altitudo of

\ - Lhl2 feet, and
2W ain0
Kt- guh
o
.;
CoS :
!

nz: T E

Ks = 4W ain0
F:,1, (18.0.5) becomes

(Kr * KzF)V2 - KtVoV -f - o

i lme in seconds

rr KtVot@ (16.6.6)
FIo. 1&7. Time to glide.
. 2(K, * KzF)
'l'he time in seconds required to descend
In Fig. 18.7, the velocities, column (16) and the times, column
h. fee! is
(18), are plo^uted frcm Table 18.2 for ;arious altiiudes.
A'
Ah
(16.6.7)
"'- - yaioo PROBLEM
the airplane in the preceding exemple, find the time
18.6.1. tr'or
EXAMPLE
-
required to glide at a constant ongle of 10o from 5,000 ft altitude to
l,'or the airplane used as an example in Section 18.1, fiud the time 4000 ft altitude, assuming an initial velocity oi i00 ft per sec. (Use the
,u,1,,ir€d to attain steadlrflight speed at an angle of glide of 9", starting gtep.by-step method of this eection.)
! I l_r t I ,l__' I ; r I i rijili_-__r, l;;_ir_*)
r
-) ;
=;!j

GLIDING FLIGHT GLIDING ANGI;E WITH WIND 311

o.cN ON FNSd
€HOH
ooF i@ar 1E.7. GLTDING ANGLE WITH WIND
oots6@6ts@9No
@FFN@F66FS9
In gliding with a dead engine, the angle of glide is affected by the
o@tsFo€o@ooo wind. In still air; d being the angle of glide,
G'l H o H o d s o € @ e 6 tand
b' :Co'
: 'L
=.1
+.'l d F j ct d d 6, ri d d d
:-l o 4 F @ @ o o o o o o Cr.
:l
With a wind of W f.eet per second, Zo being the airspeed in the
o 600s9@o@ooo
t> oo€noos@Qo glide and d' being the true angle of glide, if the direction of the glide
odo<trdiqiiodoo
is directly into the wind,
60046600@o@
ao(.6oHb@Ni€ : Vosino
atFr.dedii-i"io@ Lano'
H{oN@@OOOOO
aa I/ocos0-lY
lol
ecr@@@tso tan 0
-lil
ol
4l Y | .: u. 4. @. 1r?c'F:qc!1
toao
(r8.7.1)
f I
ori{{$t W
-l
l+l
I N o 6 6
1-
-l'lioo@ooc\r@rroa4 Vocos0
ctl r- | O < 6l t { F O H N d
1l\*
-l I -i r : o c4r ..:
d ; - oi
N ci
N c.i
2 | - cr d and, if the glide is in the same direci,on as the wind,
r-$CiO@@F<H@
ridsdirididoo.,i<; tan d
cro@oo6Ft-o@o
do6{di{<i{$ tan?t : (18.7.2)
,-+
'
w
iNNOi{60€Fts Vo cos0
o@roooooooo
@ts
If it is desired to glide at the flattest possible angle, i.e., to
oo
Nd
o
N a
E
N d
"stretch the glide," 0 will be small and cos d will be so close to
oo c; ci ci d unity that the above equations may be wr.itten
@ @ooooHidNo
nn{Doo66a4
v o ooooooooao tan d
+
ci ao'oeaooddct tanl':
!- W
io- l-
F
v
F
o
o
vs
c;
where glide direction is opposite to wind direction;

tan0' =
, tan?
l- .! q q
v
l"?
I$
Io
4 S O
I@ n
F
1
N
F
c! q
N @
.{ e
N Q
o ts o
NNOOOO€OO
N { E S @ O
r+y vo
K*e{oooFi!.
FOOO4i0F@o where glide direction is same as wind directiou.
cdiri@Fcidtdiqt@o;
In qliding against the wind, if it is desired to attain the greatest
N

3 <t N
F
at
@
o
o o !E€
@@o
possible horizontel distanee, the stick should be mo.ied forrvard
= a = a = a = = t--E--E-E-' slightly so es to have a greater angle of atr,:rck and greater speed
NNNN

g 8 ;o ; ;oo! ;8 ;oo ;oa 8 8. 8

6 {do6
8
than for the minimum gliding angle in still air. If thr airplane used
6
@
j o_
d; ct dt e- .i as an example in Section 18.1 i- gliding into a wind of 30 ft per sec
 .t
GLIDING FT,IGET GLIDE TE8T8 818

, (d : 4.8"), the true angle of glide is 6"44'1 18.8, OTIDE TEFTB

'" rngle of attack
r,, pilide is made at a 3" angle of attack (0 = 5'0"), the true angle Aftor on airplnne hor eotually boen oonrtruotocl, qrtito ofton lolh
, t,,l,,is 6o43/. If descending an altitude of 1,000 ft, the horizoutal uro nredo to detormlno tho ftrll.tr:ulo lift orrd toCul dr*g trtxrlHuiontl,
',nco is 8,470
ft in the first case; 8,491 ft in the second. Thore dotermlnatlonr sro utoful fs1 ysf6r.'nc0 in tltrxigtritrB futurtr
r,, sliding with the wind, the same angle of attack as'for mini- oirplaner, Thiy aro slro of primary importuneo if tnitror 0hrln808
,,, gliding anglo in still air should be maintained. There ie no are boing made in etrtomlining, ongine oowling, otc.
,,t in deviating from this as it will cauee a steeper true gliding The airplano is tostod in flight and tho uirnpcod in variouu glidr;x
,,t,', u'hether the angle of attack ie increesed or decreased. notod. The anglo of glido c&nnot bo memultll rlilcc[ly; t.ltrr rrtt.c
r r,elocitj of glide for any gliding angle is greater as altitude
lrr, of descent is found from a calibrutod but'r.rgrtlph, or b1' t,ilttitrg !ltc
',, rr,rls€dr so that the true angle of
glido d/, for any glven angle roedingE on en altimotor. The airspoed i8 hcld r:onrlttltlt. itr rut.y
,t trurk and given wind will vary rvith altitude. ono glide. The difticulty snoountcl'od in obiuirtitrg us.[rtl rttritllr's
from this Bor- of test is that of eliminating or mcliing pr'olxrr
EXAMPLE allolanco for thrust. With tho engino throttlru, l,hrtrsf trr[.y lrt:
',, rrirplane glides at an angle of 10o in still air rvith an airepeed of posrtive, zero, or nogative. With tho engine stopperl. Lhr: lrropclllr'
,rph. Jf it glides at that same airspeed into a 2Gmph rvind, what produces additiont'l drag ordinorily absent in flight'
, trtrc angle of glide?
.r irlion. l:l still air: EXAMPLI]
Vertical speed - 120 sin 10' An airplane weighs 4,650 lb' Ite wing area ie 460 sq ft' The '".'ing
: 20.84 miles section ie Clark Y, aspeci ratio 6. With airspeed inclicator constant at
Horizontal speed : 120 cos 10o 118 mph, the airplane glides from 1,000 ft to 500 ft oltitude in 20 sec.
: Neglect propeller r'hrust and drag. Find equivalent flat plate area of
118.2 miles
palaeite.
,,,r,:rt rYi:C: Solulion.
Vertical apeed = 20.84 miles 7' : 500 ft in 26 sec
Horizontal speed : 118.2 - 20 : 19.2 ft per sec
: 98'2 milee
: 1B.l mph
True gliding angle : tr"n-t ?0'84
98.2 Angle of glide,
: 12.0o
o
13'1
=..io-t 118
tr 7.1. An airplane'.:'eighing7'000lb, witha Clark Y wing 400sq ftin
, u, rrspect ratio 6, and 9 sq ft parasite area, is flying at 2,000 ft altitude : sin-r 0.1115
r,, r the engine fails. There ie an.emergency field to the north, but a
: 6.4o
,.,ph north vind is blorving. (a) If the airplane glides at a 3o angle of
. rtr,.k, how far north will it land from the point qf engine failure? W cosl
'r What will be the true gliding angle? u' = 6l6t5637
tit.7.2. In atill air, an &irplane can meinrain an 8o angle of glide with
4,650 X cos 6.4o
',,,,rrspeed of 96 mph. dt that s*me airspe"d. what is the true angle ol
,,,'1,. rvhen.gliding in the eame direction ae a 2Gmph wind? 0.00256x460x (118)2
tn.7.3. lVhat would be t*rb true angle of glide in Problem 18,7.2 if the
, , l'. \vere in the opposite direction to the wind? - 0.282
 L-J LJ t-J l- l L_l ll l*-J t*-r r (.
'\ r,'::i.r.je:;

:l'
GLIDING FLIGHT

c"+#:crtrn 19.
: 0.282 X 0.112
: 0'0316

I'r,'rn !'ig. E.8, f<rr Clark Y airfoil, aspect rstio 6, rvhen Ct is0.282, Factors Affecting Performance
,',,.,,," is 0.014.

r:, : -i
l.2So
:0.0316

l.2Sa I9.1. EFFECT OF CIIANGING WEIGHT

0.01'l+:.: -:0'03lti
By changing rveight, rving loading and power loa.ding are
a : 0.25 sq ft changed:

PROBLNNIS
Cr. X 0.002565
tS.S.l. Arr rtirltl:ruc s'ciglrs 5,500 llr; lts rvi,,g cle:I is 3{0 sq ft. The
rr( s{:('ti()rr is USA-35A; rtspect iittio 6. With airspeetl constal)t at 375hp,"q. : (C pX 0.00256S + 1.28 X 0.00250o)Iz3
. , rrrlrlr, tlrc lir'lrLure glides florn 2,000 fL to 500 ft ultiturle in 2 min
, ,'r'. Nr:glect effect of pl'opcller. Filii the equivalent flat plate alee of
r r:rsite.
: (0.m256cps * 1.28 x 0.00256o) (il#*")"
1,

1S.3.2. A nlotroplanu rvith Clark Y airfoil has on aspect ratio of 7'3; it

,,,rqhs 0,000 lb; its rving are& is 280 sq ft. At an airspeed of 185 mph' At any one a,ngle of attack, I/ varies as the square root of the
rt glirles rt an angle of i0". What is the equivalent flat plate area of weight and required horsepower as the cube of the square root of
1 ltsitc?
'rr
tue rveight:
ls.,'].;i. A rnonoplane weighs 5,000 lb. ILs wing ene& is 185 sq ft. The
7 varies aaWk
'r
rrrg scction is Clork Y, aspect retio 8.2' With airspeed constant at
r.l.r ur1rh, the oirplane glides from 1,000 ft to 500 ft altitude in 20.7 sec' hpreq. varies as W'$
I rrrtl the equivalent flut nlate ere& of parasite.
If the horsepower-required curve.has heen found 1ot ai'plane
any point on that "a
curve gives the
as in Figs. 16.2, 16.3, end 16'4,
velocity for level flight at some oue angle of attack (the
and the ho.*epower needed for that same angle of attack (the
abscissa)
I
ordinate). If rveight is added to the airplane, all other dimensions
remaining the same, for each poini on the original curve there will
be a poirri; on a new eun'e ivith the relatioas ihat the abscissas are
to each other as the square root of the relative weights, and the
ordinates are to each other as the three-halves power of the relative
rveights.
Putting th^ .natter in another wa,y' at the same velocity, for
the same airp.ane, the lift coefficients must vary directly as i,Le
316
 t I L I L_-J L_l i _r r*_ r

rIO FAOTORS AFFECTING PITIiFOIiMANOE

I
I
EFFEOT OF OHANOINO WEIOHT t17

,r,nightrr, Theroforc, if
loud is oridoti to on ui4rluno' ilt, ony giv€n l

r1xrud tho oirplone mutt fly at a highor englo of attotrk' A highor

onglc of lttosk alwayr mo&nt o groator drog oooffiolont throughout
I

rho flying ra6o, An oirplano will roquiro molo horrlopowtu whon I

rrrurt hoavily loodod, rinoo hor;oporvor roquirod ut conu[unt, upood I

,lnpondr qn drag oooffibiant, wing oroa, and paruuico arsa. This
I
rrrurnu th&t1 if horseporvor ourvol alo droln for a lightly losdod
s,lruro und for tho somo plono hoovily loudod, at, any vnluo of I

voltrcity tho horsopowor noodod for the hoovior plrlne rvill olluys
1,,, Breut€r thsn for tho lighter pirplano; thorofuro tho two curvoc I

Jr"
" rll nover LTogB.
In detuil, if an airylano is loadcd moro ltoavily, tlro lunding specd I

'vrll bc increased. As thc muximum lift co<rflicicnt and

wing trea
I

su"ne in both instuncos, tltc lu.ttt.li;rg npceds rvill vury ns the I

^rr.the
,rrlrrrrro !"oot of the rveights. With $olno elrgino and propcllcr, the (

,rrrrxirlulm spccd tvill be dccreused slightiy. 'l'hd muximum spccd I lr1r1, ll), l, [,]llrrst. rrI u'olglrt, r)u hr]r,topow0r roqulrerl,
,,, Llic intcrscction of the horscpower-requirod curve und thrust
lrrrt'$epower curve, and no exact relation ':&n be expressed for r.9ohddoa.
, lrrrnge in top speed for change in rveight'
Vrnrn. f--l'fr
'['he excess horsepower &t any speed lvill be decreased rvith
,rrcreased rveight. The rate of climb, being the excess power
V,nru,' l ly'
-x
,lrvided by the rveight, will be decreased with increased rveight.
l'hc speed of best climb wiii be increased, as will the speed of
I/mru,--Jm
rrr:rxinum angle of climb.
'l'he flattest gliding angle rvill be always the same for any air- - 68 mph

l,lrrne regardless of rveight. The velocity at any angle of glide, EXAMPTE

,,,r'luding terminal vclocity, will vary as the square root of the
An airplane weighing 8,000 lb, requirrr lhe leart horsepowei io f,y
r.igtrt.
'r lovel, 40 hp when flying at 80 mph. If a 600Jb load is edded, what are
Ifigure l9.l shows the efrect of adding rveight in changing the velocity and power for minimum horsepower in level fiight?
l'rls€pov{€f required. With a total rveight of 4,500 lb, the horse- So|ulion, At same anglo of aitack,
t,,)\\'er-required curve is tangent to the horseporver-available
, urve; this is the limiting weight; for this weight, the ceiling is vlw
,rt. sea level. It is to be noted that, as weight is increased, mini- Vr !r,l-
,,,rrm speed is no longer determined by Or.* but by lower inter-
.r'rrt,ioD of horsepower curves. y-80ffi
EXAMPLN
- 83.5 mph
An airplane weighs 3,000 lb and has a landing opeed of 50 mph. hp / w\Y t_l
\Vhat is landing epeed with 500 lb additional load?
hp' \wr/
-:
 t_J I I t I I I I I t_t t_-- r

,4 !.ACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE I EFF'CT OF CHANGE IN WING AREA 3IO

ho:jo"t'l!oo\"
' near the angle of minimum drag, an airplane having the same
\3,000/ rveight as another airplane but less wing area will at the same air-
: S0.4 hp speed have to fly at a larger angle of attack. This increased anglc
u.ill not mean & proporticnate increase in drag coefficient. The
PROBLEMS
ttr 1.1. An airplane rveighs 3,500 Ib. Its landing speed is 51 mph.
r, lanCing speed ,;r'hen a 600-llt extra lold is added?
rt. is
lr 1.2. An airplane 'tu.ight 6,400 lb. Its landing speed is 59 mph.
't,^t, is landing speed s'hen 74 gal of fuel hove been burned? 300 rg. tl. Wint An
216 tq. tt. Wnt Anr
rrr t.11. An airplane rreighs 11,500 lb and uses minimum horsepower 150 sq. lL Wnt Aru
, l,.vcl flight at an airspeer.l of 116 mph. \fhat is velocity for minimurn
,,,,.1)o\verafter 122 gal of fuel huVe been burned? e
t
lr 1.4. The Douglas DC-3, fully loaded, has a gross rveight oI 25,200 K

t
',,rrrl landing speed of 67 rnph. What is landir,g speed rvith 5,000 lb
3
r
l, rnrl?
lr l.ir. A basic trsirrirg plrtne l'eighirrg 3,530 lL has a landing speed of
, rrrph. \\rhs6 is landing spced after 350 lb of fuel have been burned?

r,r IiFFECT OF CHANGI] IN \VING AREA

\\'it,h constant l'eighd, decreas"rg the rving area has the effp,rt
r nr(:re&s;ng the rving l"ading. riirspeed'at any angle of etLack
,,,,,:s inversely as lhe square root of the rving &re&. Horsepower
,,,1uired at any anglc of attack varies inversely as the squsre root
,l llrtt area:
I po\1'er required.
I/ varies &s ---:
\/8
I efficient varies approximately as the squ&re of the angle of attack.
hpruq. varies es
\,,i
I,'or a given velocity, an ei!':!a,ne with a smaller rving area rvill
,,rrc to fly at a larger arlgle of attack. A larger angle of attack
',,.,rru8 & greater drag coefficient, but drag coefftcient does not
,,,y lineaily ivith angle of attack. At higL speedd (er,rall arrgles
,,r rttack) the drag coefficieni va,ries ,very little rvith angle of
,,tt.tck. At slorv Bpeeds,. the slope of the drag crx$cient curve
r,rsuu argl- of attack is very nteep. At const&nt airapeed, rving
lrrg varies as drag coefficient multiplied by wing area. At high
,,;,,,r:..i, Bince lit't coefficient varies lineally with angle of attack,
,,rrgle of attaclc must vary inversely with wing aree. At angles
/ro 5'o 60 70 80 r u0. l2o l3o l4o r5o t6o
u.lso
Fra. 19.2. Effect of wing area ..n horsepower requir.eJ.
airplane rvith smaller wing area will have less drag and less horse-
At lou'er Bpeeds, the increase in drag coefficient.with increased
angle of attack is much greater. Near stallihg speeds, drag co-
An airplane having the same weight &s enother plane but a smaller
wing will have a greater drag and greeter horseporvcr required at
high angles of attack.
The horsepower curves will therefore cro6s &s ,shown in Fig, 19.2.
This means that an airplane'e top speed ca,n be increased by
ciipping the wings, prov ded that there is ample engine po\\,er.
Decreasing wing area increaees landing speed.
Decreasing wing area increases the minimum horAeporver and
the velocity for minimum horsepower.
Decreasing wing area increaseg the minimum gliding angle,
decreases the horizontal gliding distance, and increases the terminal
di.'e vel,.rcity,
 ll l, rJ t*t

'.t,
II(l FASTORS APFEOTINo. PEBFOBMANOE EFFEOT OF OIIANOE IN ENOINE III
All th€ cbove ofrcott e$umt thet the pererito roslttellcro romelnx .Whon nn eh,pleuo lxlt. ltr tup xpoerl, lt lr flyJng aC a lorv anglo
thl lBme, of ettot,k, At lrnnll anfil('i of abtank i.lro ohange rn tlo rvlth olrarifao
nf angln.h.elultn nmoll, And.tho ellnngo ln paiaelte drag ooeffioloii
, EXAMPLE ln nogllgblo' when an alrpleno h flytng levol, the rotfof oltmiiir
An nlrpleno wlth 800 ts ft ol wlng erce hm e lendlng rpood of 40 mph, r€ro,end thrurt lr oqurd ts Cstal drag, -
ll wlnE aroE lr rodusod to ?60 rq ft, whet lr tho landlnE rpeod?
Nolallon,
.?Xbhpx660=Ii
Pmtt,
ffi, =(r,+S)f sr'*
I/rntn,
rr$_ 4lbhpXJ1D0

Plt0lil,l':luF{
O-a * #)6'
trJrXnXbhrr
Itl,2,l, An nlr;rlana wltlr 470 rrrl fb o[ wlnr nmn lnttrh nt 62 rnph. It E-
1,, rlnxllurl [rr loduco liitrrllng npood to 4ll rnph;how mttslt aroa rthould lln

trlrh'rl to t,lro rving?

(,',n#)^s
ll),2,2, A eoltnln airplona wfiH wlrrg nt'ou of 700 rq ft lr f,ylng nt nnglo wltora K1 = 6lt0/(p/2)
rrl lxrxt L/D whon ait'rpood lr 0[ mph. Whnt alrapood corroapondl to
,9inco rnrnt pr,ollolloln havo oppr.oximnl,ol,y tlro nu,mo clc;rign
rnglo of boet L/D when wingr hnvo bosn clippod to 660 rq ft?
.,fliciou(ry, if tlro clrag ooefficionh &r0 nnffunrorl to bo cr)nnl;::n[ thc
10.2,3. A oortr,irr oirplnno with 200 rq ft of wing orop 6lol with lonrt
lroruopowor of 7l hp nt nn oit'r,1rood of 83 mph, Aftci' wingr havt boon
ultove exploxnirx moy ln rt rlucod to
olippod to 260 rq ft, whot ir lonst horropowor ond whot ir oorrelponding
volooity? V. KIdF
10,2.4. An airplano with 630 lq ft of wing aroa lendr at 01 mph.
Whut will bo l,rnding rpeed if wingr aro ollpped to 480 rq ft? 'l'ha ma"rimum airspood moy thoroforo bo aaid to vury opproxi-
19,2.6. An oirplone with 840 rq ft of wing arca landr ot 62 mph. mutoly as the oube root of tho 6ngine horsoporvor, prr:vidocl thu[
Wh:.| will bo the landing rpood if 76 rq fr arc added to the wing area? tho chongo in horrepowe: is not oxoogsive.
I0.3. EFFECT OF CHANGE IN ENGINE ITXAMPLE
A morc powerful engine is a larger and hoavior one. To considor An oirplano with a 20G,hp engino bas a moximum epeed of 120 mph.
t,ho e{fect of increased power alone, it muet be assumed that weight If totul rveight is unchanged, whot is moximum speed with o 2bGhp
nnd paraeito are ugchanged; that is, any increase in engine weight ongine?
is ofrsct by a Cecroase in payload, Solulion.
A change power-available curve makes no change in the
in
power-required curve. If there is no added rveight or edded dng,
n morc powerful engine will not affect the landing epeed, nor fvitt
"-,/G
y, !bhp,
it affect the speed of minimum horseporver required, mininfum y - 120{m
gliding angle, or terminal velocity. It will increase ma.ximum
speed, rate of climl; at r.ny speed, and angle of climb at any spee<i. - 129 mph
 L, I L _l t_,. _l
,ii;ltl

, FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORNIANCE SPAN ,IOADING AND ASPECT'RATIO

PROBLEMS
tl).it.l. An r-irplane t'ith a 30Ghp engine has a maximum speed of 60
'u nrph. If a 35Ghp engine is substituted without change in total c
,,r1lrt, rvhat is maximum speed? :33,0@ _ "f,s
111.3.2. An airplane with a 750-hp engine has a top epeed of 284 mph. w Ct
Ir n {XX}.hp engind is substituted, what is the maximum speed?
11t.3.3. An airplane rvith a 250-hp engine has a top speed of 20b mph.
bhp
c"+ry
''tlr total rveight rtnchanged, rvhat horsepower engine is needed to
.ttrrin 225 mph top speed? . t'r' , r.2ga
An airplane rvith a l8$hp engine has *top speed of l6b mph.
t1).iJ.4.
t rlh total rveight unchonged, rvhat is maxinrum speed rvith a 2lGhp : 33,q00? 60X ^ r -3- X W

"l rltll?
W - --:ffi-
Cz B
11r ".5. An airplane rvith a 30G'hp engine has a top speed of 220 mph. bhp
I rlh total rveight unchanged, a 250-hp engine is substi.,uted. What is
,',r \tultlm Speed? The first term contains the reciprocal of the power loading;
the second term, the square root of the rving loading. The rate of
I I. I'OWER LOADiNG AND WING LOADING climb depends on the difference betl'een the first and second terms.
l',,rvcr loading is totr.l rveight pel brake horsepou'lr. Wing loading For good rate of climb, an airplane should have a small pon'er
tlrr: total u'eight per square foot of wing ere&. In the preceding loading in order that the first term may be large and a small rving
,, tion, the ma:limum speed was found to be. loading in order that the second term may be small.
Therefore a high wing loading helps top speed; a lorv rving load-
v=Kze iog Lelps climb. A low power loading helps bctir top sp"sd s16
climb.
I hrn m&1l be retvritten as
19.6. SPAN LOADING AND ASPECT RATIO
V--Kz The total drag is the force which is overcome by the propeller
thnret. Assuming that fuselage and landing gear have been "cleaned
A high wing loading accomp&nied by a low power loading will up" Bo that parasite drag is reduced to a minimum, since the profile
p,v,, o high maximum speed. A high rving loading, horvever, means drag of most wings ig about the same the onlv other way in which
. l,rgh landing 8peed. If landing speed i8 fixed, high speed depends drag may be decreased is by reducing induced drag.
.', t I (W / P) , the reciprocql of power loading. It will be recalled that both perasite and profile drag vary as
'l'he rate of climb is givea by the square of thn velocity, and the horsepower required to over-
come theee drags varies as the cube of the velocity. The induced
33'000 (hpo-- hp"q') drag varies inversely as the squa,re of the velooity, and the horge-
It.c. (ft per min) - w power inveraely ps i,he veiocity. Tire iirduced drag theiefore
33,000rr &hp) becomes less and less important as airspeed gers higher. The
_
ww _60DV aspect ratio or span lo&ding is relat€d to the induced drag only.
The profile drag depends on thc thicknese and camber of the
33,000? 6OV wing. The wing should be as thin as possible consistent with
-- WL etructural considerations.
bhp D At high speeds, pera,sit€ drag is responsible for as much aE 70
 l--J L-J t- , t- t (

IIT.i FAOTORg AFFEETINO PEP.FONMANOS ITAPID ESTIMATION OF PINTONTIANCII 82!

lror oent uf thc total drag, Ouod rtloornllnlng ir errontlol for hlgh l,ho intlrttot.l tlrng ol'tlro rvin$ irr
nprr,dtl and lt lr of paremount lmporbanoo for roolng plancu,
A! rpcorl lerr than tho maxlmum, tho lnduood drag bcooncr mor€
lrrrportnntl end a rmall lpan loadlng or hlgh erpeot ratlo boeomor
crufrsv'+ 1,28
f,uYt
- ((lnos + t,2s,4 $v2
orrt'ntlal, Thlr lc truo et.ollnnblng rpoodr and, m wlll tlo rholn ln I)r, Orrrvrrh,l rlivid0c [lur rrir'ltlrr.rrtl rvciglrL lrl'tlro t,crrrtx in t)rrcn-
tho noxt ehapter, lr partly true for hlgh rpoodl at hlgh altl= thoroc ubovo urxl oulls [lro quoticnl, l,lur puru.uiltr lrrurlirrg (/.,0).
lrrrlo,
lloanuro a hlgh arpoot ratlo ond o lol rvlng ioodlng aro botlr f ll'
- (i[,s l- r:s,r
,k'rrlrohllo for pcrformano€ et low tpoede, ln Englund lt lr.outtomory
to llnd tho ratlo of thEco two oharooterlctles onrl rcfor to thlr rotlo
"
I 'Itro rvcight tJividctl lry thc H(llulrc of tltc ullcctivc sllrrn is cnltcrl
ru t,lro tpon loocllng:
tlxl "sputr lrlnclirrg",/,, lry l)r', ()srvtll.'l'his dtlcrl nrrL cotrfrrt'ttt rt'illt
w tltc ucrrcptcd menning of'tlre tclrn tlrut spun lordiug is tlrt'tvciglrt
Wing lorulinx T W divi<lcd by tlrc cllccr,ivo sJru.rr. l'ut' n, t'cctutrgulur ntorroJllottc, blrt:
Ttr,-c.Tffi=7r=iF "spun lorrrlilrlg" is
.s
L,:Yb-
It, irrln ln notnd tlrot, irr linglixlr l.t'sLlrorrltx rprrrr Lrrrrlirrg I't,i(l'r lrr
uoiglrt dividotl by t,ho Fl)iin x(lunt()rl, ttlrt,r'r'rrx itt r\nrr,r'ii.'i.rr l,qxt,- !'or a bip!:rne it, is
l,ooltx x1)tut loutling t'efors to u,cigltt. rliviilrxl lr.y l.lru rlrrur. ,- _ ll'
,,,
trr'rl,
ttr.0. IIAPID lls't'IMATION Ot" l)ltlir,'OllMANCjl, 'Ihe l',,ight divided by the rlesigrt thrust horsepotvcr is termed the
For n cloor unclolntuntlilrg of t,lto fur:l,olu rulTt'cl,irrg rrirplrrnc lrer- thrust po\\'er loading /,r in the Osu'ald method. 'Ihe design thrust
lrrrm&[001 tho polform&nco cut'vos clasr:r'ilmd in Clrtllkrm lll, 17, horsepoler is the brake horseporver at rated revolutions per
,rnd 18 should bo drown anrl utudiod. Ilol nrpitl ox0irnution, vrlrious minute, multiplied by the propeller efficiency under design con-
,,rothods hovo beon ovolvcd. 'l'hcuo mc[lrrxls not, ouly givo qrrickly ditions:
on approximation of tho pcrfonnurrce, but, tlrcy ulso hnvo tho Iv
n,ldod merit of rhowing quickly the cffcct, of vnrying ony of the Lt-
bhpr"r"a X
?derisn thPau.ign
lnr:tors involvod.
'fhe method of W. Bailcy Oriwald is dcscrilrcd bclorv;for u fuller Oswald also uSes a factor ?u to represeni the ratio of thrust
, rplanution tho rcader is rcferled to N.A.C.A. llcport 408, from hortepower at any speed I/ to the thrust horsepos'er at design
'r'hich tlds matorial was extractcd.
(i.e., maximum) speed 7-:
l)r. Osrvald &ssulnes that thc profile drng cocfficiept (Cpo) and
rlr" p^..rrsite dr.ag toefficient:rre cach inCependent of thc anglo of t! _: _t!p at velocitv I/
o,
;noa;;ffi (at sea levei)

^tt,rrck.
Although this is not true at high angles of attock, it is
The factor ?" is the ratio of thrust horsepower at some altitude a
"rrlntantially correct at high sprieds (low angles of attack), with
n'hich this method is chiefly concerned. By combining r,he profile to the thrust horseporver at sea level, both at the same velocity:
'lrrg of the rving (Cpop/25V2) and the parasite drag of the re-
,,,rrinder of i,lre airplane (L.28p/2aV2),lhe total drag exclusive of r. : llo" 1'"l'1tud:
thp et s€& level
(at same velocity I/)
I''lfl FACTC|RS AT'FECTING PERT'ORMANCE RAPID ESTIMATION OF 327
"ERIORMANCE
A lurge number of cases have been examjned of modern planes At sea level, when flying at m&x.mum velocity, tlte rate of climb
wtl,h unsupercharged engines, and it has been found that is zero and
To: Ri" ' o:Eo:Tn:lo-l
wlrrrre : v/v^
Eo htr
: 0.65 for prop with design C" - 0.9
m 1 i'^
3

: O.6l for prop rvith design C, : 7-2

m O:-
"
na : 0.55 for pi'op wi[h desigrr C" : 1.0
Lr \ffiLp lj I'-
sso'
. rn : 0.55 for props rvith peak efficiency
,rttt I

,tr o - 0.165 PoV*s

to - 2l
o.g3b
55OLe Lt
'l'he nrtc of climb at any speed and at any altitucle is the excess ss}trlV^
l,rrrvtrl ilt that spced and altitude dividcd bv the rveight:
-:-
(]rpn"'lr' - hq""') X 33'000 I 550 / L.L, \
ll.C. (fcet per minu[e) - ll' h: , r;,r,(t u,o'", -
: (hli"'"it' l'p"",'\ "-J
It.C. 33.000
uu'vvv\ -
w w ) f'"3Lf : L"3Ll /, L,L1 \
550
t-
l;o-(' ,*,";,^)
: 33,ooo l
LW
lPsitg2< ndo'' x ToTo
Lp
t
L"Lrl!

ryf,v"-*fr,,)l --up

Substituting,
:33,000,H'. lv" L")
. L,Lr!'
'ffiLe ,*";r) ' rr-
^ -_ ttJp X
llrbstituting, : r+
p
rt 7T .B (r_ 0.482 "*)"
R": o:-
*' Pg
where 7 is in feet per secondl

:33,0009 "ef
trv^" r: b2.8
W(-o.aaz #)"
55oL' ttoroe] nv^
where I/ is in miles per hour.
 lr t--,i lr

III FAOIIOIIS AESEOEINO PEBFON,MANOE

RAPID ESf,IMATION OF PET-IORMANCE 399
ln l,'ig, 10.8, A it plottod eguinrt Vn/LJ't, ond fror,t thir groph
Substituting this val.ie for V*3 in the equation
rlru moximum velooity st mo levcl (lr111) nnsy bo found if tho other
t'rromocgru art known,

R.c.:*m(ru-l?en^;-
' 55oLe u*";" )
'' \ "Rv^)

:$,*ofr"& :;*f@)f, _
550'e
,"r, )
L '' \ '; "')\ v-)
e-e,
sso'

L"l
,--E;f
:Ef4!(r"To- * oRsL"I't ,",, \
L' ops
e; -
\
tJh v^ bio* onv,,,
? )
: *Hl''",*n - ozlta -ry I - "'zn\l
where I/ is in miles pcr hour.
At altitudes above sea level, when flying at maximum velocit-v,
the rpt.e of climb is zero.
Fro. 19.3. Performance prediction curves. 0.332L,h0 - o'no)
: Tol'ooh^ - o"n*n
v^
llrom one of the above equations, an expression can be found for
l',,,in terms of the three "loadingS" (Lr, L,, anci Z1), which if sub-
ulrt,uted in the equation for rate of climb rvill permit a simplification,
T:zot+![f7;fft
I/-o,. &t altitude
Since where tln: ;;--
y.mar. &f. sea
---:- .. But
level
Portg
2'^ A: r*(, _
ffio:i,
1 b2.8 o.BB2
+)"
ss}relv^ Substituting the value of L"LsfV^ found above gives

v^3:55oLelr- L,L, \ L : 52r (a.ora

ry#oxt - o.rrr@)"
?,, \ ,*tr,) : 159.1
l.lsu(o - 0.t65)r&-i+r - o2n,-a (, _ o.rrr!&\"
! - o2ilrro4 \^ "'"" vo) )
 L_J LJ Ll ll L-' tl tl t. I ll ll tl IIL-J ll tl il

RAPID ESrIMATION OF PERTORMAN-CE 331

FACTOR.S AIT'ECTING PERFORMANCE'
EXAMPLE
Ro^' the relative
In the above equation, A is expressed in terms of Find the mgximum velocity and rate of climb at sea level, 5,000 ft,
,t"oJty o, and p,'"*"Lo of- the,airplane' In Fig' 19'4' and 10,0fi) ft altitude, for a monoplane weighing 2,000 lb and having a
""rt"io
/l- is plotted against A for various altitudes' Clark Y iectangular wing 36 ft by 6 ft. The parasite drag has an eqr'1ivB'-

11000

!6,000 ttit
f.. as a function of rl
r5,00cl various aftitudes
14,000

13,000
12,000
\- t\
't
\,on
I 1,000 Q

10,000

o' 9,000
L)
8,000
\q-
7,000

6,000
5,000
ffi
\.,
a,ooo
3,000
2,000
r*
[\f
1,0@
0 \ \
0 5 1015202530 35404550

Fro. 19.5. Performance prediction curves.

lent flet plate area of 3.E sq ft' The engine is rated et 150 hp at 1,800 rpm,
and the propeller under design conditions has C,
: L.57 and efficiency
'i
of 82 per cent.
Sol,ninn. For Clark Y airfoil, Coo : 6.91 (see Fig. 13.8).
Fro. 19'4' Performance prediction curves'
.Le : c""s TY

be deduced for other iiems

+ 1-r8.
In a similar manner' equations may
-p".f"tt"rnce
and plotted'-I-n Fig' 19'5' Lr(R'C')r' is 2,000

"f "o*"t
A, so that, bv tL aid of this Br&Fh' the rate of climb 0.01 x216+1.28X3.8
oiri"J "*"f^t :
utty aliitude h maY be found'
-';t;"
284.7
"t method' the performance of an
ilustration of the Osrvald w
For comparison' the air- L,: E
airplane is partly worked out below'
Of-r* Example I in Section
16'4 is used'
"f
 r_J t_J L-J t_J l_.J lr t- J. L ,
---f tL--r I I i r I i r i r
'l i i
332 FACTOR; AFFECTING PERFORI\IANCE
*1o EsuMarroN
_ 2,000 : ,".. _ :F 'ER''RMANcE $g
. (36)'
: 1.543

Lt: w
bhpx?
ru*fi-'*:xfi*;ff'.m*rgffi
=-1502,000
x 0.82
: 16.26
^ L,(Lr)'5
ll:
Lrh
_ 1.543 x.(16.26)16
-
(?.81.D%

: 9.66

L,L,: 1.543 X 1b.26

: 25.09

916.3
691.8
0.935 I t24.4 4S{.3
0.884 I 117.6 261 .3

ExplelrenoN or TecLE
Column 2 is obtained from Fig. 19.3 (for A = 9.66, V^/L'L: : 5.3).
Column 3 is obtaind from Fig. 19.4.
Column a is dbtsined by multiplying iteme in column 3 by V- ( = 133.0).
Column 5 is obtained from Fig. 19.5.
erclrrmu 6 fu obt&ined by dividing items in column 5 by Lt (: 16.26).

PROBLEMS
19.6.1. Estimste the maximum velociCy and rate of climb et (c) sea
level, (b) 5,00C ;t and (c) 10,000 ft altitude, for a monoplane weighing
3,000 lb and having a Clark Y wing 42 tt by 7 ft. The parasite has an
equivalent flat plate area of 8.3 sq ft. The enginels rated at 185 hpet
1,9(X) rpn with a propeller having an efficiency of 8l per cent.
 TAKETOFF DISTANCE IN STILL AIR

plane rests less heavily on the .ground. Since the rveight on the
20. ground is less, the friction of the wheels with the ground becomes
less, and Iess engine porver is needed to overcome this frictron.
When the airplane is rolling along the ground at an angle of
attack of (L/D)^"*., the lift and drag depend on the lift and drag
coefficicnts for that angle of attack and on the xluare of the speed.
Take-0ff and Landing On attaining the take-off speed, the lift is.small compared rvith
lhe l'eight. Changing the angle of attack to Cl-",. causes a big
increase in both lift and drag coefficients. The increase in drag
o&uses the speed to decrease slightly, but, since the take-off speed

20.1. TAKE-OFF DISTANCE

IN STILL AIR is greater than 7.,i... rvith maximum Cy, the airplane should be
airborne.
take-ofi of an airplane' Filst' ttr31e
There are three phases to the The coefficient of friction varies rvith the surface of the runway,
is a very short perjod ilti*
*ftttn tne.taif is being raised from the depending on rvhether it is the smooth deck of a ship or a soft
ar''tively'. long period during
whicir
ground. Second, ttt"'"-il u' t?mf the rvins is at gravel field. The accepted values of the coefficient of friction (r)
the airplane is g"ining t"plJ
t"ittt the tail,up so that are given in Table 20.1.
is pulled back to
a low angle of attack' I"i
tf'" n"uf phase Lhe stick
so tha[ the plane is lifted into
nut the wing at Uig ""glt-"f otutl' in TABLE
rong, the airo)ane mav be kept
2O.I
"
i;;f,"H;;,rfi.i.,rr,
il" ;i;: .
the second position ";;ii;;;'"ttailned
enough speed to
If
eliminatinq the third
ilft{ Bn,rxns OrF

while flying at the f#t"e;; attack' thus Concrr+e runway or uuo.l.en dccl, p: 0.02
phase described above' Hard turf, level field p: O.M
assumedr +hor rhp take-off
that the at
rnke-off is at' Average field, ahort grass :
In the following description' it is
p 0.05
airpranc has retractabre landing Average field, long grass p: 0.10
sea revel with no *il.'ii-;ie Softground
qear. it is naruralry ;;;i"il; ;p tiil tr," plane is in the air so the 11=0.10-{.80

ffi;;;" -t"""i it with the gear extended' is suddenlv put at a high

Bntrre-Ou
At the end of th";;; ;;; it'g.y'1ts Concrete runway p=0.5
angle of attack,'airplane'
;;ag will \!om9 -uerv big' ""d1i9 T
th"';;s"B""uut" Hard turf p:0.4
of this and also because excestl Average 6eld, short grass p=0.3
-f"?-a"*. the climbing-'.the stick is not
pulled Average field, long grass p=0.6
horseDower will be """aJi"t grtater
il:il'#ii ;;;;;. ultutn"d i,r,1.t, is somewhat
custordarv in calcula-
"'.p""a
than the minimum ;;';;tli;;;nti' f is of maxi-
The accelerating force is the propeller thrust minus the sum of
Joti"sponds to 90 per cent the total drag and the friction of the rvheels on the ground. If ?e is
iibns to *
nurn Cr,.
" 'o"uj^t*'r'fn .r - the static thrust of the propeller, the initial accelerating force
wide' the brakes releaseC' qnC (f'o) is
In starting, thb throttle is opened
il;;;;*fi roil-iong th9-erotlndyi:h :1" Fo:
the tail raised. Tbt l* To -
wing at the angle
"J -ti"tt maximum L/Dt' first' tbe Wp (20.1.1)

on "r the ground, the lifting^force

As the speed increases, the ground friction becomes less but the
entire weight of the
As the tqia increaseB' t9* "1d
"i*r"* "r" air resistance becomes greater. Just prior to take-off, ground
on tho wing being "tiWr"';t;tti"a uv the wins' so that the
more of the ai'ptani?;itht friction has become negligible, the sole retarding force being the
834
 L__t L I i

:I;I(} TAAE-OFF AND LANDING TAKE€FF DISTANCE IN STILL aIR 3:|7'

,,,r rlrag. The propeller thrust has decrea.scd- from its static value velocity is I/3, the force F at airspeed l/ rvill be
ro n tr€w value rvhich depends on the airspeed'
'l'he accelerating force at take-ofr (tr'1) is the propeller thrust F:Fn-@o -!)v
,r,rnus the air drag of the enbire airplane:

Ft: Tt - Cp
t (20.1.2)
-"'['-(";);]
f,sv? Letting

Ce' - CDtat angle of attack for'(L/D)^o'.. The take-off

n,lrr:re
g:Fo:F'
Fs
'r
tt the angle of attack rvhere Ca is 90 per cent of maximum
,'1. The velocity at take-off (Ir1) rvill be
f' :
v\
f'o (i -K-lvr/ (20.1.3)

Vt=
Thrust
i

400
Thrusl- t:,(W - L -D
I €c 300
-|i
0.90 IJ zoo I
v(w-L)
: 1.054I/-i.. I
Drag.

It is i,o be noted that take-ofi speed yr varies directly as the o to

!illuare root of rving loading W/8 and inversely es the sqrrare root
,,f air density.
For a fixecl-pitch propeller, the thrust may be found at any speed
lry the method described in Section 15.8. For a constant-specd
1,r'opeller, the pitch may be found by the method described in
ljcction 15.11. With the airplan: rolling along the ground qt the
,,ngle of attack of (L/D)^,*., the lift and drag may be found for
nny speed. \{ultiplying the difference between the lift anrl thc
,r,,ighi by the coefficient of fiiction gives the retarding force 'due
to ground friction. When this is added to the total drag at that
,,grced, the sum is the total retarding force. Subtracting this sum
llom the i,hrust ai that specC givss the net accelersting foree at
t,hat speed. The forces for a typical airplane are plotted in Fig. 20'1.
This method is somewhat cumbersome, and it is usual to simplify
,'ticulations by making the assumption that the accelerating force
vnries linearly with the airspeed. Although this assumption is not
.xactly cortect, the en'or involved is so.slight as to be negligible'
'l'hen, if the force is Fe when V is znro, and the force is Fs when the
L 40 50
airrp.3! in ,,iir.. i3, n*,
Fro. 20.1. Forcss in take'off.
When curyes of power coefficient and thrust coefficient verBug
V / (nD) for the specific propeller being used art not available, use
may be made of the curves of Fig. 20.2 and. Fig. 20.3, whicr'
represent a,ver&ge values. Since they are based on a rvide assort-
ment of propellers, calculations based on these graphs cannot be
as nearly correc.t as calculations basc'l on the actual propeller that
is being used. In using the graphs of Figs. 20.2 and 20.3, it is
necessary to know the design V / ("D) of the propeller. By entering
Fig. T).2 with this f.esign V / (nD), i;he slatic tirrust coe(ficieut is
obtained. This coefficient multiplied by the design brake'horse-
power and divided by the product of the rated .rpm and the
diameter gives tht' static thrust in pounds:
,,,-_KroXbhp
3(' (20.1.4)
- rpm X D
t___J llri r----.J '.- I 1_J t II llltlllttlllrtitl
TAKF"{FF AND LANDING TAKF.OFF DISTANCE IN STILL AIR i}:IO

110,000 The thrust at take-off is found by enbering Frg. 20.3 rvith the
ratio of take-off speed I/r to design speed yDsr. and obtaining the
100,0@ ratio of thrust horsepower at take-ofr thpl to thmst horseporver
under design conditions. The thrust horsepower at take-off having
90,000 been found, the thrust at take-off ?1 is found by

X 80,000 (20.r.5)
c \
.g
o
70,000 The static thrust and the thrust at take-off having been found,
o
o
o the accelelating forces are found by Eqs. (20.1.1) and (20.1.2).
f 60,000 The aqceieration produced by this varying foree F is equal at
t
o
any instant to the force divided by the mass lll/9 of the airplane:
o
U'
50,000
Accereration :#:# : tr!,
40,000
But
"f,
ds
30,000
A:V
20,0@ L L#:#r,(r_*tr,)
020 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 140
V/nD tor maximum efficiency
ftc. 20.2. Static thruBt coefficienL vdv : $roa'
,-fJ
This is in the form

ffi, I:ft: $w * bx - atos" (a * br)t .

Integrating the above gives

: wf I
'

,:*l
#Ld[' - # v - bg"(' - fr 4f l
Y-(#Ir"s,(r-";)]
When 7= 7r,

"
:ffi{*[-' - #'o*" (1 - /o]] (20'1'6)

wherc 7r is in feet per aecond

&o. a).3. Varistion of thrust honepower witb velocity. e is in feet.
lr lltt iiltt__J I
'-
ll40 TAKF-OFF AND LANDING
TAI(E-OFF DISTANCE IN STILL AIR 34i
EXAMPLE
If curves like those in Fig. lb.4 are not a,r,ailable, procedure would
Find the tske-bff run for a monoplane weighing 2,000 lb, having a be as follows.
()lark Y rving 216 sq ft in area, &nd 3.8 sq ft parasite,
powered with"an From Fig. 20.2, for Y/ (nD) : 0.88,
.ngine reted at 125 hp at 2,200 rpm, unsupercharged, wiih choracteristics
shorvn in Fig. 14.1, and a &ft, fixed-pitch propeller,'such as used Kro:.48,000
^g in
,lhe examples in sections-1b.8 and lb.g. Runway is smooth concrete. By Eq. (20.1.4),
Negleci preliminary distance before tail is up.
Soiutiorr. This is tite airplane and engine used in Exompie 1 of
48,000 x t25
lion 163. There it was found that desigrr V / (nD) wos 0.g8.
Sec_ 2,2Wx 6-
Take.off speed, : 455lb
Vt:1.051 X/mro. \i
I

Vt
: V^r. -50.7
1.054 X 48.1 126

- iO.Z mph : 0.401

l,\nnr Table 15.8, rvhen I/:0, i.e., rvhen V/(nD) : g, From Fig. 20.3,
?o : 491 lb thp, : o.6ol
thpoo..
|lr'orn.Tlble 15.2, by interpolntion, rvhen I/ : S0.7,
V/QrD) : O.4,r2 From previous work (see Section 15.9), ?ae. : 0.82 and thpoe. : l0g.
l,'rom Table 15.r, by interpolaticln, vhenv/(nD) : 0.4t2, thpl:0.601 X103
?r : 403Ib 61.9 hp
Noln,: Il, a greph such as Fig. 16.Z has been constructedl ?1 can 375 x 61.9
be read
rrll directly us 403 Ib. ' 50.7
Fo:491 -(0.02X2,000)
- 458 lb
: 451 lb
Fo:455-(0.O2X2,000)
t--
L *t*2i6
Fc= 408 - lo.ooo x (80.2 x'--'J
1.46)rl : 415 lb
- r
:403-85 Fr : 4b8 - *2r* 216 x (80.7 x l.{7)r]
lo.ooo
: 3l8lb : 373 lb
451 - 318
415 - 373
. 451 l(:--
415
: 0.295
: 0.102

,: (50.7X1.47), 2.000t 1 f I -'tr

--- n.z- r i" t** L-l _ d.iE,o.. (t _ 0.2e5)Jl I_ to0-7 )(_,].47)2
" #i#[_, _
oirr*, (1 _ 0.10r)]i
= 478 ft : 438 ft
l.' TAKHFF AND LANDING EFFECT Ot' WINr' ON TAKE-OFF DISTANCIi

PROBLEMS For lhe example in the preceding sec'r,ion,

&n eirplEne
.'rt,l.l. Find the run in still eir, after tail is up, to take off
,,p,hing 5,000 lb, the rnaximum L/Dtbein1 12'8, the stalling speed 58 sr:o.oltffit*.ri
,,'r,, ttte design top speed 155 mph; the engine giving 200 hp at 1,900
1,rrr,BrId the 9-ft diameter propeller having sn emciency of 8l per cent : 178 ft
,,,h'r design conditions. P :
0.03.
,lt) in still air, after tail is up, to take off an
1.2. Find the distsnce The calculation of the distance s56 cov€rcd while attaining an
,,1,lrrne weighing 8,0fi) lb, the maximum LiDt being ll'2, V^rn' altitude.of 50 ft is based on data from the rate-of-climb versrrs
,,,'g 6l mph, yd. 180 mph; the engine giving 450 hp at 1,900 rpm; velocii,y curve for sea level. As explained in Scction 17.5, in take-off
,, I rt prop"uer having 81 per cent efficiency under design conditions. it is the an4ln of. climb that is important, not the.rate of climb.
,,l,l is hard turf ; p estimated as 0.04. This maximum angle is found by dras'ing a line from the origin
.tt).1.3. Find the distance in still air, after tail is up, to take off an
tangent to the rate-of-climb curve. The angle this tangent line
,,1,lrrne weighittg b,000 lb, the maximum L/Dtbeins 7'7, V-r'. being
makes with the X axis is nol the angle of climb. The coordinates of
,,,,1,|, Y-',. 195 mph;the engine giving 600 hp at 1,850 rpm, the 9-ft
the point of tangency are: the abscissa is the airspeed in miles per
",,,,'11", having 80 per cent efficiency under design conditions' Field
,'rl,imated to have p :
0.03' hour, and the ordinate is the rate of climb in feet per minute; see
'r| 1.4. Fino the distance in still air, after tail is up, to take off a Cub Fig. U.1. The airspeed must first be changed to feet per minute.
',p'l:i:g 1.100 lb, the maximumL/Dt beingg'44, I/-rn.
being 39'3 mph, When the rate of climb (in feet per minute) is divided by the air-
, ... 89 mph; the engine being rated at 50 hp at 2,300 rpm; th9 5-ft l0-in' speed (in feet per minute) the quotient :s the sine of the angle of
,,,1xrller having 80 p"1 cent efficiency under de'sign conditions' It
is
climb in still air. For the airplane used as an example, from Fig. l7.l
,t rrntted that p is 0.04 the maximum angle of ciimb is found to be 6.5o. In climbing at an
.'t).1.5. Find the distarce in still air, after the tail is up, f-r;n airplane angle ol 6.5o, an altitude of 50 ft is attained when a hoiizontal
,,p,,lring 1,625 lb to teke off if the maximum L/Dtis 8'6, I/^r"' is 47 distance of 50 co'r, 6.5o or 441 ft is covered.
,r,lr, V'-. 115 mph; the engine being rated at 90 hp at 2,500 rpm; The total horizontal distance required for this airplane is
i ,. Z-ft propeller having 76 per cent efficiency under design currditions.
t,,[c-o[is from the deck of a nilvsl vessel, which is atationary' Er:E*st*sso
:I CLEARING OBSTACLES AFTER TAKE-OFF : 478 + 178 + 441

ln ma.ny airplane specifications it is required that information be : 1,097 ft

r,rrilished as to the total horizontal distance required by the air-
;,trrrr0, in siill air, to take off and clear a 50-ft
obstacle. This total 20.3. EFFECT OF WIND ON TAKE_OFF DISTANCE
i|tlrnce is the sum of the run on the ground, a transition disbance,
Whereas, for the purpose bf comparing the performance of ajr-
trrr:h is the distance covered rvhile the attitude of the plane
planes, the take.ofi distance in still air is desired, in actual flying
lrrrrrges and the plane accelerates to climbing speed, and the dis-
,'',,,:c required to attain the height of the obstacle' there ie usually some wind blowing, and good practice requires
'l'he run on the ground was discussed in the previous section' that'ohe take'ofi be trp-wind.
I'he transition distance sr is found by the entirely empirical
In the case of the eirplane used es an example in Section 20.1,
with a take'ofr sgped of 50.7 mph, let the take-off be into a 2G1nph
l, ltlUlA
't
wind. TVhen th/airplane is stationary with respect to the ground,
st: oor-Y!!
Ft
(20.2.r) air is going past the wing at a speed of 20 mph. It is only necessary
to accelerate the airplane to a speed of 30.7 mph. with respect to
,, lrrlre I/s : take-ofi velocitY in miles Per hour the ground, for the airplane to be airbc:ne.
Ft= accelerating force at take-off.
 Il l-l t-J t-t t-J LJ l-J t-J Llt_JlJirlttr ll
.....!:--:,
. -.];i.: trr. , .". ij . ....i:._..

;II4 .TAKHFF AND LANDING EFT.ECT oF WIND oN CLIMB 345

lf 7. represents the u,ind velocity, at first thought it might a wind blowing in the opposite direction to the.hea.ding of
the air-
rt)pe&r that it rvould be sufficient to modify Eq. (20.1.6) by inte' plane, the optimun angle of climb wix be at a iesse"
*i=pe"a tn o
y,rrting between limits of l't-V. and zero instead of between I/1 fi| mph. calculations show thet for this particurar ui"pi"nu,
,rrrd zero to obtain the ground run rvith wind. Actually, at the
*iin
a 2Gmph wind blowing, +,he greatest angle of climb i. .t SS'_pt,
,rl,l,rt of the ground run, the propeller thrust is nol the static ttirust Tor last-climbing pllnes pqssenger_carrying transpoi^*,
lrrrt the thrust corresponding to a velocity of l/.. This means that tebles should be worked out
Td
for various
rlls ssnslant K rvould a.lso have to be changed. It is qnnegessary,
wind speeds. sit"atil".
Irorv€v€rr to make these modifications, for a simple correction has
gom3t$.es
in climbing "!*:
il getting out qf_p-"{ Alpo_rts,
" whpn tt e utmosr
angle is necessary for sufetl,.
lxrcn found to be suffieient for all ordinary rvork.
lf s6 is the ground run in s[ill air, as found by Eq. (20. 1.6), the 800
1,,r'ound run su int.o n rvind having a vclocity of
y". is found rvibh 700
,,rrfficient accuracy by the follorving formula.
o 500
l
: so (r - (20.3.1)
.E
= u*l
.su,
?)t t 400 |

d
o
,*l -\
I'0.,I. EITTI.]CT OI.'\VIND ON CLIMIJ L
200 I

An airplanc aln'tvs talies off into the rvind. Immediately the

rvhecls leave the glorrntl, thc airplane is airborne and ils motion is '*lol \
Llrc vector surn of its motion through the air and the motion of uhe 0 40 60 80 lm 140
rrir itself. Airspeed ir, rniles pe, i,our

When climbii,g in still air at an angle 0 fronr the horiaontal Fro. 20.4. Finding maximur:: angle of climb into a 20.mph wind.
1,lilne, movement of rr rlistant'e d along the flight path means a
vcltical rise of d sin 0 a,nd a horizontal travel of d e.'s 0. rf, rvhile If 0'is the true angle of climb, I, the airspeed, and W the wind
tlrc rr"irplane is moving r rlistlnce d along the flight pai,ir, the effect
apeed, both in the same unitg, 0 being the angle of climb in stilt air,
,,f the rvinrl ha.s hcen to move the entire body of air, through
l'hich the airpllne is traveling, back a distance ra, the net hori- . -' :
tAn'' V aini tan 0
zrrntal travel is r/ r'os 0 - w, and the actual angl" of climb is Vcos|-W W
t.:rn-l (d sin 0) i (r/ <.os d - u.,). 1- V cos0
'lhe effect of climlring into a head n'ind is to make the true angle
,'i climb steeper than if the air rvere still. The effect of the rvind where is small, a very--cloee approximation in finding rhe air-
0
is to decrease the airspeed for optimum climbing angle. npeed for maximum climbing angle ia by means of the rate-of-
In Section 17.5, it u'as pointed out thet, to achieve the greatest climb eurve. Lay ofr, on the horizontal axis, the wind speed, and
rrngle oi climb, the airplane shouki rrot be fiorvn aL the airspeed of from thig point dra.v a iangent to the raie-of-cli'.b curve. in
greatest rate of climb but rather at the airspeed where the climbing Fig' 20.4 ia plotted the rate of climb against velocity for the sample
rtte is greatest in prciportion to the airspeed. In Fig. 17.1, it was airplane. If take-ofr is mado against a 2$mph wind, a line drain
shor','n for a sample airplane that, in still air, thotrgh the rate of from the point designated 2Gmph on tire velocity ecale tangent to
r:limb is 702 ft per min at an airspeed of 73 mph the corresponding the curve gives a point of tangency at Eb mph. An airspled of
nngle of blimb is 6.3", whereas at an airspeed of 63'mph though the 55 mph will then give the besr angle of olimb againet a bUmph
nrte of climb is onl,r' ti25 ft per min the angle of climb is 6.5". With wind.
 I

rlL__JL_JL_-Jlttrtlll t. I L-J L--J ir tl tl lr L_r ttLr

I
34€ TAIG-OFF AND LANDTNG LANDING RUN IN ST.r.T.AIR. g4? I

eirspeed of 95 mph. If the wheele leove the ground.8fl) ft away from

high-tension wires.which are 125 ft above the gxiund, by what vertical
An airplane has its -"*,^ul**ililir'.t,-o in still ai; when its rate
distance er€ the wircs clesr€d (a) in etill air, (b) in a 2!mph wind?
of climb is 450 ft per min at an airspeed of 40 mph. Maintaining this
20.4.8. An airplene climbs 1,000 ft into e l$'mph wind while travem.
same ailspeed but against e 20 mph wind: (a) rvhat is the true angle of
ing.e horizontal distsnce bf 4,500 ft at an airepeed of 72 mph. What is
r:limb; (b) if the wheels leave the ground 150 ft horizontally arvay from
ite angle of climb in itill'air?
lrigh-tension wires which are 75 ft ebove the ground, by what vertical
20.4.4. LD airplane'r best angle of climb is when it climbs 900 ft per
rlistance rvill the airplane ciear.the wires?
min at au airspeed of. 83 mph. trn an: 18-sph winC;-how far .a'.va}' .f1sr:r a .

Solulion.
hangar must the airplane leave the ground to cleor the hangor roof,
40 mplr : 3,520 ft per rnin which is 40 ft high?
20 mplr : 1,700 ft per min
20.5. LANDING RUN IN STILL AIR
(o) ln still air, in I nrin,
: {50 lt If, r.:hen the wleeh touch the ground, the angle of attack is kept
Vertical distcnce
constant during the run along the ground and the engine is throttled
Slarrt distrnce : 3,520 ft Bo rhat the thrust is negligible, the length of the landing run may

: sin"r
. {50 be eomputed as follorvs.
Angle of clintb The decelerating forces are the total drag and the friction force.
- If Cp is tbe tolal drag coefficient and Cr, is the lift coefficient at the
: 7.3" chosen ansle of attack, at any velocity I/ the total decelerating
' Horizontal distance : 3,52O X cos 7.3" force F is
: ft
-r -
3'491
With wind,
cof,sv' + r(w - c "lsv,)
Horizontal distance : 3,491 - 1,760

: l'73L fl = pw * (Co - pCr,)f,tV

Trueangleof climb = t"n-t*1,731 Sinceaccelerati sa: gFfW : dV/dt: (itV/its)(itt/at) : V d,V/d,s

v ilv
_:
(b)
- 14,6o
ds
-#U* * (Co - rfi r.) tt ']
Traveling horizontally 1,731 ft, .airplane will rise 450 ft' vdv
tuot tu-- _w
Troveling horizontelly 150 ft, airplane will ,l* llt or 39'0 ft'
1,73L c pw+(Cn-rCr)f,sf
Airplane will fail to clear wires by 36.0 ft.

PROBLEMS w
(c o- rc ") f,s7v dv)
In sttl eir, an airplane can climb at an angle of 5o at an g(Cp - pCilpS
20.4.1.
nirspeed of 60 mph. (o) Whet is its engle of climb agaiost a 2&mph
pW * (Cp - pC r,) ttu'
winit (U) Whst i8 its angle of climb if it tskes ofr downwind?
20.4,2: In still eir, an eirplane con climb at-an engle of 7'3o at an If 7r, is tbe s@ of the airplane wher the wheelstouch the ground,
 Ir IiL---,L;

U8 TAKF'oIT' AND I,ANDING LANDING RI'N IN S TT.T. AIB, 849

inwgrating with Y t and 'ero as limits gives From Table 20.1, 1r : 0.50
(o)

w ttff*(Cp-rCt)Lrsvr'2 - X (48'1)1
,:
o 0.07607 logls(7.76 X 0,b0)
(2O5.1) r
;6;:7s r16to& pW 0.50 - 7.76
If the airplane lands at l/-io. and the landing mn is maintained 283 ft
at the angle of qttqck of Cz.o., =
(b) tr'rom Tabie lb.i at-6",
c L-.,.tSV^r,.' Ct : 0.785 and Cot = 0.067

Yr, : 66 mph
k(C pv^r'.- uC : ft
"^^,-) f,S 96.8 per sec

2,000
pw + C Dn^rn. SV - pC L^o,.'rSV ^r,.'
t ^r^.' 32.2[(0.007 -0.5) x0.785] x (0.002378 x216)
X log"
plV
(0.b x2,000)+t(0.067 -0.b) x0.z8blx Uff *r'6 x (e0.8),
Xlog.
x
X,or,o fu'
0.5 2,000
V^in-2
X 2.303 = 569 ft
*le,.,,),^, --ulJ t'
PROBLEMS
0.03578V,"i".2 .ro8toP\D/n.r.
/ L\ 20.6.1, In rtill air, what ig the landing run for an airplanc equipped
-T (20.5.2o)
rvitb bralies on a concrcto runway, if it ir lauded at its minimum speed
u - \di/"-,". of 02 mph and if the L/Dtat the angle of maximum Cr,'is 8.8?
20,6.2, ln rtill air, what is the lending run of an airplene oquippad
rvith brekes on a oonorete nmrv&y, if it ir landed st itr minirnum speed
If 7 is in miles per hour, this becomes of ?l mph and the L/Dt tt angle of moximum C t ia 7 ,8?
(20.5.21l)
20.6.3, An airplone weighlng 26,0CC lb, with 987 ft of wing area, q
=
' Wrosrop(;)".,".
-
u
ie equipped with brekei and lande on a ooncrete runway with a speed
r,f 76 mph. It rollc along at an engle of atteok for which Cr 0.6 and -
\6/n-,". (Ja, - 9.13. What ie the landing run on smooth concrete with brakes?
20.ir.4. Whet ir the landing run of.the airplane in Problem 20.6.3,
EXAMPLE ir it, lrrnds nt a speed of 76 mph and rolli at an angle of attaok whoae
Wtret is the lending run on concrete, in gtill air, of the airplane uaed :'i. : 1.2 sntl Cn, - 0.202?
as au example in Section 20.1, equippe.i with brokes, (o) if it lsnde at J0.5.5. Whnt io tho lorrding run of the airplane in Problem 20.6.3 if
I/nrn. snd rolls at c oI C L^.,,, (D) it it lands qt 6B mph and rolls of a of 6o? il, lnnrls n[ 76 rnph and rolle at an angle of ettack whoe€ C!
(:;)t =- 0.237?
1.4 and -
Solutiun. From previous work,
20.;-' 6. \\'hat is tho lending ru. of the airplane in Problom 20.5.3,
7.ro. : 48.1 mph
if il lunds ot a spe6d of 76 mph and rolls of on angle of ettock whose
Cl - 0.5 ond Cp1 - 0,13r if landing ic mede on ehort, uet grase where
v,n.:7.76 7a n 0.2?
{rat
 r--i L.-' I

350 TATF TT AND LANDING I

I,.!.NDING OVXR AN 3BSTACI,E 351
AN j
20.6. "LANDING OVER OBSTACLE
At V : 70.4 ft per s€c,
Airplane specifications frequently call for information as to the n-
ur, :- l.b6 and Cp. : 0.1g0
ft high. This distance
distance required to land over an obstacle 50
is in three parts: the horizontal gliding distance from a 50-ft Cop: 0'0225
altitude, the transition distance during which the airplane is Cor : 0.180 + 0.02!25 :0.2025
changing its angle of attack, and the actual landing run which rvas
discussed in the pre','ious secticn.
At I/ : 70.4 li per sec,
Whatever the angle of glide hqs beeu previously, it is assumed 2,000 x-0.20its
ut:-
that at 50 ft altitude'the airplane is at such an angle of glide that ].56
the velocity 7o is 10 per cent greater than the minimum or stall- : 259 lb
ing velocity l',. In Section 18.1, it rvas pointed out that, if d is the
angle of glide, tan-0 : Dt/L and L : W cos0. At V : 77.4 ft per sec,
At slow speeds, near the stalling angle, the angle .f glide is 2,000
small. If the graph of gliding angle shot'n in Fig. 18.2 rvere exiended
Cr:
0.001189 x 216 x777
to a 19o angle of attack (stalling angle), it rvould shol' Lhat for
thab angle of attack the angle of glide is 7.3o. For small angles,
:1.30
the cosine is very close to unity. Little error is introduced, there- From Fig. 8.8, when Ct: L.80,
fore, if the lift'L is considercd equ&l to the weight IZ, so that tan d Co. : o'l18
is considered equal to Dr/W.Then, if horizontal distance covered
while losing 50 ft altitude i: rermed s5e &nd D, is the t,.tal drag Cot : 0.118 + 0.0225 : 0.1105
at velocity 7r, At V : 77.4 If per sec,
50 50w ^ 2,000 x 0.1405
860 -;;l: T (20.6.1)
1.3

The distonce si covgr€d during transition is given by the empirical = 2lB lb

" E- 60 x2162,000 - 4BB ft

formrrla 60w
ero

et=uo67wlffi) (20.6.2)
at - o.o67tr (+#)= 0.067 x 2,ooo

EXAMPLE
%#
- 291 ft
' What is the total landing ruu ovor a 6G'ft obetacle of the 2,000Jb From the previoue eoction,
airplane of the previoue example?
Sohtion. Fmm previoul work, s = 2ESIi
Vrro. - V, - 70,4 ft per eec 8r-8*rr*aro
Then - 283 + 291 + 4Sg
7c-1.10X70.4 - 1,087 ft
- 77,4 lt per eec
 l'1.'l'r

ENDIIRANCE

21.
Endurance and Range
::I.I. IINDURANCD
l'lntlrrruncc is thc tiurc tht[ tn uirplane can slay aloft. If tti o.ir-
trlnnc is to make rn enrlrrruncc record frlr timn in tlte air, the iuel
shortld l:t: uscrl $s cr:onr-.micully ns p,rssilllc, Thc nbilit-r'of
',rllpl.v
,,rr uirplunc to fly uith a nrirrimum rate of fucl cottsumptiun is
rrrrllortant in casc lrrnding is dclrlyed after arrival over &n airp,.11.
l'his may occllr over on unli;;htetl airport rvhcn tlu: night lrrndrng
nrLils till thc nroon ct)mcs oltl,, or ovcr a busy airpclrt n'herc iire
trrnding is nrtde oftcr othcr rrir'lllrrncs "unst&cl(."
lhe curvcs of Fig. 16.5 for horscporver availablc trt sea level and
,,f Fig. 10.8 for horsepo\\'cr tvailable at altitude are for engine-
propeller eombinations rvith thc enginc throttle rvidc open. Ac nny
vclocity less thun.thc m&xlmum, the porver required is lcss than
l,he porver available. If level flight ie desired, the throttle opening
in reduced until the power furnishcd by the engine propellcr jusl
,,ryuols the poler requircd. Horvev,:r, tu the velocity is decreased
lrom the moximum, o certoin speud rvill be rcoched where it rvill
lrrr found t,hut, on dccreosing thc epeod furthcr, more power rvill
l,t: rerluired, i,e., the throttlc will have to be moved forward again.
Thiu vclocity is the airnpccd for minimum horsepower required,
rvhich mcnns thc leusl fucl consrunJrlion in gallonr .per hour. Ii a
grlune is to muke utr cndurancc rct:old for time in the lir, the fuel
rnrpply should be used as economically as possible, The airplane
nlrould then be florvn eo thst the wing is at the angle of attack
2,000 lb. As time elapses, fuel consumed u'ill make ."he airplane
lighter. Always, during the endurance flight, the pilot rvill warrt to
Cr"'.,
keep his wing at angle of attack of maximum , --
= * (r.28a/S)
Cp
(11o for this Cla,rk Y wing and ratio of parasite to rving area); but
as the eirplane's weight decreases, the velocity necessa,ry for level
flight at this angle of attack will decrease. With less weight, the
horsepower required will be less, so that the pilot can throttle his
engine more. With less throttle-opening, the fuel consumption (in
gallons per hour) will be diminished, so the hourl-v decrease in
rveight rvill be lees. The pilot should have a precalculated scherhrle
of best airspeedsto fly at various hours during his {light.
tr'lying at the angle of maximum trf thc rvi'g n rll
=-!t
c D + Q.zga/S)
mean that the least gasoline is consumcd pcr lrrirrr, so that irn
airptane can stay the longest time in the oir' otr u givcn sripply oI
flel. Flying either faster or slorver rvill jnvolvc rr qr.caler fuel
consumption per hour, The foregoing is tnre rvhcther in sbill air
61 i1 yind. not ground speeC, is imprlrtant.
^irspeed,
Although the rate of fuel consumption vnrics rvirr. thc throttle-
opening, thie variation is slight and ordinarily the spccific fuel
consumption, in pounds per brake horsepowcr pcr hour, may be
aesumed to be conetant. For level flight, thc ti^r'ust horseporver
equelB the horsepower required, and, since thc thrust horsepower
equals the brake horsepower multiplicd by the propcller efficiency,
the fuol consumption in pounds during the small time dl equals
c(fhp/n) dl, where c is the Bpecific fuel eonsumption. Thc dccrcese
in weight dW in time dl is equal tc thiu fuel consumptionl that is,
X thpd
-d,llt =c 1
(21.r,1)
From earlier work, at a conetant angle of attack (for bndurance
it is the angle of maximum C t"/C o),
flyrng,

for maximum
C t.#
In the example of the monoplane hp,.o. / W\'4
hpr = \l4rr/
(21.r.2)
ffi'
weighing 2,000 lb rvith Clark if wing, the pilot should regulate his fu thrtst horrepower at any time equals the horeepower required,
t,lrrottlo nnd stick so that the airplane maintains level flight at
nn airspeed of 68 mph as long as the oirplene's total weight is
862 -dw-Wwxd,t
 I I L-,-t L- -t

:tI-4 ENDURANCE .lND RANGE RANGE IN STILL AIR 355

the specific fuel consumption is 0.52 Ib per hp per hr, and its fuel capacity
is 250 gal? (Nota: L gallon of gasoline weighs 6.0 lb.)
d,t: - c "''1" w-rt dw 21.1.2. What is the rnsximum time an airplane can stny in the air
X thpo if its gross weight at take-off is 11,000 lb, its fuel capacity is 420 gal,
the rviug.area is 610 sq ft, the maximum value of Cttr/Co, is g.g, the
lctting Wsbe the gross weight at take-off (t : 0) andW" be the propeller efficiency is 83 per cent, and the specific fuel consumption is
gross rveight when the fuel tanks are empty (t : t),
0/51 ib per hp per hr?
/ Zl .t.1. A light airplane -rveighs 1,100 lb, !f,s rving aree is l7g sq ft,
I ": - #At:: w-'i dw the maximum value of Ct95/Cr, is 10.2, the propeller efficiency is 7d
per cent, and the specific fuel consumption is 0.48 lb per hp per hr.
How long cen it stay in the air if its fuel capacity is 25 gal?
-
L-
nWoY fw-%1w'
I | 21.1.1. A tlansport weighs 65,000 lb at take-off. Its wing area is
-i J*,
c X.thpoL
-
1,780 sq ft, and its maxiuium Ctrt/Cnt is g.b. The propeller efficiency
-
2ywrjttl I I \ is 83 per cent, and the specific fuel consumption is 0.4g lb per hp per hr.
Ilorv long can it stay in the air if its fuel capacity is 4,000 gal?
c X thP6 \\/W" t/Wol
IN STILL
:*fr(.m-') (21.1.3 )
2I.2. RANGE AIR
If the object oI the flight is nob grearesi duration, but to cover
the greatest distance oo a given gasoline supply or', rvhat is more
usual, to fly to a destination burning the least possible amount of
EXAMPLE
fuel, the airplane should be florvn faster. To cover a given distance,
An airglane is meking an endurrnce flight and is therefo'e flyrng the gasoline consurnption depends not only on lhe consumption
,.onstantly at the angle of minimum power required of which angle per hour but also on the total hours required ior the flight It is
(: L
= 0.7L5 nnd Cpr : 0.060. If the engine burns 0.5 lb per hp per hr, therefore aC.,'antageous to fly at greater Bpeed, more specifically
if the propeller efficiency is 83 per cent, end if the wing areo is 255 sq ft, to fly so that the wing is at the anglo of attack of maximum
lrow long may flight be maintained if the airplane takes off with 6,000 ^L/I)1.
f)rarving a iine tangent to the horsepower-required crrrve from
lb gross weight of which 2,000 lb ore fuel?
the origin (0 mph, 0 hp; see line CD, Fig, 16.5) determines the
Solution. From Eq. (16,7.1),
speed and horseporver for minimum fuel consumption for e given
hpo = distance. The pnint of tangency u'il! be the point where the ratio
550 X (0.001189 X 255)x X 0.?15r' of horseporver to velocity is least, Any variation ir, fuselage drag
= 152.3 being neglected, the horsepower reqrrired is

Itrom Eq. (21.1.3), hprnq. - #(r, x 0.00256sy' 1!2to x 0,002s0srE)

,=2{o.sgx6,000/-@_r)
a.t) x fi,2.3 \'{+,ooo / To cover a given distanee at a velocity 7 requires (distance/I/)
hours. The ga€oline consumption depends on horsepoler-hours;
= 29.4 irr therefore
hP'on'
PROBLDMS Total consumption - co:::tant X dietance 1'
21.1.1. What ig the maximum time an eirplane can si,uy in the air
if its grom weight et take-ofr is 9,fi)0 lb, its wing is 660 rq ft, the x v, +t'Pso x
meximum value of C zl/C
&re&
otia 9.8, the propeller effioiency is 81 per cent, + = #(r, 0.00266s 0.co2b6sr/r)
 L--', LJlttl l-!' l,'

ENDT]RANCE AND RANGE RANGE IN STILL AIR 367

llrtl
Also, with less porver required, the throttle is closed more and more,
t/2 v' rshich decreases the revolutions per minute of the engine. Since
f-
- Cz 0.002565
X the rpm decreases at a different rate from the air:speed , tne V / (nD),
I lrr:n and consequentiy the efficiency, of the propeller changes. A close
approximation to the range may be" obtained by assuming an
hp,"q.-zt"*(l4J avera,ge fuel consumption and an averige propeller efficiency. Let

v-:Bz|-cr* - : W :'lotal.ulight of ailplane at tal:e-off

Wt: total rveight of airplane at the end of , seconds after
'I'his has a minimum value rvhen cD + 'g'zu/s) is minimum. take-off
Ct I : total u'eight of fuel at take-off
r|rth 1.28o/S constant, for any airfoil section there is only onu 0r : n'eight of fuel consumed at thc end of I >econds
aD + Q.28a/S) . c: fuel consumption (pounds per horsepower per hour)
',',t,ltrofattacklvhereffihnsaminimumvalue.This bhpl : brake horseporver available at time t
',r1,kr of attack rvill be slightly greater thln the ongle of atlaclt for
In a short time interval d1, the rveight of fuel consumed. is
,,,rrrinrum Qt,/Cu i.e., moximum I'/D; but, a,s the parasite area
,r'ntlc smnller lr'ith rcspect to rving area, the differencc beLrvecn
aqt: c X (bhp)r .
Ca + (1.284lS) 3$oo at
'.'1',lt'ofminimum-TandangleofminimumCniCl
The horseporver available (l X bhp) must equal the horsepower
I'r.r'r)mcJ less.
required at any time t.
With the Clark Y rving alonc, the on;ic oi moximum L/D is I";
,'rth a Clarx Y monoplane and the porasite of the illustrative a(bhp)r :'=I
:w
DDI.'
, *rrmple, the angle of maximum I'/Dt is 5o, the corresponding

,,krcity being 70 mph. This cheuks ,vitlr thc point of tangcncy of WtV
l,rrrr 0D in Fig. 16.5.
'l'he pilol maintains this spccd a.s long as the weight remains Then
/(n0 lb. The angle for best I'/Dt ia conutont for the airplane,
nrnt:c thc wing area and pnrusit,c &rc& &re fixed. The speed for (bhp), : +
nrry givcrr unglc of ottocli vurics os thc squaro root of tho wing n
l,,rrding. As fucl is consumcrl anrl the airplune is lightened, thc
5660
n,r'rpeecl for least fttel connttmlltion per distunce decreases as thc Substituting in the initial equation gives
i,lu&re roo[ of the l'eights.
'l'he calculetion of thc r&nge or distance thot can be flown non- itQ,:4at
,top is not simple, The oirplttrc letves the ground with a given 3,600 x 55011;
'r,niqht,
but, ns fucl is consumccl. tho weight decrease's. To achievc
tlrt: greatest possiblc distancc, thc oirplane should be flown con-
cW,V
ntrLrrtly ut the angle of moximum L/Di but, as the weight de- :-dt
r',,osesr both veloci'"y ond l..rrscpower required for l,his angle 1,980,00()4
,ltrrrrcos€r for constant angle of attock 7 variea os WX snd hor"e- fi
l,rrwer v&ries aBWlr, With lcss porver being used, the rato of fuel
V d,t :1,980,000
',rnsumptior is less: that is, the rate of change cf weight is less, 'r* # "#,
I i L--J I J L-) t--J L J L-J L-l t. I lJ ltLt lllrLJ i;i;L_j

ss8 nNoUnANCE AND RANGE RANGE IN STII,L AIR 360

Let. R be the total nurphr of miles traveled (i.e., the range). high s1,eed. Common practic'e is to regard the maximum ra,nge as
'l'hen
R-"*. : 0.75(Ra - Ey*.) I Rv^o @L.2.3)
ilV: V dt
where Ea : r&ng€ by Breguet's forrnula.
Although specific fuel consumption is slightly higher rvhen engine
r,e8o,ooo:
"*"9* is mn at rated power than when the engine is throttled, only a
slight erro; is involved by using aver&ge fuel consumption.
- 1,96o,ffi i"tA^ffq, EXAMPLE
Integrating and bearing in mind- chat at take-off tl^e quantity An airplane weighs 4,000 lb end takes off with 80 gal of fuel. It hae
e Clark Y wing of 216 sq ft area and hes 3.8 sq ftequivalent flat plntr:
.onsumed is zero and at the end of i,hc flight Qr = e,
ares of parasite. It has o l8Ghp engine. The mcximum efficiency of tlro

: r,eso,ooo i"#li 4, propeller is 78 per cent. Assume fuel consumptionto be 0.55 lb per bhgr
per hr and maxim'rm velocity to be 135 mph. Find the range.
Sohiion.
: i" itos" ,,',{1t""t
1,e8o,ooo Weight of fuel (Q) :80x6
: 480 lb
: i,e8o,ooo x 2so3i" *X lo916 p{1*" Ra :803.5
Z"#xr,l-!-
: *n#4 i"*X rogls r7{1,,ir", : so3.sc'78 x ll.gloo4'ffi
0.55 " 3,520

: 863.5 i" #x losro ffi^i't* (2r.2.1) : 808 miles

_
t('^: 480 x 135
The above equaticn is knorvn as Breguet's formula for maximum 180 x 0.55
ntngE. : 655 miles
The range as calculatpd 5y Bre8uet'a method is the ultimate that
.an be achieved. The speejis much less than the maximum. -
R:0.75(Ra-P,,^)*En-
At maximum speed, ihe 1an$e is the velocity in miles per hour : 0.75(807 - 655) + 655
rnultiplied by the number ef hours, or : 770 miles
D miles Per t ou, X tot'l t*ount of
rLYw: f*t r"rr"*pit,rg (pounds per hour) at high speed PROBLEMS
27.2.7. A Lockh-ed airplane weigha 20,000 lb end takes off with 644
I/..r. X Q (2t.2.2)
gal of fuel. Its top epeed ie 284 mph. It has two Wrigirt Cyclone engines
- c X bhp-rr. of 1,0fi) hp each. Aesume thet'the propellere hav€ a maximum efficiency
of 82 per cent ald thet the maximum L/D ia 11,6. The fuei consumption
Since it is rarely that an si{,lane will be flown.at the iow speed is 0.48 lb per hp per hour. What ie the renge?
corresponding to lhe.absoLrply maximum r&nge' the range is cus- 21,2.2. A Cub Coupe with e total weighf, of i,4fi) lb takes ofr with
l,omarily **id.t"d to be b,etween the maximtrm rind the range at 25 gal of fuel. Its top apeed ie 100 mph. The engine is r8t€d at 75 hp.
 t-J \-t l-t t. r II TI !-l !-J *J, - -t
-J
II,0 ENDURANCE AND RANGE WIND EFFECT ON ECON'\IY 30r

\r,rrume that the propeller n&s a maximum efficiency of 75 per cent, that 0
r1,,. rnaximum L/D \a 9.3, and that the fuel consumption is 0.55.1b per
t,g, lrcr hr. What is the range?
lo
').1 .2.3. L Boeing 307-8 with a total rveight of 45,000 lb takes off with

r,it)O gal oi fuel. Its top speed is 250 mph and its four Wright engines
,,r,,rat€d nt 900 lrp apiece. Assume that the propellen have a maxi- .20
,,,,rrrr efficiency of 81 per cent, that the maximum L/D oI the airplane is
r I ll, s,nd that frrel consr.l:rption is 0.54 lb per hp per hr. Who.t is the 3C

, rrge?
'.,1.2.1. L Bellanca Aircruiser with total weight of 11,400 lb takes off 40
, rtlr 300 gal of fuel. Its maximum speed is 172 rnirh, and it has a 760-hp
,,,1,inc. Assume that the p:opeiler has 80 per cent milxitnunt efficiency
50
,r,,1 mrxirnum L/D is 10.2. The fuel.consumption is 0.54 lb per hp per
l,r \\'lra[ is the range?
:l 1.2.5. A l)ouglas DC-3 weighing25,2O0 lb takes off with 822 gal
60

,t l,rel. Its maximum speed is 220 mph, and it has trvo \Vright engines
',t.luL i,000 hp each with fucl consumption of 0.51 lb per hp pe'r hr' /o:
\ rrrne tlrat maximum propeller efficiency is 8l per cetrb and that m.sxi- o
,','rn, Lf D of the airplane is 10.6. What is the range? eoi
t
,I iJ. WIND EFFFCT ON ECONOMY
90 ,i
'l'he foreguing'discussion of most economicel airspeed spplies io
,trll air. If a head wind holds back a plane, it will take a longer
oos
rune to reech its destination; a tail wind mea,ns a quicker trip. 6
l hc formula for total fuel cbnsumption must therefore be modified
.g

,,,r that the horseporver-hour8 cont&ins.the expression V6, the l0tC

ylound speed, for divisor instead of I/, the airspeed.

I lorsepower-hours : tlistance * +:-

("' * @, )o'ooz'osYg
=_wTdisrance

disrance(',*#)
ttt e
ua u
Y,rffi
Vo
l'hc horsepower-hours or total fuel consumption will be a minimum
. Cn, , Cr"Vo :-^-----:-----
\\'lrcnd;ffiis mrnimum orwhen
CM
ls & m&xrmurn' l0 ?o 30 40
Wind Sp.cd in pcrCcnt ol Atr Specd

Iior rvinds from dead ahead or dead astern, the grourd speed
Flo. 21.1. Graprhs giving ground speerl irr per cent of airspeed.
 l-a l-J l-/ L-J i-J r-J t_Jt_Jrr+J-l,J
I

..1$2 ENDURANCE AND RANCE WTND EEFtsqT ON FCONOI/fY

363
,::rn be fou'rdby simple addition or subtraction of the wind speed From Fig. 21.1,
:rnd airspeed. Graphs such as those given in Fig. 21.1 enable the :
Ve 7Z per cent of Ir
riround speed to be found rvhen the rvind velocity is known and
t:or;-ctedlm. When the rving area anrl C"'o/Co, for each angle : O.77 X 71.2 : b4.8 mph
of atteck are knorm, a set oi tables for v&rious gross weights From Fig. 18.3, for bo angle of attac\ C tfr/Cor: 9.9g.
rnay be made shorving the proper airspeeds under various'rvind
r,<lnditions.
I"
r 5',9tk: e.e8 X 84.8 : 547
EXAN{PLE For 4" angle of attack, Iz : 24.9 mph.
For the airplane rvhose rving area is 216 sq ft and whose Crls/Co, Wind speed 20
r; given in Fig. 18.3, find the most economical sirced rvhen the gross : 26'7 Per cent
rvcight is 2,000 lb and e 2Gmph rvind is blorving from a direction 40"
AilGd ?+'s:
lrorn dead ahead on the desired coume. From Fig. 21.1,
Solulion. From previous *'crk, the velocities for vr.rrious angles of Yo :78 ppr cent of y
:rtttck may be found.
For 8" angle of attack, I/ : mph. : 0.78 X74.9: 58.b mph
^2.3
Frcrm Fig. 18.3, for 4' sngle of attack,
suee4 20 :
\\'ind
32 oer cent
C tttC nr: g.84.
Airspeed 62.3 For 4o,
g+k: 9.84 X b8.b : b46
l"rom Fig. 21.1, V6 = 73 per cent of -Il. Therefore UD,

ve :0.73 x 62.3 : i5.5 mpt, Therefore the airplane should be flown at bo, at an airspeed of Zl.2
u:ph.
I,'rom Fig. 18.3, for 8o angle of attack C t9"f nr:C 10.8
PROBLEMS
For 8o, *: lo.8 X 4b.b : 49r 2l-3.1.
Cot . the airplane.of the example above, at what airspeed
-For be made
should. a flight if the gr,oss weight tE 2,2b0lb and the *i;i i;
For 6" angle of uttack, I/ : 68.1 mph blorving at 15 mph froa e direction B0o fiom dead
aheact on the des-i;
lYind speed 20 : course?
29.4 per cent 21.3.2. What should be the eirspeed in problem
Ainpeed 68.1 2I.g.L it the l&mph
wind blew from dead ahead?
Itrom Fi8.21.1,
Vo = 76 Per cent of 7
0.76 X 68.1 : 51.8 mph
From Fig. 183, for 6" angle of attach, C rt"/C or: r0.5.

For 6o; ry:

Cot
to.5 X 51.8 = b44

For 6" augle of attack, V

= 71.2 mph
Wind speed 20
+ zE.l Percent
Ainpeed 71.2
 L-.-: rJ lJ

. BANKING 365

the airplane will lose altitude. The horizontal cdmponent of the

)),
-a--a Iiftacts to cause the airplane to deviate from its straight flight
path. Unless the rudder counter-
acts the yaw, the airplane will
ucathercocl to a point in a new
direction. Since the horizontal
Turns component of lift continues to
act, the path continually dCviates
from a straight line. The air-
plane moves in a circular path
due to the continrral inwardly
:I:I.I. CENTRIPDTAL FORCD
Vclocity hirs ttot acting force, the horizontal com-
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity' ponent of lift.
bu"n if magnitudc is uncltrr.ir,t'tl
,,i, .r"srirrde but also direction. The forces in a banked turn
changes' the rate of that cltrrrtge is
l,rrt, the direction of a veleeity,
is .rrvzrys rrrrlirrll' are shorvn in Fis. 22.1. The
,rr.r:clel.ation. In circular motion, the accele*rtio' greater the magr,itude of the lift
the objcct is circling rtt tlrrrL
,rnvurcl t<.lrvard thc center abouts'hich force or the greater the angle of Fro. 22.1, Forces in a banked turn.
rrrstant.Theforcervhichcausesthebodytoaccelerartcinrr.itrtlittll"
rrnd is tct'ntr"I
bank, the greater rvill be the
i,,,n l, measurecl by the mass times the accelet'atitln nagnitude of Lire horizontal con:ponent of lift. From Eq. (22.1.1),
r'cntripetal force (C.F.)'
,,r2ll' tt'ltcnrc V,
Ii, constant "ircular motion, tl.rc aqseleration is s'hcrc 7 is thc
B, -Y-
,n ii,,, ,ngut*r velocity, or the acceleration
is V2
''
n' s c.F.
lineul velocibY. But, fron Fig. 22.1, centripetal force C.F. : W lan p; therefore
: tv v)
c'F' (t E
(22.r.1)
R::
wyz
per second
s W tuD'F
rvhere g - acceleration of gravity in feet per second yz
Ii - airepeed in feet Per second tan I : --i (22.2.r)
E= radius of turn irr feet'
The centriiugal force of an airplane in a
turn is equal in magni- where 7 is in feet per second
acceleraring inrvard (centrip- .R is in feet.
,,;;';;J;p;oJit. in direcrion to the
rt,al) force: It rvill be noted that the angle of bank F is independent of weight.
.,I2.2.
A big, heavy bomber and a light sport plane, if they have the
BANKING same airspeed, required the same angle of bank for the eame radiue
In slraiglit flight, +'he foroe of gravitl" called rveight'' acting of turn. Angle of baorc is also independent of wing a,ree, airfoil
,.;li;i; ?"wnriard, it u"iuo"ud bv the lift' acting verticallv section, etc.
rrprvnrd. However,. from X'ig. 22.1,
is acting at an angle
When an airplane is banked, the lift forc-e
l,o the vertical' The vertical component
oJ the lift should equal the _w
fu-- (22.2.2)
the lift' is less than the rveight cos d
*.,git; lf the vertical component of
364
\ --/ L-/ l--J tl l_J t_ , t_ LJ I-J
-
1

'l !-J l-J t-.'l t-J t-i l-,

:166 TURNS j
BANKI\IG 367

If the vertical component of lift exceeds the rveight, thd airplane (c) C.F.: WtanB
rvill execute a climbing turn; if the vertical component of lift is : 6,000 X 0.877
kss than the rveight, the airplane rvill lose altitude in the turn'
For any angle greater than zero, the cosine is less than unity; : 3,460 lb
l,herefore, if the rveight is divided by a number less than 1, the W
rluotient is greater than the rveight. For straight, level flight,
(d) LIft:
. cosp
lift eqr;a.]s. rveight. For a tttrn, lift must be greater than rveight'
'l'he lift may be increased either by increasing the airspeed ol by _ 6,(X)0

increasing the angle of attack or both. 0.866

In lorv-porvered airplanes or in gliders, it is quite often necessary : 6,930 lb
l,o push forward on the stick in order by diving to get the added
velocitl'for the turn. (e) t^oB:V'
'sE
Wheiher the added lift is gained bw increasing the air speed or by
increasing the angic of att,aclt, more power is required in a turn v2
l,han in level flight.
n=
gtanp
E}:AN,lPI,E _ (150 x 1.47)2
An ailplane is flying s',raight at 150 mph' Its weight is 6'000 lb. Its 32.2 x 0.577
wing are& is 2ff) sq ft (A'R. 6), and Clark Y airfoil ;q used. The parasite : 2,600 ft
has an equivalent flat plate area of 2 sq ft. (o) What angle of attack is
rreeded? (b) What horseporver is required? The airplene turns at 150 /1 Lift
a
rnph airspeed with a 30" angle of bank. (c) What is the centrifugal force? 0.00256 x 200tffi
(d) \\'hrt, Iift is needed? (e) $rhstr is the proper radius of turn? (/) What
nngle of attack is needed? (g) What horsepower is required?
: 0.603
iJnt ulio,.. From Fig. 8.8, cr : 8.4o.

(a) co =
o*ffip (s) From Fig. 8.8,
:
Co 0.03
: 6,000
oJorbo xlootffi no : (a^* 1.28o\0.00256sye
-r \""' s ) 875
= 0'522
t'rom Fig. 8.8, a = 2.1o. :(o.oro*t# 0.00256x200x150r
376
(D) From Fis. 8.8,
: 203 hp
Cn = 0.025
/,
-hP:lCo*: 1.28a\r-'------
o.oo256sl/E PROBLEI\ISI
1 s/ ezs 22.2..1. Aplane of 8,800 lb groes weight is turning at 125
an angle of bank of 60o. (o) What ie thi ceutrifugallorce?
mph with
x 2\0.00256 x 2oo x f:; iVf,"i i,
- (o.oru.
1.28 Tm-8
the lift? (c) What ehould be the radiua of turn?
\-2oo)b*,q _22.2.?. An airplene ie making a 40o benked turn of 56&ft radius,
_ lZE hp TVhat ehould bo the airspeedi
 L,
.' ? '

368 TURNS '..'l MINII(UI{ RADIUS DETERI\{INED

BY WING LO.q,DING 369
22.2.3. An airplene rveighing 2,740 lb has a Clrrk Y rving 243 sq ft in
erea (A.R. 6) ond parasite s'ith equivalent flat plate area of 3.2 sq ft. pre'ious chapters' It should be
noied trrat, at smalr angrcs
the minimum speecl is the statinf r.rf
\\that horseporver is requ;r'ed in straight flight at 170 mph and in a s;""d,"i.;., the srorvest verocirv
banked turn of Yrnile radius Bt 170 mph?. on the power-requirecl curve. '*nk.
At 5;" oii"rf., f". ,,f*
22.2.4. A raging plane weighing 3,500 lb is rounding a pylon at 380 the power-available curve intcrs".t';;;'
"ogL" ",.o,J"J
mph. The radius of turn is 150 ft. What should be the angle of bank? poru".-."quired curve
What is Qhe centrifugal force?
22 2.5. !'teirplane rveighing 4,600 lb has a Ciark Y wing of 340 sq ft
rurei (e.R. 6) and parasite rvith equivalent flat plate erea of 5.2 sq fi.
(a) What hlirscporver is'required to fly straight at 150 mph? (b) What
horSeprlver is required to make a 35" banked turn if the seme angle of
rthrr:k is rnainhined in the turu as in the straight flight?

2!.3. ]IINI]III}I SPIIED IN TURNS

In st.r'liglrt. :evel flight, lift equals rveight (very nearly) ; in tri, ns,
lift mrrst equtl IF scc d. 'llre stalling speed in straight flight, I/,,
is lound by th': formula

l/" --
lw
{ c'-'.' I s Fto, 22,2, porver requircd at vurious
r lO n0 l3O I,rO

lhereos in tunrs, the slalling speed, 7rl is anglcs of bank.

at the point: 65 mph, 70 h1r..At this
englc of bank (b5o), the
W plane cannot fly at 68,mpr,, air_
V"'= I tir" ,t"fii'g r"i"ua, bccause there
sufficient power ava'abre. Ac 00o is not
coe F thc minimum
{ C "^.*.tS is 77 mph and not the stalling "igi"?ii""rr,
rp#;;;;;h. sDeecr

: v, PROBLDIVIS
t/"*p 22.3.1. A Cub hos u -lITuT flying epeerl of Bg.B mph in ,rtrnisht,
level flight' Assuming unrimitcrt
Ao the angle of bank increases, the stalling Bpeed increa,ses. AB cffi;;;r,
,r, (o) a 80. banked turn; (D) iO" i^^f..a whnt is rhc minirnunr
the angle of bank anproaches 90o, the atalling speed approachee ;ffif rurn; (c) a 20. bnnked
"
infiniiy. rhe stulting epeed of a Cub in
When there is adequate porver, the stalling Bpeed is the minimum ,,r??trr;,]ftarie a 60o bankect rurn ar
Bpeed of flight. Flying the airplane faster requires more power. 22,3.8. An airplane with rving loeding of 1g.2 lb per sq
When the plane is flying'at constant engle of attack, the power wing rection whoea Cr.".. is .a ft uees a
1.b.-Whel'ir" t],e ei,otiing speeci
banked turn? in a +0o
requiled varies as 73. In banked turns, at the angle of maximum
M+, coefficient, the equation above ehc*e that I/ varies inversely
22.4. },IINIMUM RADIUS AS DETERMINED 'BY
as (cos F)k, eo that porver required wili vary as (cos p)fi. WING
In Fig. 22.2 are shorvn the power-required curves at various
angles of bank for the 2,00Glb airplane used a,b an example in
In banked turne at constant altitude,
vector sqm of the rveight acting
ihe lift must equal the
"";;;;y;orynrvard and centrif_
 n'

MINIMUM RADIUS DETERMINED BY POWER AVAILABLE 37I

TI'RNS
W/S : ft, (d) a Spitfire, W/8 : 24.3Lb persq ft, (a) a
23.5 lb persq
I l,rrce acting horizontally outward; that is, W/S:42.3 Ib per sq ft, (t) a Messerschmitt 109-F,
Focke-Wulf,
W/S :35.2Ib per sq ft, (g) a Piper Liaison, W/S :6.76Ib per sq ft?
Lift: Cr.f,sv, : # (n.4.L)
t2.4.2. Rapeat Problem 22.4.L f.or 30,U)0 ft altitude.

,,lrom Eiq. (22.2.1), 22.5. MINIMUM RADIUS AS DETERMI].IED BY POWER

y2 : gBtanF AVAILABLE
I:r i,urns, tnore horseporver is required than in straight flight
r,',tituting this value in Eq. (22.4'1) gives
because more lift is needed,and this greater lift is attained by
crf,Son'^no: ffi increasing either velocity or angle of attack, both of rvhich increase
drag. Since maximum speed in straight flight entails using all the
available horsepower, it is impossible at top speed to make a per-
w
ft,: fect turn, i.e., rvithout slippii,g or squashing.
r,elSs sin P At any angle of bank, lift must enual I/ sec p. Curves may be
"c const,ructed for any airplane giving the porvcr ;cquired aL various
26.r4w angles of bank as in Fig. 22.2, which is for i,he 2,000-lb airplane
(22.4.2) used previously as an example. It will be noted lhab it is not
oCzS sin 0
possible to fly this particular airplane at angles of bank greai-er
,rrrr:e, in a tuLn, it is dangerotts to stall, the common rule for than 64o, as not sufficient power is available. At a 60o angle of
,,1,,i I is al\tvays to keep the speecl at least 90 per cent above
stalling bank, for example, this airplane may be florvn at any speed between
I this i, ttt" oi st'ying that the angle of att:-'k a top speed of 117 mph and a minimum one of 77 mph. At lower
, ,,
"q,riualettt
.r,,,r rld be such that Lhe C r will not be greater than C r'^.tl (l '2 )z ' angles of bank, the speed range is greater. At angles of bank less
rrr'c, oll examining most wings, the greatest CLmrx: to be fgund than 54o, for this airplane, the stalling speed determines the
r tl, itre C r, tobe used in the above equation should be l'6/I'44 minimum speed; above 54o, the intersection of the power-gvailable
, r. t l. When this value is used and it is reca'lled that the ma:rimum and power-required curves decides the mieimum speed.
,,,,nHible value of sin p is unity (F
: 90o), the minimum radius In military airplanes, a small radius of turn is desirable. Since
.,,'tlt[€S radius of turn, from Eq. (22.2.I), is
yz
8-i'. : 25.53\ (n.4.3) D_
'u - gtanP
t l,rnsideration of power may restrict
the radius to a larger value' a small radius of turn is obtained b1' having a small velocily or a
r,,rt,, llo matter how powerfut tttt engine, the radius cannot be large angle of bank. The smallest velocity is related to the angle
",,,,,11", than shown
In endeavoring to build fast military of bank, and at any particular angle of bank it is determined by the
"bo\n". rving load-
,;;:;:, ;;;"rig,tr* have attained speed bv increasing stalling characteristics of the rving or by the power available.
,,*,ii"i".ttasi wing loading me&ns that some maneuverabiiity The horsepower rvailable at any velocity being knorvn, the drag
t,,u been sacrificed in that larger radiua turns
are necess&ry' coefficient may be computed. The angle of attack and lift coeffi-
cient arc then knorin. With lift coefficient and velocity known,
PROBLEMS
the lift may be found. The greatest angle of bank may then be
22.4,1. Otthe basie of wing loading' wlral
is the minimum turning computed, and. from that, the corresponding minimum radius of
,^,tir;';l Co*i..
io) " p-40,-W/S =31.2-lb.per sq ft, (b) a_North turn for s Beries of difrerent velocities; it will be discovered that
;';r;; iut*t"og, w/s = dz'e tu por sq ft, (c) a Grumman w!!icat'
 ) |-) LJ ;-) : I
a--) ,) l-, l,l
-'a '? ;.',' '

a,') TUR,I{S TIME EOR 3600 TTlqN 373

{t r}ne &irspeed, which is the same airspeed as that for best climb'
rt,,, radiuJof iurn is smallest. With the a^ssigned power pla4t
rar& :#
tlrin will be the sharpest possible tgrn, though with inoeased 161.3'
a turn of even smaller radiud can be made B_
pr\ver- 32.2 x t.925

EXAMPLE = 420 ft
Find the mioimum rarlius of turn for an airplane weighing 2,000
lb' The results it tirese computations are showir iu Fig. 22.8: The
l,rving a Clork Y wiug 36 ft by 6 ft and 3'8 s-qIt equivalent flat $late miilmum permissible radius of turn has its smallest value when the
.'nn o-f parasite and a 125-hp engine rated at 2,200 rpm' airspeed is 65 mph.
Solution. Thit il the seme airplane as in Example I of Section
I6"t
l,,r' rvhich the horseporver-aveilable.curve is plotted in Fig' l6'5'
(,alculations are mode for varioui eirspeed; the follorvi'g is o sslrnple.
C

I/ : 110 mPh x t' (61 = (Ll >l t

F
o
161.3 ft Per sec
3
€
G
hPrvar. : i07.5 (from Fig' 10'5)

/ 1.28o\!xsxv'
-
trp=lJp-r-
\ s/ 650 Tta. 22.3. .I{inimum rudius of properly banked turn.
/- 1.28 x3'8\o'oolle x 216 xTdm At any airspeed, a rvider turn can be made than showrr in
lut.u:lwr-r
rv,.u_\vz i
2LB / aa0 Fig. 22.3. Since euch a turn l'ill require less horsepower, it will
: permit throttling the engine.
Ca 0,0323

l,'rom I'ig. 8.8, 22.0. TIME FOR 360" TURN

. a=4.1o and Cr, = 0.65
In order to complete a 360o turn, a complete circle must be
Lift-CrxfxSft 2
flown. If 7 is in feet per second and the time required t is in seconds,

- 0.65 X 0.00119 X 216 X I6'iT r:2*R

v
- 4,330Ib
But
oos /,^w
- illi T':L V2

s!*P
: 2'000
Therrforp
4,330
ZrV
- 0.461
l- g tun, P

F- 62" 3g' At the sa,me 'angle of bank, a faster airplane'would require more
tan B - 1.925 time to complete a 360o turn because it would fly a wider turn. If
 a,

I TIIRNS SPIRAL GLIDE B7s

rlr. pilot of a faster airplane attempted to fly a tuirr of the same engine failure, the force that causes motion along thc flight path
,,,,lius as a slcwer airplane, the faster airplane would have to bank is a component of the weight of the airplane itself. If a turn is
,',,rre steeply, subjecting the airplane t9 greater centrifugal force' desired while descending in a glide, for example, in rlrder to iand
upwind, greater lift must be attained or squashing rvill result.
,,I7. PYLON TURNS
In genera\ lift can be gained either by increasing the angle of
'l'o fly a pylon turn, the airplane must be at the pivotal altitude attack or by increasing the velocity. With a dead engine, v'elocity
,, tne pariictrlar a::speed that is to be flown' The pivotal altitude can be increased only by diving more steeply, i.e.. increasing the
' , t,he aliitude at rvhich an
airplane can fly at the given airspeed in a angle of glide. If without the turn the airplane is descending at
,rr:le about the pylon at a degree of bank such that the lateral minimum angle of glide, in turning the angle of glide will be
,irs of the airplane ahvays points at the pylon. Since the angleof increased.
r, rnk is such ttrat the rvings point at the pylon In a spiral glide, the airplane is descending on & helical path,
this helix being on the surface of an imaginary circular cylinder
tan0:6h rvhose radius is r. At any instant, the tangent to the flight path
is at an angle d to the horizontal tangent to thc cylindcr at that
Irrrrrr Eq. (22.2.1), point. The component of the rveight in the direct,ion of the flight
yz
tan9: path rvhich causes thg motion along that path is ll,- sin d, and this
= equals the total drag as in a straight glide. Bccausc the u'ing is
llrrrn banked, the direction of lift is inrvard, and it is thc component of
v2 lift in the vertical plane through the longit.rdinal axis of the air-
h (feet) :
SZZ plane, L cos B, thai, is equal and opposite to the con:,;onent of
rveight, 17 cos 0, perpendicular to the drag.
hcre 7 is in feet Per second;
'r Although centrifugal force is actually acting in a direction
tr (feet) : 0.066872 slightly below the horizontal, it is-usual to consider cnly its hori-
7 is in miles Per hour. zontal component, WVz cos2 t|/f), rvhich is balanced by the
'vhere horizontal component of lift, Z sin B.
,,:r.8.CLIMBING TURNS Summing up the above etatements, using D to represent total
n combination of a turn and a climb at tiie same time requires drag of the airplane,
,,rrrple power. In a simple straight climb at constant speed, vertical D-Wsini
,,,,,rponents of thrust and lift must equal the weight of the air- L cosP: W cos2
1,l,rne; in a climbing turn, components-of
thrust and lift must
weight plus centrifugal force' WVz cosz o
l,rr,lance L sin 9 -
'lhe exacf solution of the problem is quite complex' A study of cf
1"i8.22.2 shows that. for this airplane, while it is in straight flight Dividing the first erluation by the second gives
rhcre is a maximum of 58 excess horsepower available for climbing,
D
rr, s&y, a 45o banked turn a maximum of only 34 excess [ortepower tanl:
available for climbing. Lcosp
'r
And, irom the third equation,
iI2.9. SPIRAL GLIDE
WYz
In discussing a turn w'ithout loss 6f altitude, it was shown that
cosz a
4:-
ilrore power is needed in turns thqn in level.flight. In the event of
' gLtnB
 t) li 1) r I r I r j r. I . I : I . i . .l .l
I il i
t

TURNS ! LOOPS 377

{
,*( 2rr is the horizontal distance traveled in a complete turn, a glide of 9.6o is (I2 cos / @ tan p) or 2t4 ft. The loss of altitude
il
, rLltitude lost in a complete turn is 2rt tat d. Then the mini- in one .complete turn, 2n tan 0, is 222 f.t.
rrr altitude rvill be tost per turn rrl'en conditions are such that In a spiral glide, the outer wing tip travels in a bigger circle than
rrrr 0 is minirnum. the inner tip, while both tips descend the same vertical distance.
Because of the differense in the helical paths, the inner rving may
lVV2aos2o
v- Cn
rtan0 gLsinB " Cncosg staii before the outer wing.

tv
,;rL,rl"o"'uc o
0L sin F cos AC r
2W cosz 0

t;t(U)2 sin g cos o

. cos2 o
+(K)
g, (A),i"za
;iince in all eases the airplane lvould be fiown al the flattest
,,:rible angle of glide, 0 rvill be small and cos 0 rvill-be nearly equal
' one. The slorvest rate of descent will be rea<-,ited when both
,'f Co and sin 29 have.their largest values. An investigation of
.,urrdard airfoils shorvsthat C12/Cp has a maximum value close
, t,he burble and sin 2P will have its greatest value rvhen
p is 45"'
rtr* above expression showe that with s bigger wing loading, Frg. t2.4. Forces in e loop.
,, ,/,S,the minimum rate of descent is increased'
(lomparison may be made of the angle of glide d in a simple 22.i0. LOOPS

,rr,lr:, wher€ 0: cot-r (L/D), with the angle of

glide in turning
trr.re 0: cot-r P (L/D). Whereas, in the straight glide, the
cos
-,,gle of attack is chosen for maximum L/D, in the turning glide
,t,r, u,Dgle of attack is chosen to be near the stalling angle and the
; tt is fo; that angle. When p : 45o, eosine I : o'707 ' For the
..nrnple of straight glide given earlier in thrs book, it was ahown
rt,nt the minimum gliding angle would be 4'8o' X'or the eame
irt)l&ne, C'r,z/Cp is m&ximum at 18o, whete Ct/Co is 8'3' The
,,,r,r.ngent of 0 is 8'3 X 0'71 - 5,9 and d is 9'6o' The velocity
t,,ring the glide rvill be \,q
sial/Icoh/zWl (where
rrxtO/ZtO), so that for this example the velocity is 83'6 ft per sec
,/.0 mph). The radius of turn corresponding to a 45o bank and
In looping, a turn is executed in a vertical piane. Since, at the
start of this maneuver, the pilot pulls back on the stick, putling
the airplane at.a high angle of attack, rvith big drag rvhich de-
creases the airspeed, it is important that the velocity be high in
beginning thc loop, UnJcss there is ample porver, tiie pilot starts
his loop by diving to gain speed.
The loop is rarely a perfect circle, for the airspeed will decrease
as the plane climbs up preparatory to going over on its back, and,
after tlc top of the loop has beer: passed, the airspeed will in*ease
W/S: again.
The forces in a loop are ehown in Fig. t2.4, n being the instah-
taneous radius of curvat-rn and 0 being meas;r-€d positively above
 ll lt ll L__l tr lr ll l. I I r I I I I
.I '. I.r :. ::i;:
L_l t__t t J L_J Lr
t:+il ',,.\li!'j.;
,

TURNS
SPINE 379
378
and the asceriding wing has mbre lift, the rising wing will rise more
the horizontal. and the wing which is goingdown will go down more. This rotation
wv2 rvill continue indefinitely unle{s controls are applied to stop i,ire
L:Wcoso+lE- (?2.10.1)
m&ncuver. Rotation about the longitudinal axis with wing at or
wdv (22.10.2)
above the angle of maximum lilt is called autorotation.
T:D*llzsin0*-- s d.t,
22.12. SPINS
22.i1. AUTORCTATION In a spin, the airplane -*-ing is a., a high arrgie uf atfack. Al airy
axis' instant, the path of the airplane is vertically downward, so that
When an airplane rolls, i.e', rotates about its longitudinal
rving a lesser' the relative wind is vertically upward. Even though the nose of
the descending rving has a greater, and the rising
plarc' At lorv or the airplane is down, the angle of
rrngle of attacli while thc rol-Iing motion is takinv
attack is beyond the burble point.
lVith the nose between 20o and 40"
belol' the horizontal, the spin is
5l a
termed a flat spin; rvith the nose at
a greuter angle than 40" belos' the
horizontal, it is a normal spin. fn a
E'll
:Y/
normal spin the anglc of attack is
abc:t 35o; in a flat spin the angle of
attack may be as high as 70".
-'i/l"'d,,l=-\

Combined rvith rhe dorynrvard

motion are autorotation and sideslip.
In a steady spin, the actual path is
o,;y*r,-N+-
a vertical apiral, the a:<ig of thie
spiral being terrned the a:<is of spin.
Lift, being perpendicular to the rel- ..,.,,1\J
l2 ative wind, is horizontel, and it .-1J--
balances centrifugal force. Drag,
Fro' 22'5' Autorotation' which isvertically upward, is oppos-
of attack has ing the downward effe'ct of weight.
medium angles of attack, a wing with greater angle Air striking the underside of the
lesser lift
greater lift. This greater iiit oo ihe descending wing and
roll is occurring' stabilizer tends to throw the nose
ift" rising n'in[ resist the roll, while the
"r The curve of Iift coefficient versue angle of attack is a straight downwardl this ie batenced by FIo. 22.6.' Forces in a epiu.
centrifirgal inertia mom.entb rvbich
fi"" ntitn a positive slope to near the si;aiiiug &Irgle' wilere-i"
ro-unCs
lift' the lift co- tend to make the airplane assrume & more horizontal position; see
of to ma:cimum. Beyond the angle of ma:cimum
" Fis.22.6.
-
efficient has negative sloPe. A spin is usually started from horizontal flight by pulling back
*n"o an airflane is flying at or near the angle of maximum lift'
wing will have a greater angle the stick till the airplane is in a stall; the rudder is then kicked,
if the airplane rolls, the descending causing the airplane Co sideslip and autcjrntate. To come out of a
point the
of attackthan the rising; but, siuce beyond the burble spiu, it is first necess&ry to stop the autorotation. In order to
a greater angle of attack will
slope of the lift cu*e il'negative,
stbp autorotation, the angle of attack must be reduced below the
iince descending wing has less lift
-.un lors lift; see Fig.22.5. "he
rll_.;i_Ji,r/ L--)
TURNS
stalling angle by shoving fonvard on the stick. This action may
be hastened by opening the throttle to send a blast of air against
the tail surface. \Vhile this rvill cause the airplane to assume a
more vertical position, the autorotation rvill stop and the plane
rvill be in a simple dive from rvhich reeovery is made by merely
pulling back on the stick. When the airplane is coming dorvn
in a spin, tire air is pressing against the underside of thc elevatc4
forcing it into an "up" position; rvith a properly designed plane,
bringing the elevator into its mid-posilion should bc sufficient to
stop the spin. .The I)epartment of Commerce re(ltlires that, after
a six-t.urn spin, the ailplrrnc shall recover in no more than one and
rl half adtlition:ll turns after the controls are put in neutral, rvithout
Ihe use <lf l,he engine.
25.
Load Factors
23.1. LOAD FACTOR
In straight, level flight, the lift, force
equals the l.eight (r,ery
closely). In maneuvers, an airplane is subjected to a gr.erter foru:c
than the s'eight of the airplane. The ratio of this force to ttrc
rveight of the airplane is caiied the load factor. In straight,, level
flight, the load factor is 1.
By Nes'ton's second latv of motion, force is nreasured b-y rnass
multiplied b1' the acceleration u'hich the force causes or tends to
cause to the mass:
F:MA
The force rvith which an objett is pulled torvard the center of thc
earth is salleo the force of gravity. Thc amount of '.rat force
acting on an object is called the object's weight. The acccleration
produced bv the force of gravity varies slightly at different places
on the earth's surface but closely appr.oximates 32.2 ft per sec
per sec. The standard symbol for the acceleration of gravity is g:
W:Mg
The mass of an.object cannot be measi:red conveniently; it
can be found by dividing the rveight of the object by the accelera-
tion of gravity at the point on the earth's surfece rvhere the rveight
is measured. If an airpldne weighs 17 pounds, its mass is W/g
siugs. If a force acts on the airplane producing an acceleration of
o feet per second per second, the force F in pounds is
w
f- -o
g
In describing the'accelerations on &ircraft, it is customary to
refer to them in units of g; that is, an acceleration of 96.6 ft per
Bec per sec rvould be described as &n &cceleration of 39. Such an
3El
t_J rlrl;l.i I
-.)'_) I

I,OAD FACTORS ACCELERATION IN CT'RVED IT,IGHT 38:I

Solution. By plotting ob horizontally to scale as 250 and ac to scale

acceleraiion would imply a force in pounds numerically equal to
as 350 angle ion of.20", length bc -qy be found by graphical or trigo-
3 times the weight oi the airPlane. nometric methods. By trigonometry,

23.2. LCCELERATION x
tu - \/250'+
--- abo' - (2 250 x u50 X cos 20")
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. Velocity is a vector;
-
:.143.5 knots
that is, it has.direction as rvell as ntagnitude'
In Fig. 23.1o is illustta'ued an airpla-ne'being pulled out o! e dive' . = 242.L ft per sec
In position Pr it has a velocity 7r; in position P2, rvhich it occu-
Since thig change in velocity tekea place in 3 sec,
. :
Average acceleration
242.1

-
: 80.7 ft per sec F,er B€c
: 2.5s

(b)
I'ro. 23.1. Chonge in velocity in pulliug out frortr It rlivc.
pies I seconds later, it has a velocity i'2. Velocity I/z ha" ,r differ'
ent direction from. 71 and the Bame or slightly less mrrgnitttde'
By plotting these velocities to scale as in Fig. t}.lb, V t us ob, tr'l2 as
cc, it wiii be seen that the velocity bc added to velocity I/1 gives
velocity I/2. Then the line bc, scaled ofr in feet per Bccond, repre-
sents the change in velocity thut hns tukcn place in I seconds. 'Ihe
aver&ge acceleration in feet per uecond per second is (lrc)/,. If , is
eeveral seconds, the acceleration may be fuirly small;if I is a small
fraction of a second, the acceleration moy be quite high.
EXAMPT,E
An airplene is flying horizontally et 260 knote. Three seconds later,
its airspeed ig 350 knots snd its flight path is 20o belort the horirontal.
What is the average acceleration?
PROBLEMS
23.2.1. An airplane is flying horizontally at 300 knote. If its flight
path is changed to 25o above horizontal ead ite airepeed is decreaeed
to 260 knots in 1 sec, what is the average acceleration?
23.2.2. Ar airplane is descending in a stcady glide path of 5o at a
epeed of 85 mph. Two soconde latcr the path is horizontal and tho
airspeed ie 70 mph. What is the average acceleration?
23.2.3, Ar airplane is headod due north at an airspeod of 230 knote.
Three seconde later, the heeding is northeast with uo ohange of speed.
What ie tho everago acceleration?
23.2.4. An eirplane is in a vertical dive with an airspeed of 410 knots.
Tho pilot pulls back on the stick, and the paih is changed in i eec to
16o from ihe vcrtical and tho airspeed is deqeased to 370 knots. What
is the aveiago acceleration?
23.2.6. An airplane ir diving at a epeed of 280 knots, the flight path
being 60o below the horizontel. The pilot pulls back on the stick, and
2 sec later the airplane ia climbing at an angle of 40o, the airspeed being
unchanged. Whot is tho average acceleration?
23,3 ACCELERATION IN CURVED FLIGET
With constant speed, if the direction of the velocity 7 is changed
through & small angle dd in the time dl, the change in velocity i3 V d0
and the acceleration ia Y iti/dt.In circular motion, V : R de /dt,
where 7 is the tangential velocity and ft is the radius. Substituting
dt/dt: V/R it the first expreesion givee the acseleration itr
 l-J !Lr' IJ l-J t-J L-a t-r
384 I.oAD FACTOR.S IOAD FAqTOR.S IN EORIZONTAL TURNS
circular moti-n as PROBLEMS
yz
O:E (23.3.1)
--23'3'1'
Three
An airplane is headed due north at an airspeed of
seconds loter, the heading is northeast with
280 kno's.
no ,0""i.
What is the accelerstion? (Comlare with problem "fr"rr" "i
2g.2.8.i
This scceleration is always directed toward the center of the circle. 23.3.2. An airplane is- diving et a speed oi
2g0 knots, the flight path
fn circular motion, there is continuously acting an inrvard being 60o below the horizo.ntarl whu;tth. pliot puts
back on d;u;r,
accelcration of V/E fect per second per iecond. The path need 2 sec loter the airplane is climling at
*ogl" of 40", the airspeed being
not be a complete circie nor a ',;rue circle, Any curveC path rnay unehangec. what is the acccreraiion?"a(coipare
with problern'2a.28)
be considereci to be composed of arcs of circles joined together,
and these circles may have different radii. The magnitude of 23.4. FORCES IN MANEUVERS
the acceleration would vary along a non-eircular curve, but at any an airplane is flying in a straight line at a constant
--when speed,
instant the inward acceleration rvould be Vz/R, R being the all the forces acting on the airprane are in equilibri;.
instantaneous ra{us. motion of an airplane is changed from shady flight,
il; ;"
'I he mo"ement of an airplane in changing ditection is a gradual subjected to an acceleration. This acr:eleration
it t Uu"n
must have "" been
motion. Even when the controls are applied suddenly, ihe air- caused by an unbalanced force.
plane does not, respond insiant.ly. The path does not make a straight If the forces on the control surfaces, rvhich usualll, cause only
line to a point and then change abruptly to another straiglrt line rotation, are neglcc.ied, the-forces acting on an airpiane
i; a diffelent direction. During the time, horvever shorb, that the in flight
are its rveight, the thrust, the lift, and the total
drag. If the Jir_
airplane is changing direction, the path is a curve. Because the plane deviates from straighb, constant-speed
flight, tnJ.u f"..*
direction of thb acceleration is constantly changing, the method not balanced. Adding these forces gives a single iorce (o, "r"
described in the preccding section, which implies a constant direc- plls couple), and it is this force that causes the acceieration.
f"r."
? "
tion of acneleration, can only give very approximate results. A force, equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the
unbalanced force, will hord rhe body irequilibrium.
EXAMPLE T}i; i.iiti"".
force represents the ir,ertia or tendency of tttu uoay
to ."*"in in
An eirplane is flying horizontally at 250 knots. Three seconds later, its original state of rest or constant
it is flyiug at the
8&me speed but at an angle of climb of 20o. Whot is -oiion. using tlis ;;;;;il;
knorvn as D'Alembert's principle, reduces problerns in kinetics
the acceleration? io
problems in statics.
Solulion.
. 250 knots : 422.2 ft per sec 23.5. LOAD FACTORS IN HORIZONTAL TURNS
Assuming circular path of 20o in 3 sec, 180o in 27 aec,
. In horizontal turns, the rving is banked so that the lift force acts
in an oblique direction fronr the vertical. The vertical *il;;;;
ft,: 27 x 422.2
t of the lift balances the weight; the horizontal componenti"..",
the inward acceleration.
= 3,829 ft The tbrce a,cting inward toward the ssatel of the turn, which
From Eq. (23.3.1), c&uses the radially inward acceleration, is temed the ceniripeiai
422.2' force. A force, equaf in magnitude and opposite in directio"
O=+ to trr.
3,629 centripetal force, is termed the centrifugal force. This fictitious
force represents the tendency of the airplane to keep *oving i.
= 49.13 ft per.seot e
straight liue. The us€ of centrifugal force in ."kul"tion,l.
= l.EB0 exa,rnple of D'Alembert's principle. The lift on'the wing must "r, be
 LJ L_J I I L__r L--r rl_-t ti{i t.

,'rt LOAD IACTORS

DTIrffl AND PUI&OTIfS
,,1rrrl in magrritude and opposite in direction to the sum of the momentum takes the place of weight,
,r.ight and the centrifugal lorce. The load.factor in a horizontal and acting horizontally for_
ward with respect to the axis of the-plane
',rrn is the ratio of this lift to the weight of the airplane:
it i'
a direction
in normal flight would-be, forwa{ ".t, Thl, i;;d;;; which
""J"p*"ra.
tion is called inverted flight condition ;;;
sii'ce ii essentiaty dupricates
flying upside down. Whcn the
: lr'"ctually flying upside
Load factor
w
down, with the conventi""ol "i"pi*"
;t;;;;.rt-efoit, flight must be
at a high negative anglg qf attack *irU
that t[e-airspeid -wli-be a;p;r;ii""rv 'r#. big drag, so
V4 "*r"qrrql!.
* rhe road factori
I-
' fn'
: secF.
EXAMPLE
In o 45o banked turn, rvhat is the load factor?
Sa!ulion.
l1 :
*r 45' o.?alL
: 1.41

lood facior is I 4 or plane is etressed to 1,49, \at (D) G)

Fro. 23.2.
28.2. Air flow with eudden change of angle
PROBLEMS of attack.

23.5.1. Airplane is making a turn of Yf-lmile radius at a speed of 225 obtained in tbe inverted flight condition
at the beginning of a dive
,,rph. What is the load factor? are much greater than those obtained
i:: actual invertecl flight,
23.5.2. Airplane is making a turn of 20Gyd rodius at a epeed of the former load factors are thoee ueed
in stress anarysis of the air-
105 mph. What is the loed foctor? plane structure.
23.5.3. Airplurre is meking a turn of rfi-mile radius at a speed of the airplane goes into the dive, the pilot
tt5 mph. Whot is the lood factor? .+ keeps the nose of tho
d.pl*-9 depressed, or else *,ith increased-u"fo.::rtfr.;;;;;
23.5.4. Airplane is making a turn of 25G'ft radius at o speed of 185
will pull the airplane out of the diye. il,
rnph. lYhat is the losd factor?
23.5.5. Airplane is making a turn of 300-ft radius at a speed of 240
In coming out of the dive, the piiot puils
back on the stick which
moveg the eldvator up tending to th.,u
rnph. What ie the load factor?
ttspect to the flighr path. If the pull_out
tt. tuit downward with
is quite ;JJ;; il;;
DIVES AI{D PULL-CUTS probable that the air flow
23.6. is ," .f,"ri" in O.r. InFig.28.2n.
i,he wing ie shown et a sma,ll
When a plane is flying horizontally and the pilot pushes the ",U. ,ir"rp ,r"uuToJil;;
angle of artack.-A
t'he stick throwg the tail do*nf"oJ
stick forward moving the'elevator dorvn, the firtt action is for roi of a second the
the tail to move up. If the sticl: movement is fairly quick so that
air floy is as shown b.$g. 23.26, tbe "]r".tion
n*iog .".; il;;;;;
the wing' Almosr instlnity trr. n"*"i, u.."r., u*"y from the wing
the tail is thrown up suddenly, momentum carriis the airplane
eurfoce g-in fiS. 28.2c. Shortly
onu'and in a horizontal path. The relative wind strikes the upper airplane takes uo
& Dew flight path. During thi brief "ftur*".J-tne
iort"nt if,ri'*" ,1.
side of the wing; that is, momentsrily there is a n€gative angle of i"iii
attack, with a consequent negative lift; During that inetant, 3 thgyo io Fig. 23,2b,the.[ft .*6.i"niir gr"otlv i"
ia ordinarily coneiderrd the
.;;;"i';;;;
-"*i*u'' irrt?*m.ient and the roa.d .
r- I I L---l ll ri TJ + .n\j-;
:,,',.
r--'r
- i-:1 r.

lrut IoaD FAgroR'g F' LOAD FACToRS DIIE TO GUSTS

are extremely
lnr:[or is oxtremely hig!. Sudden pull-outs' therefore' Coming out of a dive c,auses one of the most severe stresses put
,lnrrgerouE.
"'iil -
must be such that' if
on airplanes;'and unless care !-. ta.ken the wings nay be pulled ofr.
pJr.tt, the force on the airplane The stresses are much less n'hen the airplane comes out of a dive
of n'hich is equal and opposite gradually.
runolved into two componentq one
will^cause the acceleration'
i,, ii.'""Lrtt, tbe other component PR,OBLEMS
'of 't,he elt-pt" in Section X3'3 shows that'
,1" 23.6.1. A -Waco airplane ybg_r" lfqdiqg Ep99d is.5-5 mph is pulled out
-f,r* "*"ii*Uon flnog botino";aly,clr1nges to 1 20' ainU,
of the
fitt of a dive rit i95 mph. What is ihe losC fa,ctor?
.""istti before ti" -"o"ov"i b"grog' At the start'
-,,,"i, """itpfrt" to 23.6.2. A Iockheed airplane whose landing sp€ed is 72 mph is pulled
by an amount sufficient
rntneuver, lift must exceed weight out of a dive at 225 mph. Whot is the load fncbr?
lift must equal
rrpio"ra acceleratiori of 1'53g; i'e'' 23.6.3. A Curi,iss Helldiver whose louding speed is 68 mph is pulled
': lSW.During the maneuver, lift must balance the weight' acting
',;,d*;;- out of o dive at 290 mph. What is the load factor?
,l,nvnw&rd, and also tU" inrvard acceleration' In other rvords' 23.6.4. A Stearma! trainer whose stalling spied is 50 mph is pulled
""*
lrlt must be equbl and opposite to-the
resultant of the rveight out of a dive at 253 mph. What is th" load factor?
force acting
,,,'ii"g-1"*i"aUy dowowata ana the centrifugal 23.6.5. A Northrop airplane whose stalling speed is.62 mph is pulled
clescribed in the
;';,;ffiy ot t*",1. At the'end of the maneuver out of a dive at 200 mph. What is the load factor?
the lift must eluul the resultant,of
II/ acting dos'n*'ard 23.7. LOAD FACTORS
''\rrmple, in a direction
DUE TO GUSTS
of l.$If o"ti'"g dorvnrvard zld
prrtrvarcl
bc 2'491i pounds in While flying in variable rvinds, severe loads may be produceC by
;;;; it;; lhe vertical. Thirefo'e lift must
",,,i-u'ioro"
sudden vertical grrsts. lVhile flying level, the inertia of an airplane
t'he verticnl'
,,',,gniiua, and act upward 12'5o from tends to keep it moving horizontally forward when it encounters
'i'n" i.-p"rary act'ica described at the beginning of this section
at given spced a vertical up-current cf air. The combination oi the forrvard
r,,,*g a-1"r"-g"rai, tn" gt"atest lift obtainable 'ry motion of the airplane and the uprvard motion of the air gives a
, -i." ln" ir-at the of attack ol C 1^"'" In calcu-
relative wind which comes backward and uprvard al, the airplane.
"irplane "ogle
lnting the load factoi due to a !u[-out
it is assumed that the The result is an increase in the angle of ottack. Unless this increase
of attack while still retain-
;';;ffi";;u" uto"gnt to a higL anelc If Y is the velocitv wheu in angle of attack takes placc very slowly, the increase in lift will
ffi;; htth .p""d "tt*io"d inthethedivedive' into the high angle of attack
be much more rapid than the decrease in velocity due to increased
;;: ;i;ffi is pulled drag.
position, r,hen ""t "r
One of the requirements for ainvorthiness of an aL craft is its
L= c ability to withstand the load produced by a ahap-edged vertical
"-*.f,svz gtrst of 30 ft per sec. The load factor is much greater when flying
at high speed (amall angle of attack) than wben flyrng at slower
w = cL^o.lsv? speeds (larger arigles of attack).
If thc speed of the verticpl gust is G feet per second and the
eirspeed of the airplrne isY i*t
per Eecond, the ariditional angle
of ditapk due to the gust is Ac - G/Y teAtanB; 8ee Fig. 2B.Bo.It

r-oad factor = fr:

L c
"*f,sv' m is the slope of the straight portion of the Ca vorsus c curve for
the airfoil section used (see Fig. 23.8b),
, r^_tfr:
AC7, - rtr5o
v2 mG
=T: , .E-
v
 J ll t_J lJ L.-l L-l L-J l_l -l-J 1_l il i--J 't-- J 't-- 1-J 1- J
-F ,' ...
.

3qc IPAD FACRONA LOAD FACTORS DUE TO GUSTS 39r

where Y is in miles per hour;

anSV
Iroadfactor: I *' (23.7.2)

oF "l where 7 is in knots.

16.6W

EXAMPLE
(o) An airplene weighing 2,000 lb has a wing area of 216 sq ft. The wing
has zerc lift at -5o. For the aspect ratio of the wing ur.d, C, : 1.16
d at c : 12o. What is the load factor caused by o sharp_eagea aOtt-
o) per-sec gust (a) when the oirplane is flying at Zb mph; (b)
when the
eirplane is flying et 161 mph?
' Frc' 23'3' Efiect of gttsts' Soluliu".

Since the afispeed Y is essentially the same before

and after the Slope of C; v€rsus cr cu
tve : rn: l'tg 57.9
the ratio of the lifts is the same as the rabio of 5 + nX
*rii. ""."tnt-"d,
-"he
iift coefficients: : 4.1 per radian
(o) From Eq.. (23.7.1),
I,oadfactor -H Ioadfactor=l* 4.1x216x75
19.12 x 2,000
:Cu*LCr
C;..r,
: 2.7
(b)
mG' 1
-l*Vxc^ Inad fsctor : 1* 4'1x 216 x 161
19.12 X 2,000
Substituting Crt= = 4.7
*'
2 PROBLEMS
2sf 23.7.1. For the airpleng in the above exampie, what is the road factor
mGz with a ttstandard" gust, when the airrpeed is 200 mph?
I4qdfactor=1+Tx' 23'7.2. For the airplane in Problem 23.7.r, what ie'the road fector if
the eirpiaue is flyrng at 10,000 ft altitude?
oncSV Anairplr-re with e wing loading ol2t.6lb per sq ft ia flying at
=irT ^_?:7.3:
250 knoto. The alope of the lift coefficient cur"e ie o.oz2 p"t iug;".
Whst is the load factor due to a ,,stendard,, gust?
Substituting G = 30 ft per sec, the "st&ndard" vertical-gust' and 23.7.4. Lt airpiane with a wing loading ot-SZ tU per sq ft ie flyinc at
0.002378 elug per cubic foot gives 250 knota. The elope of the lift coefrcient .orv" G O.biZ per i"gi*.
po = Whst is the load factor due te a standard gust?
cnSV 23.7'5. what would be the load factor in probrem 2g.z.5itthe e-ir-
Loadfactor:1*-
P.L2W
(23.7.1)
plane werc flying at 300 knots?
s02

V-s DIAGRAM
23.8.
t"{ f*!:T-:
24.
The infornation in regad to apceleratioSs'and
F16il'Hig:t*"r"ll,':.",il*TT.il:H;'iffi
il:ii;H.;'fr ;;;;y\ee*ne1|iney_1rPtl"iT::tl;:
[ili;;;;;-h";ociiv the
scale extend to 1'5 times
Gontrol Surfaces

24.1. AXES
An airplane nay rotote about three a:roe. The longitudinal or
fore'and-aft a:ris is an inaginary line through the center of gravity
of the airplane parallel to the thnrst line of the propeller. It is
30 ft per sec gust
cslled the X a:ris. The lateral axis is an imaginary line through the

tr"ro' 23'4' Ifu diagram'

factor produced- by
The line 4B in Ftg' 23'4 'i'o*' the load
,JJ; ;h*g." i" {sro of at'tack todotted the'anste of C;'o' rvhile
lines Ehow the loads
flyrng at vaiious tp".&' The curved
line CD repre'
;ilil uJ poli"s up to aryl91"f lg*: Cr" The +Z
sents an arbitrary fi-ii"t load factor set in airplane specifi-
"ppl
*if"*. m" ft""-ffrUo*" the loadlr-g factor caused by a SGlt'p9r-ryc Fro. 2a L Axa of airplane.
The diogram is valuable in the
,-trr-p*ag. .'"*i.dx;gtttt'
desigg of the aircraft stnrctrre' center of gravity oi the airpline, perpendicular to the X axis, and
horizontal when the airpland ia'oq an even li6el. The lateral axis
is called theI a:ds. The verticsl ot Z aispasses through the center
of gravity perpendicula,r to the X and Y a:res and is vertical when
the airplane is on even keel; Eee Flg. 21.1. The positive direction of
X is forrard; thst cI f is bward the right of the airplane; the
poeitive direct'iot of Z is dpwnwsrd;

24.2. ROTATIONAT TUOTIONS OF TEE AIRPLANE

Rotation about the X a:ds is called.rqtt. The angle of roll O is
termed positive loll tf, *f* from +,be rear, the airplane
H;l"
 L-J L_--_,r r__.J i rl
l_i la,/,
,.:!l1.l{$i: --)
..ii1.itr
li.;; .' : :i:,-1t:' "':i:
,,',..::
394 CONTROL SI;IFACES r 395

rotates in a clockwise direction. A rising left wing is the begi"ning

If the airplane is in straight, level flight and, by use of airerons
or because of gusts or any other re&son, S posi.tive roll is imoarted,
of a positive roll.
the right'wing, in descending,'is meeting air at a bigger angle and
notatiqn about the I axis is called yitt'h.The angle of pitch is 0'
the left rving, in rising, is meeting air at a lesser angle of attack.
If, when vierved from the left wing tip, the airplane rotates clock-
The right wing, orving to the larger angle of attack,'lias more lift
wise, the pitch is positive. Rotations are causd by moments' The
and more drag than the left rving, the airspe'eds being essentially
moment which causes the airplane to rotate in a positive pitch is
the same. Owing to the greater drag on the right rving, the airplane
cailed a stalling -momcnt; thaL whieh e&uses it'to rotate in a nega-
will yawto the righl. A pbsitive roll prodriEes a positive yaw.
tive pitch is called a diving moment.
Rotation about the Z axrs is called httn, or yqw' If when viewed
from above the airplane rotates clockwise, the yaw is positive' A 24.5. CONTROL SURFACES
moment tending to cause a right turn is a positive yawing moment;
Itis necessary that means be provided to cause or stop rotation
that tending to cause a left turn is a negative yawing moment' The about any of the threea:<es, iri order either to maintain the airplane
angle of yarv is P.
Il should be emphai'iz,ed that the foregoing motions are about the
in straight level flight or tcl exe,-ruie various rnaneuvers. is It
common practice non,adays to make each control sur.face movable
respective axes. For example, if the wings are in a vertical bank, so
with respect to a fixed surface.
that the z ar,is is horizontal, movement of the rudder throrvs the In the Canard type the horizontal and vertical rudders ir.re in
nose up or downl it does not cause the airplane to "turn'"
front.of the main rring; in the conventional type, they are at the
24.3. ANGLE OF ATTACK OF AIRPLANE rear of the airplane
The control surfaces for producing ol regulating yarv are the
Earlier. in this book, the angle of attack of the wing rv"s stated
ve.tical tail surfaces. The fixed part is the vcrt,c.rl fin; the mov-
to be the angle betrveen the direction of the rela,rve winci and the
able part is the rudder. The rudder is moved by the feet of .the
wing chord. The wing chord is not usually parallel to the lonsitw
pilot. Pushing forward rvith the right foot on'the rud.ler bar
aini a:ris of the airplane. The angle of attack of the airplane is the moves the rudder to the right and ca,uses a right turn.
angle between the direction of the relative wind and the longi-
The control surfaces for produclrg or regulating pitch are the
tudinal a>ris of the airPlane.
horizontal tail surfac6. The movable part is the elevator or
The angle between the chord of the wing and the longitudinal
a:<is of the airplane is tire angle of incidence. The angle of
inci- "flipper"; the fixed part is the stabiliz€r. Though temed "fixed,"
between the angle of the stabilizer on ma.ny types gf airplanes can be adjusted drrria*
dence is thereiore the algebraic difference
the angle of attack of the airplane. usu- flight from the cockpit. Movement of the elevator is made by
attack of the wing and
means of a control stick or post. Pushing forward on.the stick
ally airplanes are so rigged that the angle of incidence is equal to
causes the nose to go dorvn; pulling back on it causes the nose to
the angle of ma:<imum L/D of the airfoil section used'
rise.
24.4. INTERREI,ATION OF YAW AND ROLL The control surfaces for producing or regulating roll are.the ai-
If the airplane is in level flight and right rudder is applieci, lerong. They arp io:atal at i;he reu.r of each wing i,ip. They are
* causing the airplane to yaw to the right, the left wing traveling
in a controlled by the control gtick ol a small plane and by a wheel
-oircle right (Deperdessin or 'rDep" control) on large planes; moving the
,+
& larger *ill h".u" a greater average velocity than the
stick to the left makes the left aileron go up and the right aileron
r"io'S. * each wing is meeting th; air at the same angle' of attack,
go down; causing negative roll. Moving the stick to the right
theleft wing with its greater velocity will have greater lift than the
# right wing, so that the left wing will rise and lhe.right wing will ca,us€s the left aileron [o go down and the right aileron to go up,
producing positive roll.
descend. A positive yaw p;'oduces a positive rcll'
 I
CTONTROL SURFACES
24.6. TABS
Tabs may be installed on the mdder, the elevator, or the
ailerons. They are small auxiliary surfaces that may be used either
to trim the airplane or to act as a servo-device to enable the pilot
to use less force in moving a controll seeHrg.24.2.
T.b Coflbol
/ Crblc3
(c)
Frs, 24.2. Tabs.
A trimming tab is a tab that is set on the ground to correct for
some improper flying characteristic of the airplane; for example, a
tendency for the airplane to fly with one wing low. The tab may
be a small aegment of ihe traiiing edge of rhe movable control
surface that ie hinged and provided with an adjustment so that it
may be set at an angle to the rest of the surface, or, if the movable
control surface is made pf sheet metal, the tab may be merely a
small portion of the trailing edge that is bent to one gide.
Tbe coutrol tab is moved in flight by the pilot. By pliiing the
smsll tab at an angle to the main movable control sqrface, the air.
action on the iab moves .the mpi:: surface. Much less exertion
b rTTd from the pilot to inove the little ta[ th;;;ff';
needed to move the la^rge surface against the air pressure.
24.7. AILERONS
Earlier atteppts at flyrng were thwarted because the
experi-
menters did not reaii€ thb nird for raterar bontrol. ru wigiit
\others ettained complete control by providing lateral ;oiioi.
Their first wings haddmply upperuoJr."., the riis
U"i"r rtr*
hard wciod which had been steamed and bent to the prop1r.r.u"- "f
ture. Lateral control was.effected by warping; thatis,
nected to the rear corners'of th'e,rectangular wings
i"i;";;";-
could be p"rrrJ.
forcing the wing to be bent to a greater curvature.
Uporr r"leu""-of
the rvire, the natural springiness of the wooden rib rvould
cause it to
return to its former shape.
Putting a lower surface on the u,ing precluded rvarping.
The
wrights then used flat surfaces fastened onto the outer fo'rward
struts of their biplane. To produce a positive roll, the rurt""u
tne left side was tilted so as to elope backward
,i
do*o*u;, ;;
the right side the eurface slopec balkward and "rriupward. It was
direct impact pressure on these surfaces that caused the
rving t<l
move up or down.
The conventional type of iateral control is the aileron. The
outer *ar portion of each.wing ig movabie, the hingeJ .Jt. r.i*
T9r€ or less paraltel t9 th9 leading edge. In oo
--"1 Aigtt iUd
ailerons form part of t[e wing surfaoe. n"ruty tU.v
drT_pdithtly to give geater lat€ral stability.
* igg.I to
with both ailerons in nornal poeition, the lift on the left wing
is the same as the lift on the right wing. iryh.o
aileron ie movei
dorvn, it changee the ai'foil egction of the outcr "o
portion or tre wing
to an airfoil section of greater curvature a^nd coneequ.ntfy gr"at"i
lift. Moving an aileron upward changes the airfoil sertio"i" onu
of lees curvgture ol of reverse curraiule, uaudrrg less iift.
Ailerone are deeigned so that moving an ailion down
. on one
side causes the wing o1 that eide to inc*ase in fift by
trre sane
amount that the lift'of the other wing is decrrased
ui it.
Fhq .g{ up. Moving the control stick Bhould "il.roo
io;
the total irrt, but merely the proportion carried bv"fr""S., eaJh'siae.
Unfortunately, with the simplest ailerons this mwement produces
*! ll Irl_J
;1,. r. j.- : - .:;:
;\
-:':
"
'j
-
-
- i-
l-J L-J
'on$W
l---.J.Llll

trilffid .orum;g'i'-
CONTROL SURFACF,S
'*
more drag on the side of the "down" aileron
than on the side with the wing so that burbli.g takes place. The lift is consequently
itupt' greatJy reduced.
"^'itJrrgone.
lhe .The outstanding objection to spoilers is that, unlike ailerons,
aileron down not only changes the airfoil to one
of
"o tle chord so that the angle of their use reduces the total lift. When .tle spoiler is raised on one
;;;;il;er but also changes
wing, the lift on the other wing remains as before. The reduction
attack
- is greater.
elevators' or
el "orrltrol surfaces, rvhether they be ailerons' the forces acting
at hig'h' speeCs' since
.rla"rr, are rlore efiecbi'"t The controls
on the surfaces vary as the square of
the air.velocity'
*" .ria to be sluggish at lorv air speeds' At high speeds considerable Clo3.d
from its neutral
f"ra" t. reqtrir",J to move a control surfaCe away
movement
p"rili"". Ai lotu air speeds there is little resistance to ihepilot knorvs
Even rvith slight experience &
of a control surface.
he is getting up near a stalled position
by the loosencss (or
rvhen
of the
oi -o]r""*..t) of his controls and by lack of response
"*.
airplane i,o mo.ements of the sontrol surfaces'
Examina-
Ailcrons are very inefiective at high angles of atback' Fro. 24.3. Spoilers.
shorvs bhat the anglc
tion of most of the common airfoil sections
oirrru*i^.tro lift is'abor'i' the same for them all'
Then changing
of lift on the wing with the raised spoiler me&ns the same reduction
rvill not increase
;il;h;" of the airfoil by dropping an."'ileron hevorrd the in the total lift, and the airplane loses altitude. Though imma-
il;;1# "ho,tg" in cho"l" p"tt in" uogle of attac[ at high angles oi terial at moderate altitudes, this is exceedingl..- dangerous close
burble point. The yul"ing^ effect of -ailerons to the ground as a crash might result.
stated that'
atteck is very prorrouoced,-and it has been.facetiously Spoilers are of considerable value if the airplane is equipped with
;'"t high ailerons are good rudders'" full-span$aps.
"Ta
t'"-.av tire lack of efrJctiveness of ailerons for lateral con-
"ttgl".,
be used'
trJ, slots, spoilers, or floating aiierons may
---Si;t. 24.9. FLOATING AILERONS
are prlm".ity devices for giving higher lift'-but' si-n3'e at The floating aileron was ineta,lled on the Curtiss Tanager which
so that it follorvs
ht;;";;i; "i "tt".f. thev direct the y ofiow burbling' slots add to
won the Guggenheim Safety Contesi in lg2g. The floating aileron
directly the contour oi t'tt" *ing instead is placed outside the tip of each wir,g. The aileron ib a symmetrical
the efiectiveness of the ailerons' airfoil. Its a,rds is slightly behind the leading edge. Weight is added
to the leading edge so that the aile"on is balanced statically; see
24.8. SPOILERS F:g.2/1.4.
effective for lateral
The ailerons &re so rigged that they turn freely up and down
Though used very little, spoilers are quite provided that the ailerone on opposite wing tips rotgte together.
. spoilei corrsists of a long metal
control at high They wrtl set themselves in the plane of the ielative wind, much
"ogf.r-li"it".t ^
top of the wilg above the front spar' The strip
.iJp i"*t.a"on the as a weather vane points into the wind. The pilot has no control
-
carbe quite narrow; see Fig' 24'3' over this aetion.
It-; iriogud at the front-edge. In normal flight, this strip lies
the etick is moved The pilot can displace one aileron with respect to i;he other.
When
flat against tU" upp", "urface of"the wing' No matter at what aqgle thi floating arleroog may have adjusted
erect'
t*il; tii., the spoiler on the wing on the smoqthstands
that side
themselves with respect to thC wing chord, the piir.rt by his con-
""! ;;;i;;;i ir'".pontt is to destrov flow of air over
 :,*#i
','iP**.'
'',:i:f ' - t '
. . .i,
FRISE AILERON 4OT

movement of the .aileron that moves downrvard. This is done so

trol can Eove one aileron up and the dther down by thd same angle'
that the drag on each wing.tip shall be the same in order to elimi-
Sinie '.he eufoiL are s5mnetrical, and the positive angle on one
;;;lt th" Earne as the negativo angtq on t'he othei, the plus lift nate yawing moment.
;*J; tUu *"* Mt asd tn" t t* titt remains the's8'me' In-ad-
aiiioo, the drag caused by the up aileron-is the aaae as the drag
inu a"*" oi., * that there is no yawing or turning tendency.
"i

I Paddle Type

/.,irit' r'
,,1?' I

Handley-Page Typc
I,:rc. 2t1.4. Floating eilercn&

2i.10. BTTLANCED CONTROL SITRI'ACES

Since moving a surface ag&inst the pressure of a high wind
r.q"it* considJreble iorce, control surfaces are quito often of the
LJL..a ffpe. The axis about which the control surfece rotatesa
is not immediately at the front edge bu! back a distsnce so
that
pfio" of the suri'ece is ahead of the hinge. As soon as the surface Ovcrhang Typc

i. Arpf"*a from ite neutral poeition, the rir stdkes Fig' the front
24'5'
Ila. 24.b. Balanced ailerons.
portion and reduces the efrort the pilot mrut.erert; see
'-AlttroogU balanced controls the pil9t to- move large 24.12. FRISE AILERON
"q"bl"
.ontrol tti"tt o easily, care must always be taken that they are
,roi too well balanced. A pilot might ther with little efrort
move Another method of reducing the yawing moment is the uee of
posltion, chlnqtng. the
tfr" *rt""u quicHy to an extreme ,thys the Frise type of aileron. Bearing a resemblance tq the balancpd
loads'
;"tt"" of thcplane euddenln which oauses high dyna'mic type, the aileron is hinged about 20 per cent of the chord back from
tbe leariing edge aad so-designed that, when in its ,,doryn,, position,
%.11. DIFFERENNAL AII,ERONB the upper gurfece of the aileron is a smooth prolongation oi thu
curved upper surface of the wing. In its ,.up,, position, the lea.ding
Because the angular movement of an aileron downward
caus'eg
anguls,r moYgmlnt upward, ailerons are edge of the aileron projects below the continuation of the curvei
-or" ar"g than the sa,Ee noved to one side' the lower gurface of the rving, Bo that additional drag is arbitrarily
*-.tf-.i rigged so that, wheu the slick ie
angrlar
aileron that moves op*t"d has approximately twice the introduced at this point. Tfhen the ailerons are prolerly designej,
 l-lll rrl_Jl_Jl_-Jlt I rtJ 1l I r l--t t r I I
'. i l ';-.' -.-'
' i- Friffi-lt"'rl-"11,"W
. ".*]-'ryj T
r r'''i
' ::

uonrzonnAr, tAIr, sunp,l,cps 4Gt

GICNThOL SURFACES

is no yawing momentl see 24.14. EORIZONTAL TAIL SIIRFACES

tlrag of both is the sa,me, and t,herq
'
2+.6.
The horizontal tsil surfoce is very irnportant, as with it the
airplane is "trimmed" so that with varying loads the plane may
be flown.at any engle of attack up to the maximum. It is common
to use thin Eymnetrical. or nearly symmetrical airfoil contours for
tail eudeces.. The size of .the total horirontal surface and .the
distauee behind the uiiug wiil be discussed'in Chaptri ZS. tle
elevator is uqrslly about 45 per.cent of the total area, although
variations of plus or minus 10 per cent of this vslue have worked
satisfactorily in practice. The aspect ratio of the entire tail surface

a..--\
Ddn Pcilh: \
c---t'
UP P6ition
is usually in the neighborhood of '3.
The purpose of the horizontal tail surfaces is to produce a
pitching moment about the center of gravity of the airplane. The
I\o' 24'6' Frise aileron' pitching moment i6 expressed as

SIZES OF AILERONS
13.
7 : pitching moment : C^|SV'I (24.L4.I)
moment'
't'he purpose of ailerons is the production of a rolling
C; : coefficient of pitching moment, dimensionless
ris rolling moment, *
l""t-piY"dtr it,.T:- 1l-"T::""1L:'j:
feet between
where
. I- wing area in square feet
;,iH#fi: r;ffiig, -'rtipuil bv 1ie distance in
t?1::-13i": I/ : airsfreed in feet per second
tlrr: pressure;;i:J;' 881 Thit
r,enter€ of c: wing chord in feet.
liiffilffi ;;"":ffi. ;;;;;ut;; *o-'iot is usuauv expressed
as

(%'13'1)
A large, eudden movement of the elevator will cadse & violent
L : rolling moment = Ct;SV2b m&neuver, putting B€vere etrains on the airplane structure. For
this reason, the elevatore on comrnercial airplanes are not usually
dimensionleBs (N'B':
where coefrcient of rolling mom91t'
Cl - permitted to move more tha,n a)" above or below their neutral
Not to be confused with lift coefficient') position. On military planes grcater movement is permitted, but
S = wi.^g area in square feet it rarely exceeds 45o.
7= in feet Per *cond Ocoasionally an airplane ia advertised as in6apable of spinning.
"iopu"a
b = ePa'n in feet' Spina uzually start from stalls, and it is eometidies true that these
Cr in Eq' (%' 13' 1 ) airplanea have insufficient tail area to force them into a stalied
I n practice, it has
been fornqihetihe lT*cient
posit'ion. This improper amount of tail gurface. is usually indicative
:i#ffi;i"*t ;"il;'-"-*To.os f6r all'anelel:f "lt*k;
it n1" u*" t":*.91 of lack of controllability.
Hffi #Jffir'u': rvau6
'Io A,CIU€'€ 3Tl 3: the gtsbilizer or "lxed" part of the horisontal tail surface has
*Joi iU" ailorons should be alo-ut 1.0 ryt t-ent' '-^,rr^
Of tbe i;Otai Wing
.Fho nlrnrrt
its r€ar edge fastened to a crosE memberl the front edge may be
:[::lJ;::#:LT#;;Ji't1i;1"ti'!':J'::f*:'f 1;:':* moved up or down to change the stabilizer setting. Usually a
:l'liiffi:'Hilil"i;-IL"J;Jbvthep:*u?i-:.r^-'1"^":i: vertical ect€w is ueed to adjust the height of the front, of the stabi-
[ "1T il:'#d f,"Jiu'-"n.'""-r'i'"* :T": :: 1"]* *T lizer; turning the acrew feeds the leading edge up or down, an
liliSiJl'doT'";;;liiltr4'**'l*f:li""::T-?.3
fl"i,iili;ruii1"ffi fi
anangement being provided so thtit the gcrcw may'be rotated
JCi"'l5:t-aueronsarebetut'een
by a cank or handwheel in the pilot's cockpit. The screw by its
fi ffi i?F ceut of tf" t"-i-tp"* of tho wing'
 \--: I

ooMIBOL AUnFACES
I'FFEqT OF PROPELLER ACTION
action permits gqsy adjustment by the pilot while it than on the right side' As the flat
any bhanges of settiqg which might be caused by air forces surface of the wings rvould
on tf,e taiL
' '
great resistance to a rapid
rotatio" oi ti"
offer
dirpction of rotation toitratof
The rear end of a stabiliza can be braced and thus mad.e quitb give more lift to the left *iog
th;;il"il,"i"pt*o"io-it """or#"
it is quite common to
rigid, but the front end of anadjustable stsbiliter i)Bnnot be b;ced this action. The teft
ti"f
-;;;;;i"-'tfr" right ning to oppose
rnd is hdd only st.its central part. EVen with a very sturdy angle of inuidence.
y"s ppi very stightry greater
rtructuie'tlie outer forwa,rd ends-arc'ipt.to.flutter in thg Blie ;.,r,*; ,, "
,jrfr*.oio,
to be a tendency st the present time to
"liil or twistcd il;L
lefi wing mav be warped rhe rigging the
rl,rea,m. There. appears dightry greater,cam-
ber. The latter is ortGd-,,i"r"h
rnake the stabilizer fixed ad non-adjustable. Necessgry trin of ;"r ;;;utr
the airplane longitudinally is attained by meana of tabs or bungees. t wing grearer lifr, the.tefr ,"t;;
the airplane to the left.
;; ;;; drag
of giving
tending
the teft
to turn
VERTICAL TAIL SI'RFACE .
1.. left-turning te1d.e1cV can. be
24.15. I
..^Ilt:
us*g a small amount of right rudder,
conecred by the pilor,s
The vertical tail'surfaces aid in maiutaining directional stability o" li" ,r"rticar fin can be set
at a.slig-ht.angle
to the plaire
nnd cause turns- The area of the fin and ruddcr combined is usually ;;;;;
"f
The slipstieam action-and ,orqr"l"#'on
hctrveen 5 and 6 per cent of the total wing area and between.4O , of c<iurse, evident
nnd 45 per cent of the horizontel tail area. The movable rudder is ,nly when the engine i" t ;;;-;;;;'normat
",.
cngine stops spced. If .the
usually 60 or 70 per cent of the total vertical area.. The aver&ge and the a-irpraneir i"'griJi"giight,
torque effects disappear, .a_nd the sripstream
and
rnaximum permissible movement of the rudder to either side of if ,f," fir'i* been offsct the pilot
will have ro apprv reft rudder r" p";;;;l
[he'center line of the qirplane is 30o. iilnrn, to the
The yawing moment is e,:rpressed as
It is to be noted t\t, ryitf r*i";;;;;one mountedright.
wing the torque reaction is doubled, on each
.?iilu,r"rir"a.
1,7: yawingnoment = C^iSVzb Q4.l5.l)
where C, : coeficient of yawing moment, dimensio;less
I : wing aree in square feet
7: airspeed in feet per second
ir = wing span in feet.

24.16. EFFECT OF PROPELLER ACTION

If an ideal propeller could be devised, the air, after being acteci
on by this propeller, would pass directly to the rear. In practice,
however, air is dmgg€d a,round slightly with the propeller so tbat
the slipstreem has a helicd motion; the rotation is clockwise when
viewed from the rcar. The vertical taii suf.aces iherefcre reeeive
slightly more pressure on their left than on tbeir right aide, this
tending to turn the airplane to the.left.
For every a,ctioa there is ro equal and oppoeite reection. Since
a rotation is impart€d to the propeller, the relction of the propeller
on tihe englne tends to turn the €ngrne in the opposite direcdon.
This causes greater pr€ssure on the engine mount on the left side
 il
,L-l;lr t, I t_ _--
r.:i:-j,r,': ---:l i. -:.,-..'-a. j : :i,.*. :11.*.::.
-. ;.
F ll ".: *,,'riir
''-:;-.- -.,- r. _-'::iji?::. .
-':t t':'1'

410 STATIC STABILTTY

rear face of the propeller hub' Taking moments about

this reference Soynion. d:0", tan,d,.:.,Q Fgg 0:1.00.
point, ', ''ti'*' x O'.:i.t''so (i * tt.r)
F(ccos0*dsin0) --We*Wz@*b)
(o
;.. .c :.B.g2t-ft
ro
ffi"
:Wa+Wzb (
0 : t2", ten0 : 0.213, sec 0 : 1.W2..
:u""j
c * ilt'an0
Q.#l (25.3.1)
-- -,. ",:;3.628+ 0.213d;'+.uzb(z.n--F -^1^g
\
.t(

x re.r\
2,000 /
it : 0.24 ft
Center of gravity is 3.83 ft to the rear o[ the rear iacc of propcllcr
hub and 0.24 ft above the thrust line of the propeller.

TR,OBLEI\1S
W=Wt+Wz
25.3.1. Find the location of the center of gravity, if, rvheu 0 : 2",
a is 7.0 ft, b is 35.2 ft, rveight on the front rvheels is 13,2'{6 lb, rveight
on re&r rvheel is 1,022Lb, ond, when0 : 13", a is 6.3 ft, b is 35.9 ft, rleight
on front wheels is 12,{90 Ib, and weight on rear rvheel is 1,77E lb.
25.3.2. Find Iocation of the center of gravity, it ivhen 0 : 0o, a is
5.2ft,bis47.1 ft, Wris 10,520 lb, and I[zis 1,300 Ib, and, rvhen0 = l0o,
a is -1.9 ft, b is 48.3 ft, l7r is l0,i10 lb, sndWz is 1'370 lb.
25.3.3. Find the locai,ion of the center of gravity, if t'l ,tr 0:0",
the conditions are the E&me as in Problem 25.3.2 and', when 0 : l0',
o is 4.9 ft, b iE 48.3 ft, Wria L0,260 lb, and Pr is 1,260 lb.
W=Wf Wz
25.3.4. Find the location of the cente: of gravity of an airplane
weighing 8,000 lb, equipped witl a tricycle landing gear, if, when 0 : 0",
the distsnce o from refer€nco point beck to noe€ wheel is 2.7 ft, b ia
F\o- 26.2. Locotion of center of gravity' 22.0 ft, and the weight on the nose.wheel is 1,050 lb, and, when d : l0o,
ois2.3 ft, 6 is 21.8 ft, and the weight on the nose wheel, which is blocked
the.two
By weighing thc airplane in two positions' such thet- up so that the leg ie vertical, is'$10 lb.
equations' each based on
uuh". oi ? aiffe, by at least 10", two
nq. lis.e.rl, obttin.d rvhich will solve for i and d' thus de- 25.4. LOCATION OF CENTER OF GRAYITY ANALYTICALLY
termining the
"r.
location of the center of gravity' After an airplane has actually been built, the location of the
. EXAMPLE
center of gravity can be found by, the method described in the
or gravitv. F,iecdiig secticn. In the d'-eign of th.e airplane, the location of the
From the rorowing center of grevity, is of vltal impor-t4nqe since the longitudinal
Tl j::""" H# l"::#". stability is dependent on this locatiol. The following method
0- l2o Oo lqcates the ceuter of gravity after a driwing of the longiludinal
s 2'00 ft
o 2'70 fI sebtion has been made and tbe maior components part have been
' [ - l9't ft 18'2 ft'
drawn in their proper poBitionE
Wt - 1,812 Ib l'876 lb
It may be assumed lhat lhg ceiotef of grgvity ie in the tlane of
TYz o 188 lb 124 Ib
 L_ iJ I_J L_j I I l_,i

In Eq. (i0.6.4), it was stated th.st the iuduced angle of attack,

symmetry of the airplme, since it is not there only in very special
equal to the angle of dowbwash; vrds' L8.24.C;/L.E. This is the
cascs' Two axes oelplndi",ttrt to each other iu the plane of symme-
angle of do*nwtrsh at the wing. Bbhiiid the snn$-the efiect of the
try are ra".t*ol6l" oi, (x a,xis) noay well be .the thrust line. trailing iortices ig to tend to increase thg downwaih angle; theo'
The other *iu tz ,rrir) *"ti be at the rear face of the propeller retically, at infinity, in an ideal fluid'fie downsash angle should
hub' These ^"y
t"ip"t "y-reference axes to be used in locating the
".. be twice the value liven above. AchrailS bwing to viscosity, the
center of gr"uitt X roo" t" the center of gravity has been located'
downwash angle downstream becomes ginaller than the theoretlcal
'

'fts i,hee *o ot:il" *rplane, by defrrition-(see seciion24'1)-pas- '- I

value.
r-+- -'l*'
through the ceuter of gravity.
The tail is usually located about three chord lengths back of
I the wing, but there is considerable variation in difrerent airplanes.
."In seaplanes, the horizontal tail surfaces are high above the plane
of the wing. Sevepl elaborato formulas hsve been devieed, which
give the angle of d-ownwash as a function of the distance back of the
wing and of the digtauce abovc or below the wing. For very
accurate work, these should be inveatigated and tho most desirable

ffiG one applied. It is usua!, however, in computing tail angle, to

assume downwash angle as slightly less thsn twico the downrvash
angle at the wing. The downwash angle at the tail is denoted by
c and in most computations has the value

-
a:-
35C t (25.5.11
z- a.R.,
Fro: 25.3. Location of center gravity'
qf If ir is the setting of the teil plane with respect to the wing chord,
the tail aagle or angle of attaok of the tail plane is
The cental of gravity is locgted by means of its coordinates, o dt=ds.*ic-c (25.5.2)
and Z. tUe vi,ils oi"tn"* two coordinates are found by the
following neletions. EXAMPLE
Ztm (25.4.t ) An airplene has a Olark Y wingl'aspect ratio 6, qgt at I ll$'angle of
*-
=-- >u incidence. Airplcne ir at {2o angle of attsck. Etabilizer is set at -6o to
2wz chord of wing. What is the tail angle?
(25.4.2)
o-
=-- zw Solutian, (See Section 24.8.)
Angle of attaok of wins - 2o * Lllo '814o
In the above equations, ro is the weigbt 9f one individual item
coordinat€s From Fig. 8.8, for a - 8)4o,
or component oart of inc aitplane and c and a are the
of the Lnter;;;il;f -totalth;.
it"-; see Fig. 25.3' The expression 0z - 0.82
>to is equal to Ii, the weight of the airplane. From Eq. (26.6.1),

c.- .36'x
0.82
TArL aNGLE
26'6' ---o-
Even if the adiustable etabilizer is set pa ralel to tbe wing' t'be '- 8.60
gn;; ;;;""il$-fi" tail wilt not be the sa,me as the angle of
atteck of the main wing becauee of -lorvuwash.

I
 F,.,".'ti; '.it:t-:,i-o'
4L4 STATIC STABILITY
4t6
Angle of tail with horizontal :3%" - 5" : -lrk" If
-
or.is the alope of the lilt coefficieut ctrrve of the tail surfa,ce,
Angle of tail with downwashed air - lrl" - 3.6o : -5.1o then
C t'': aiqt (25.6.t)
PROBLEMS
From Eq (25.5.2),
/
25.5.1, An eirplane has a G<ittingen-398 wing, aspect ratio 6, set at
+1t4" angle of incidence. The angle of attack.of the airplane is *8o. ot,:dw*il-c
'What is thi tail angle: (o) if stabilizci is set ct
-5o r,o wing chord; -The monent produced by-iie-tail about the cente^- of .gradty
(b) if stabiiizer is set at *5' to s'ing chord?
will be
25.5.2. An airplane has a C-80 rving, espect ratio 6, set at *4o
angle of inciclence. The angle of attack of the airplane is -1". What is
the tail ongle if stabilizer (o) is parallel to main wing chord; (b) is set Mt: -(c,f,s,vl)a
at -10o to rving?
25.5.3. An airplane has a Clark Y rving, aspect ratio oi 6, with llft'
iucidence. The airplanc is nt -2o angle of attnck. \Yhat is the tail angle =-ar(a,*it-dis,v,,a (25.6.2)
if stabilizer is set at 5o.to s'ing?
25.5.4. An uirplnne hus 'tn \I-6 rving, aslrect ratio of 6, rvith 0o The moment coefldcient of the wing, Cy., ia the moment of the
rncidence. The airplane is at do ungle of uttack. \Yhnt is the tuil angle wing divided by (p/z)SVzc, where B is the wing area and c is the
if gtabilizer is set at -8o to rving? wing chord; sce Eq. (8.19.4). Since i,he wing moment is to be
25.5.5. An airplane hns a Gottingen-398 wing, aspect ratio of B, compared with the tail moment and since it ie more convenient
with 1o angle of incidencc. The airplene is at -2o angle of attack. What to
deal with abeolute coeffcients than rvith the moments themselves,
is.the tail angle if stabilizcr is set at *6o to wing? the tail moment coefficient Cpria obtained by dividing -"hr tJi
26.6. ST,OPE OF TAIL I'IOMENT CCEFFICENT CURVE moment bv b/2)SV2c. It ie usually tirat, iwing i;
friction "rruro.d
When the elevator is in its neutr&l position, the horizontal tail 9f tho fuselage, etc., the 'elocity at the tail it ls g0"pei
cent of the airepeed Y;i.e,, Vrz': 0.81V.2,
surface is usually a symmetrical airfoil. In the following devel"P
ment, the elevator lvill be assumed to remain in its neutral con- o'8lstd
dition (termed the "elevalor fixed" or "fixed stiek" condition)'
cxt - -at(a' * it'- '/.s;- (25.6.3)
When the tail angle is positive, tho lift force on the tail is
upwerd. This causee a negotive or diving moment about Lhe
If +,he teil moqeDt coofficient Cp,1 wore plotted againrt Ca, the
slope of the cirrve would be
center of gravity of the airplane, In Section %.1 it was stated that
a forco acting downward in the Z direction is positive, so that lift dCat
scting uprvard is uprvard. If the tail angle is n68ative, the lift forco =di*, u do,
"
ilC z da, dC r,
on the tail is positive or downward, cauaing a positiv€ or stalling
From Eq. (10,10.A),
moment about the centor of gravity.
To find the momen" abcut tho cenbor cf gra','ity due tc the +,ail ds, 1
load, the lift (either positive or neg&tive) aoting on tho tail muet dCt dt
-I_
be multiplied by tho distance from the center of gravity to the
Differentirting Eq. (26,0.9), and noting that the aggle of gtabilizer
oeuter of preasure of'the tail surface. The tail Eurface''being usually
retting i1 ie constant gives
I Bymmetrical airfoil, has a constant oenter-of-pressure position,
Lct this conetant distance from the center of'gravity of the air- ilCn ot/- dc\ 0.81sd
plane to the center of prensure of the tail be tarmed d. dCr o,\' Q6.A,4)
da,/ Sc
--
l-J ld I l, I l:Ir l----j
-'- t--?'r1i'a
l
Moiueil,r, 'cuRvE
.{16 STATTC STABILIY
moment due to i;he fuselage or nace[e. It is impracticable to have
AIso; from Eq. (25.5.1), the.-propeller.,turning:,oye{ ih thg -nniniature, ai"pt*u, so th&t the
.' . 35Cr aimpebd is the sa,me over the triiltas"o'iii'the wrggn. This is the
A.-R., condihon'of gliding fight.,fuhea.e"gine failure o..|rir it shorild be
possible to keep the airplane in balance, and, if there is sufrcient
itr ' d'c 'ilCr
6,=ffix6 tail sufaoo 4o balanco under this condition, thern will be ample
surface for balancing,upder ordinary flight conditions.

-ril
_;; In computing stability, because of the dimculti of predicting
where the resultant of alltle drag forces wiil be acting it is custom-
ary to neglect this moment aleo. Making thA tail moment of such
(25'6'4) gives
Substituting Eq. (25'6'5) in Eq' to be able to balance the lift moment is in the nature of a
size as
safety factor, for using this as criterion the deaigner will know

H:-t(-#)n# (2566)

slopo of the tail

that there will be sufficient horizontal tail area.
Taking into account, therefore, only the effect of the rring and
the tail in producing moment about the center of gravity, the
It \vill be noted from +'hie equation that tho
coefrcient
.,,""o' lift coefficient curve is independent,,of total moment coefficient is obtained by combining Eq. (g.20.3)
moment
rtre angle of stabilizer setting i1' Since
an &verage.v"]11:::ll: with Eq. (25.6,3):
for most wings, is appronma'v
*;; ; the lift coefhci"nt curve positivc' eo that the slope of tail ca : c r,(p - c.p.) - ot(a, * it -.)
0.07, the term le pu,uotUu*t is
tuat is, with increased cr,
H# es.7.r)
moment coefficient ;;;; where p : distance rrl center of gravity back of leading e,ige in
(si&Urng) moment dua to tbc
";gative;
on the wing there i.l; positlve
fraction of chord length.
force on the tail.
Equation (26.7.L) is based on the center of gravity being located
25.7. TOTAL MOMENT COEFFIbENT
CURVE on thi wing bhord. If .the center of giavitS- is above or b-elo; the
the moment due to chord line, an additional term would need to tre added to this
The sum of the moment due to the wiug and
critodoD of the airplpne'a formula. If the center of gravity ie bsck of tha conter of pressure
the tail at various dG of attaok is the
must it.be poseible-for the..air- of tbe wing, p is greater than C.P., and the wing causes a positive
ilfid;Jrtruiutv] Not onlyitying oondilions' but, for stability' or stalling moment. If the cc;rter of gravity is a;r,ead of the center
nlane to balance at all normal
is increa'ged tbere must be a diving of pressure, p is less than C.P., and tho moment of the u,ing is
ffi; ;;ailil oi
"tt".t negative. If the tail angle a1 ie positive,'the lift.force on ihe tail
*f"..il[irfty,
moment, and vice verse'
i: upward, and it c&uses a diving or. negative moment about the
tfe slope of the.curve of.moments plotted against
L.negatiye, eo t'het with larger angle of center of gravity; whereas, if the angle of attack of the tail ie
*gfu oi
"tt".t -"tl If the slope of tbe negative, the lift. force on tho tail is downward, and it causes &
Irf".r.-in"* muet be less po6tive momeat. bt ai;alling monr,ont.
Iilo.ot, curve is positive, the airplans-*{ unstabie' Valueg of, Ca are plotted against tbe .orrerpoarting values of
Since the fUt .o"dJ."U varieg witb
the anglb of attack a1d
to* it is customary to plot Cr' Cr,. 'When Cu - 0, the airplane is in trim for-that value of Cr,
eince co€fficiaotu t"" convenient'
with the particular eetting of the stabilizer denoted by the value
against Cr.
actue! me'asuremdnts of pitcbing of ir ue€d. If the curve of C a v6reqe Cr, has a negative slope, :the
For accurate compulations,
-nade
.oJetts ehould Ue in a wind tunnel using a nodl luilt airplaae. is statically.stable. If tffi"surve hdp a positive atopej the

;;dt;;ale, ainoe the modcl will take into account any pitching airplane is statically ungtable.
 a-J ii
*+-*i+9t+i
srArrc'str)srr,rrY FREE ELEv'ATOR 419

EXAMPLE The reeults from the above tables are plotted in Fig.
- 28.4. Whereae
A monoplane has o rectangular Clerk Y wing 36 ft by 6 ft. The rec-
th?:y": fol rybg momenttas a elightly poeitive doft, the .;;;;
combined'wing and tair moment has e negative slop".
l.tngular horizontal tail aurfice has 40 sq ft bf area with an aspect ratio witn 0" etabili-
anslo.the airpline is'bal&nced at apprJjmatellz. angie
of 4.5. The center bf gravity of the airplane'lies on the chord line of the :fj ...6'st.bilizer
with
; ffi;.
wing and is 2? per cent of the chord back of the'leading edge. Tho angle, the plane is b&Lnced at Ia%' ,&luor
rlistsuce from the center of gravity tb the center of preesuro of the tail "tt"rt,
ir 18. ft. Find the 'uroment poe6cign-t curve (o) when chord of the
rtabilizer is parallel to tbe wing chord, (b) when stsbilizer ie sot at -5"
to wing chord. (Aseume that slope of eymmehical teil tift coeficient
lurve ig 0.0748.)
Solution.
0.8lXSrXd 0.81 X40X18
&t;- 210 X6
: 0.450

TABLE 26.1

0o Stesrllzsn SBr:rxo
(1) (2) (3) (4) (6) (6) (7) (8)
'Cu
(e) (10)
o Cr, C.P. 0.2? - C.P. Cu" . q, cwt ca
0 0.38 0.44 -0.17 -0.061 2.8 -2.8 -0 2i +0.096 +0.c34
4. 0.44 0.30 -0.09 -0.068 6.0 -1.0 -0.07 +0.c11 -0.087 Fro. 26.4. Momont coelFciont curves for illustrativo example.
8 0.93 0.32 -0.05 -0.047 7.2 +0.8 +0,06 -0.027 -0.074
l2 1.1! 0.31 -0.04 -0.048 11.1
9.2 +2.8 +0.21 -0.096 . -0.148 In.either gare, when the angle of attack is incrc&Eed there ie a divinn
l0 l.4il 0.80 -0.08 -0.048 +4.9 +0.87 -0.106 -0.209 momont tending to bring the noee down, whercas if the anste of
aita.f
-6o Sresrr.ulr Elmrlro
is deoree$d therc is a stalling momont tending to bring it ,r*
0 -7.8 -0.68 +0.261 +0.200
It wrtt b9 ngtioed that a change in the stabilizer "i--
"a"ttiis io€s
+O,nz +0.144 ohange ttre slopJof the total mo.."i.ui";il.;,".1y
"og-uI",
4 -6.0 -0,46 lo!.angreoiluly
ghifh it to the left or right.
8 8a^rrle eg abovo. -4,2 -0.8L +0.189 +0.002
t2 -2.2 -0.t6 +0,072 +0.0% PROBLEM
l0 -0.1 -0,01 +0.004 '0,089
Find the. angle of attock for the wing for the airplane in the
Explrxrrrox ol T.'-aro ,,,26,,7,!:
ururtlative example' above
Column (2) obtained from X'lg, 8,8. dabililer ir ret at +2o t6" the.to be in longitudinal trim when (a) the
Column (8) obtatned from Fl8. 8.8.
wing ohord- and (D) the staUilirci ic ;i
Column (l) oUtatn.a by rubtraotlng ltemr ln oolumn (8) from 0'?7'
al -2o to the wing ohord.
Column iO) oUtloea by nulttplytns iteur ln oolumn (2) by icemr tr
oolumn (4).
26;8. I'REE ELEVATOR
Columa (6) obtrtnsd by mutttpMng ltamr ln oolumn (2) by 86/4'6. ihis oondition bcours when the pilot rrleares the control stiok
Columl iZ) olt"in.a by rubtruotlng ttamr ln oolumn (0) from ltamr ln entirely. The elevator, being hinged at its forward eage, woJd
oolunn (1) and adding rtabilirer rettlq angle.
Column (8) obtoinod by multtplviry ltsru h oolumu (7) bv 0'07a8'
ten! !o rag down from its,own weight. The air passing under the
Column iei obtdned by multtp\vlng ltcmr ln olumn,(8) bv. -0'460' stabililer impinges on the underside of the elevltor, so that the
Columa irirl olt"iod 6y edding lt rnr tD oolrrmnr (6) and
(9)' elevator a6su'e! a positiou wherc ths moment aboutitr linge due
 t-r t-J t t Ll I tlll llll
.;i":.i:, .-';'.j-:
].:ir:+:i. *.r, ii,ir' .'.tl.jftii.if; .,';

I,ONGITUDINAL BALANCE

25. stability there must be a restoring moment, and this moment must
be larger for la.rger displacements from equilibrirrn position.
To be statically stable, the airplane must have the e,haracteris-
tic that a restoring moment or force acts in a direstion to move
the airplane back to the attitude {rom which it was disturbed.
Static Stahiliry In discussing siatic stability, no thought is given to the magni."ride
of the restoring mcmert. This ;aomcnt rvhich acfs to return the
airplane to its equilibriunl position may (:ause the airpiane to
acquire angular momentum so that it will srving past that position.
Owing to the siability characteristic, another restoring moment
,I:, DEFINITION OF STABILITY
T.
the body is will then act in the opposite direction, so that even with static
of a-bodv t"h]Ll' when
Stability is the property forces or moments stability there may be oscillation.
oi equilibrium' causes
,lrsburbed from a conaitioo The greater the For dynamic stability, in addition to the requirement for static
,vhich act to re$tore ti"tl
*""t't*J condition'position' the greater stability tirat there shall be a restoring moment, there is the
,lisburbance or change fi*-iJ "iotilibrium further requirement that the moments created shall be of such
or moments tending to
return
rvill be the m'rgniturle
of the forces nature that the amplitudq of any displacement shall be of de-
;r'; fur to its original attitude' creasing size so that the airpiane rvill cease to cscillate and come
that the airplane tends to
rem&rn
Stability of uo ui'ptu"l";;;t It
t, the relative wind' does ls rest in ik equilibrium position. Dynainic instability would
the sanre atiitudeTirrr'r".0""t mean that the restoring moment is so strong that each successive
^t imply that the
,,ot d'il;i'I"'a" ""lXt.*"."1t"*lfr""i.,nff:
ground or to a n
oscillation would have a bigger amplitude; such an action would
-"uiL"i'tt,tt respect to the mean impossibility of control, and disaster. The calcrrlation of
* constantlv changing
',,'o.e If the air * '"J*t';n:';;il;3ut dynamic stability is an involved process and will not be treated
,i^. with respect to the grouno' whLh in this book.
The fastors *bith ;;k;
"iri,ua" i"' i ""ur" airplane sre factors
attempt is As there are three axes of rotation" so there are three classes of
preclude -*to""'"Of
ior. stebility'^whenever this change. stability-longitudinal or fore-and-aft stability, lateral stability,
of the plane, forces resist
rnade to change ro" ""riiria" in the flight aud directional stability. They are interrelated, as rolling may
oppo.se any alteration
In naneuvering, these forces tttoufa have little or no stability' produce turning, and vice verga.
oath. Ra'ing o, p"";t ;1"""t
25.2. LONGITUDINAL BALANCI]
"'iniJo"-E'*t"itt""1o'1iju"'*Il*:lilu"rf,l'#o?Tt
directions equals
in all :
By using the convenlion of & me&n aerodynamic chord, the
"r'"rii"t*t "cting *t;'-The first part of the fore' forces resulting from biplane wings or from a 4onoplane wing
moments
"bott "ov'ffi"";;t
goingstatemen'P"tffi l;="t*:l):,i"ll;U"'Uttnf"
forces rs ze
sum of the vertical
having taper, dihedral, or sweepback can be considered as the
forces acting on a rectangular monoplane wing. In the following
il; il
honzontd fopces is zero. discussion, thogsh r simple wing will be alluded to, it may be
zV = o considered as the (imaginary) rectangular monoplane wing whose
chord ie the M.A.C. of the actual wing or wings.
2H=0 I: level flight, the forces which must be considered a.re the
2M =O weight, acting downward; the propeller thrust,'acting forwardl
the lift, acting upward; the total drag, acting backward; and the
the body is disturbed from
its equilibrium position' for
If 406
tail load, which may be either upward or .iownward
 ,J ll I -J
lr,r,.t' i,^..ri;.'..;:...

J STATIC STABILITY
distance from the.center of gravity tothe cebier of pressure of the
in Fig' 25'1c'
lrr the conventional trigh-wing monoplane-shown Then, -.
UottrLt to-produce stallfng or positive pi$-
t&il is d. ,, ,,, ii,.;+r-;*l,.uirh,-'. .
,i*rt,
- t x i'i'trill'*d xd : o
,,. and drag
;; ;;;"ri. The iift prJo."" a negat'ive ;r divibg moment'- The T x d + bX b (2s.2.1)

,l,"."i"i ln" tail load ^"tt u*
'oth
,,,fr" ainu.ur,ce of ttre plus and ininus moments
lhat the-lift' alwaVs nrodlces
rflu as the smeller. fo oiae' to ensure
t" to be equal in magnitude Whether the airplane is high-wing or low-wing, the tiistribution
and of the same
of weights should be dtich that tbe center of funavity rvill be on, or
as cloge ap-po1$ble to;- tle thrust [ne._ Ihe lgrpc5g of this !9 tg_
make the moment duc to the thrust, T X a, in Eq. (25.2.1) either
zero or as small as possible. Changes in thrust or complete engine
failure will then cause little or no change in the longitudinal
balance.
In Fig.2-5.1b are ghown the moments in a'lorv-wing monoplane.
If the center of gravity is located as shown, below the thmst line
and abovc the line of action of the total drag, both thrusi, and
drag will cause diving or negative moments. As the line of action
of the lift is to the rear of the center of gravity, the lift causes a
diving or negative moment. It is necessary then that the horizontal
tail st'{ace have a dorvnrvard force acting on it so as to prodttce a
stalling moment. For balance with'the forces as shown in F;g.
25.tb,

-T x o - DX b - L X e* iail loa-d X il : 0 (25.2.2)

25.3. LOCATION OF CENTER OF GRAVITY EXPBRTMEN-

TATLY
The center of gravity of an airplane is the point;here the entire
o) weight may be consider€d to be acting. The dekrmination of iLs
lo'ation may be made in the following manner.
Frc. 25.1. Momentg
The front wheele are placed on scales as is the tail wheel, as
shown iu Fig. 25.2. The sum of the wbights on the front wheels is
of gravity must be ahead of the most
a diving moment, the center W1, the weigbt .on the rear wheel is Wy Tbe distance b is the
of the airplane' At high
;"il;;;;;itt* of the center of pt""tt"" of pressure moves horizontal distance, parallel to the longitudinal axis; froT the line
r"si"t ;rtack, for som6 sirfoils the chord back
center
connecting the contact points of the two front wheels to the point
"i a position iS p"t cent of the
f"i""tato
cf the leading
of contaot of the ta;l whee!. If the iail is elevated, as in Fig. 25.2b,
be in front of that' The
;J*", t" ,tt*'the center of -q1vit1.must measunement is made to the vertical projqction of the point of
symmetrical airt-oit with constant
center-of-pressure
;i'i, " contact of the rear wheel. The distance o is the horizontal distance
position. --^.-:+., -,.^,,o rho
^r gravity from the line connecting the points of contact of the two front
''io-fig. 25.1c, the distance of the center of -ab-ove
th1
wheels to the vertical projection of some conyenient point of
the line of action of the total
tb;; iiot i, a, its disianee below
t'he line of action of lift is e' and the
rcferBnce on the airplane. This reference point is guite ofton the
lr"g It b, its distance aUt"A of
 _sv^rv^A,j Drrrrrr&lt.r
. rts weight just balances the moment due to the air pressure on 421
r,u underside. staliliJv,_ so the upper wings were given negative
dihedre.!, calletl
'I'he horizontal tail
so"f".e, which is normally a symmetricel .cathedral,-to decrease il.
t+i' ie rever ai"" io-_Ju; p;."
construction, Too'muc[ lateral stabitity makes
,rfoil with the elevator in its neutral position, becomes a cambered
urfoil with a free elevator. The additional lift force upward on l4ading extremely rliffisulf. ---.-' " "ro."_nlirra
,ln tail (and added negative moment on the airplane) is a function An erplanation.sometimes given'of the action of
dihedrar in
I l,he ratio of elevator area to the total horizontal tail area. aiding lateral stability is that in9 #"g goiog
aor"o n* f"rt",
horizontal.lrrojecterlauea than the q;;going
up. As "
lt0. I"ATERAL STABILITY diledlal angle'is l)f or 2",the addiri;nal projectcd thJtis'or
woura";-;i*
Iiecause the airplane is symmetrical about a vertical plane wing^dropping from normal to a horizontal position
ue (i _
lrrough the longitudinal axis, lateral balance may be secured by cos 2o) X area or (l
turlributing weights symmetrically on either eide small part of the area.
- 0.ggg4) X area, which would Uu u ,r".y
of the cockpit
r cabin. Lateral stability id complicated by the fact that it is Some tapered-wing monoplanes have a
straight upper sur{trx:,
rrl,crrelated to directional stability in that, if the airplane rolls, the decrease jn thickness."o-iog entiiely. on the
under surflt:r:.
r rvill tend to turn, and vice versa. This helps laterai stability; it is known as'effective
dihedrol.
rIi.IO. DIHEDRAL 25.I1. DIRECTIOJiAL STABILITY
One of the most effeotive ways of Becuring lateral etability is Directional stability is closely alried to lateral
*ith dihedral. Inatead of the wings being straight auoss',ho span,
stability. lf
airplane starts to tu3, th9 outer wing will move ^rr
th.ough ,f" rri,
rhcy Blope outward and upward from the center. Dihedral angle at a greater speed than tire'inner *i""g. sio"" lift varies'as
l,he an3io at which the wings slope tipward from [ht:
,n the horizoutal, squa,re of the speed, the outer wing will-have greater
\ smell dihedral angle of L)$o or'2o is numcient to give ample
lifr t\3n g111.
inner wing, so that the airpla.ne wiU Uant. An-alysis
rnteral stability.
Ji;p;li";;i
scope of"fthis book.
and lateral stability is considered beyond the
Wben an airplane tips sideways, it wil sidealip. If tho wings Deep fuselages havlbee.n found togive good aii""tiooriri;ii;r,
nre tipped up to & vertical position, there ri'ill be a great deal of to airplanes' rn'p'rsuit planes, wuich have shallow,
nideslip; but, if tho plane is gnly slighily tilt€d, there will still bo
*.rr-roria"ir
fuselage, use is often m{9.of sweepback. Sweepback
i()me nmount of slip as the r€sultant of lift und weight will have a
,h" ;i;;;
ing of the wings backward from the center section aids ".
in tn" rouuJu-
nido component. As Eoon &s any slip takes place, the relative wind, ing manner. When an airplane turns to the left,
rnstead of coming directly in front of the wing, will come from a
the J*d;;;
nght wing witl b€ more nearry at right angles to the
rlirection which is.to one side of doad ahead. Jlr"ii""
qqt,t-t" effective sqan will be greaLr, *i it, d""g *ili ir;;;; "i
flith straight wing, ejren when the relative wind comes from while the drag on tne tett winb wiu i".**, A right
thb sido "inst€ad of from dead ihead, the angle of attack will etiU
tu.., ,u;ti
l€ the eame on the right wing as on the left wing. With dihedral; thow a-n oppoaite reaction. In each case, the chang"e t. ;;i;;i;;
drag of the tyo winge will bg such as to cause the
rf i,he right.iring diops, the plane vnll slip to the rigbt. The relative
airplane t<r
returrr to its original hgading.
wind.is l[6a seming at the airplane from the right of d€ad a\egd.
Owing to the dihedral angle, the right wiug will have a grrater
nnd the left wing a, nma,llpr angle of attack.'This will give more lift
on the low wing and less on the high, tending.to restoro the air-
plane to ar even keol.
The firsi,. Wright airplane happened to have greet inherent
 L-l ', I 'r-J il
iti-iL-ili r.l tl L_J L-_J

26. Figure 26.1c shows -divergent oscillation, statically stable but

d5rnemisa,lly unstable. .Figure 26.1d shows damped oscillation,
sl,atically and dynamically stable. In pitching, the flight path, the
angle of attack, and the airspebd change. The ordinates of Fig. 26.1
may represent the changes in any of these three quantities. These
changes in the three quantities do not occur simultaneously, there
Dynamic StabilitY is a short time lag between the maximum values for each,
An oscillation, such as shown in Fig. 26.ld, is relatively slow and
is termed a phugoid oscillation.
A proper analysis of dynamic stability is quite complicated and
26.1.DYNAMIC STABILITY is beyond the scope of this text. For a more exact treatment, the
investigation of an ajr- reader is referred to more advanced textbooks.l The remainder of
The subject of dynamic stability is the
iT-it* U"en "oUiected to a small angular this chapter gives an approximate method of examining the
plane's motion
"tt"t
displacement while it it i" ti"dy flight'
In static stability' the longitudinal stability. Becar',oe several factors are approximated,
from a the method is necessarily inexact and has value only as a rough
."q"it"-"tt is merely iftut, lut'uttitte airplane is disturbed estimation.

26.2. LONGITUDINAL STABILITY EQUATIONS

In the following discussion, the X axis is horizontal , lhe Z axts
vertical. X is the air force in the direction of the X axis; exactly
equal io the total drag rvhen flight is h.orizontal, and sirrce only
shght deviationS from straight flight are to be considered, X can be
considered at lesst approximately equal to drag. Z is the air force
in lhe Z direction; approximately equal to total lif.f. tr[ is the totai
moment about the I axis (through the center of gravity). Forces
and vdiocities in the X direction are positive fonvardl forces and
velocities in the Z direction are positive dorvnrvardl moments anC
Frs. 2t.1. lypicsl airplane pitching
motions' rotations about the I axis are positive if tending to produce
stalling.
moments will come into actiou' Flight is in the X direction rvith a velocity of Iz1 incrernent to
condition of equilibrium, force or
ffiilii""ilil6 or"io"r c-9nd-rtion; see Section 25'1' These this velocity in the X.direction is z, end in the Z direction it is rr.
may, ani usually do' setup oscillations'
Dynamic Any rotation in the plane.of symmetry abortt the Iz axis is meas-
forces or noments
which.causes it' when its
stability is the propejf of the "l"pl-.:
ured by the angle d, mC the rate of ihis roiatioir, d,0/dt,iB g. The
il;;i rteadv iugit it ott"rbed, to da'mp
the osciilations Tt :p conditions in steady flight are that tr : 7D = 0 : g - 0.
gradually It is a^ssumed that thrust acts horizontally, thit,.if owing to a
It ii"i*t tf;g tot "tJa morbents' so that the airplane
to its original state' small engle of pitch, tbeJhrust does not act borizontally, the small
'-tn" p*tlUf"
returns
iotions of an airylane ar€ sbown il fig' ?9'-1: vertical component ie negligible and the horisontal component
tt"tit and dyna'mic instability' Flgure 26'1b
Figrue 26.1c sbowe I E. B. IVilsoq Aeronaulba, John Wiley &
Qo*, 1920; W. F. Durao4
ffi;; *td" ,.tutiie"*, dtaticallv and dvna'mically stable'
un
-'^croilynami* TheorVi Vol. V. Duraod Reprinting Committoe, 1943.
'!r::-. H L.J
'--'1;l'.:-'- -';'
r ' . .:_+:::;
. .. " ..:,: , . . -*
." "--r, lfli-tilf't1ffi
426 DYNAMIC STABILITY SOLUIION OF TFN F,QUATIONS

and g AM_ gc dCu

s ax : !_to wk; ow - C 1Vleo2 da
WAe ClAa (k) If it is assumed that the change in M due to the rotation
(e) The expression (AZ/Au)u is the change in the Z force due q e dn /dt) is chiefly due to the action on the tail, the tail being at
to the change in the velocity from V to V * u. Il is treated in a a distance of d feet from the center of gravity, the tail will have a
lrsnner analogous to paragraph (o), giving downrvard velocity of d X g feet per second. This rvill give a
change in the ingle of attack of the tail of (CX q)/V radian. If
dz 22 o1 is the slope of the lift coefficient curve of the tail, the change
&uV in the normal force on the tail will be (dxil/V at (p/2)5I2.
Since Z : r[ approximately, The moment
"I this force rvill be the product of the force by its
moment grm d, so that the moment rvill be qa2b/Z)S!d2. It will
s
aZ _29 give a negative moment.
W0u V oM:
U) The small drag component being neglected, the effect on oq -o,2s,vd'
'2
Z of coangtrng the direction of the relative rvind by the angle g aM__gatSd2
taD,-rfu/V) is dZ -- (d.L/d.a)(./V), rvhere a is in radians.
Wkuz dq k;C LSv

az f,,t" o, " (m) The expression (dM/a0)0 represents the change in

to thechange in attitude by the angle 0.
M due
da
g aZ _ g dCL g AM gc oCa
W 0w CrV ila Wku' C rko'
(g) The tarm (02/Eq)g is negligibly small and may be omitted. 26.4. SOLUTION OF THE EQUATIONS
(n) The expression @Z /a0)0 is the change in Z f orce due to the
The three equations, (26.2.4), (26.2.5), and (26.2.6), may be
change in pitch by angle 0. Since Z : L approximately,
rbbreviared by uSing single letters for the coefficients, these letters
g aZ _ I dCL corresponding with the paragraphs in Section 26.3. Two terms are
W d0 Cr, ilo omitted as being of negligible value.
(i) IS &n manner analogous to paragraph (a), &.
(26.4.1)
s _aM 2sM _WC* i**r*bto*ile=O
W a,: *i7V: *V *"#*fu*he-o (26.4.2)
Q) The efrect on M of changing the direciion of the relative wind
by the angle tan-l(u /V) is dM - (dM/dd)(u/ Iz); where c is in
radians -iu-ir+#-k#t-mo-o (26.4.3)

aM f,tr'" or* Each variable may be expreesed exponentially as

6=T d^ u - Ae\' w=Blt 0-C)t
 ru-' l-i r r i...--
il\lr '-rfffi;:..: l-i --,!' : .,
',.;1-.,..,
._dt l--/
,,,
SOLUTION OF Tffi EQUATTONS 4tn
421' DYNAN{IC STA]]ILITY
?
the time requirel for one complete cycic is
Ttien
- -L
#: *r"
P (seconds) (26.4.9)
yr: )rBetr' fi: xc,:.' ffi: x'c"^' t/Ec - nz

The time required to damp one-tenth amplitude is

Substituting these values in the three equations above end dividing I oo

bv /'gives I D1y1s (secondr) = ry-P

(I+@),4.+bB+d,C:o (26.4.4)
ez{. * (\ +f)B *hC:0 (26.4.5)
: i4.605 (26.4.10)

-iA - jB + ()\2 - kr - m)c :0 (26.4.6)

In stability computations, the radius of gyration needs to be
Ia order for these three equa.tions to have.a solution, the following known. It may be found by the relation
fourth-degree eqtlation must be truc. 2rzw
1' z _
tr1 +B\3+Ctr2+Dr+E:0 (26.4.7)
,vy - Dw

In this equation, the coefficients B, C, D, and.E are not the same where r Q 1ff-Jj) is the distance of the center of gravity of
as the co€fficients appearing in Eqs. (26.4.4) to (26:4.6), but they the individual weights ut from tire center of gravity of the airplane.
have the values
EXAMPLE
B- +o+l-k
An airplane 2,000 Ib has a Clark Y wing with 3&ft spen and
la_
v- *aI-ak-be-lk-m ';eighing
Gft chord. The tail eurface has an area of 40 sq ft nith aspect ratio of
p: -afk - am * bek + di' - fm * hj 4.5. The radius of gyretion is 6.8 ft. Find out if this airplane is dynam-
ically stable when flying at 100 mph.
E- -afm + ahj + bem - bhi + dli - enj Solulion. From previous work (see Teble 18.1), for this eirplane,
flight at 100 mph G Jy':6.7 ft per sec) corresponds to 0o angle of attock,
For stability, all the coefficients in Eq. (26.4.7) must be also where Cr, - 0.36 and.Cu: 0.039.
positive. Also, for stability, BCD - D2 - B2E must be positive. (o)
Equation (26.4.7) can be factored to a close degree of approxi- 2x-32.2X0.039
mation as d- = 0.M77
0.36 X 146.7
(b)
rx2 + Bx + o
[r' - (: - "A^ +
If:o (26.4.8)
b:-32'2=-0.152
t46.7
The two roots of this equation are used to find the periods of
(d) From Table 18.r, by difrerencing, aince at -io Cpr - 0.036
oscillation and the deg'ee of damping. The first root denotes a
an<iat -1o Cot: 0.042, tt Oo ACo/Ac : 0.fi)3 per degree or 57.3 X
quick, heavily damped oscillation. The second root is a longer and
0.003 : 0.172 per railian.
more weakly damped oscillation; it is a phugoid oscillation.
The short period should damp out quickly. A common require. d -x 9.172
-32.2 0.36
: LE.4
ment is that the a,mplitude shaU be da,rnped to one.tenth in one
.:ycle, and this shall be possible at all speeds. For this ehort period,
 b-J L-l *l t I \-l tI t--l 'r-J L-j
€t'l
4n "...i SOLUTION OF TEE €1
G)
2j5322
_
0rrro: 4.605
. e'-57-0J04- ^a,.^ Tlil
(f)
. : 0.73 s€c
From tr'tg. 18.8, AC ilAa = O.Otrlz per degree or 8.96 per radian.
Then the oirplane damps to one-tenth originil atrplitude in less than
7-l?-'?xa'so:2'43 hhe time required for one cycle.
0.36 x 146.?
(t)
u=
%if!9:856.0
(i) From Table 25.1, at 0o Crr - *0.03a.
2X.82.2X6X0.034 :
J: 0.fl)195
(6.8)t x 146.7

(j) From Table 25.I, by differencing, since aL 0" Ca: *0.84 and
at 1o CM: -0.027, ACu/Aa: -u.0152 per degree or -0.87 per
radian.

, 32.2X6X(-0.87)
rq:- 0.36 X 146.7 X (0.41' - -0.0689
(&) Fron previous work for symmetri,:al tail, cr : 0,0748 per degree
or 0.0748 X 57.3 : 4.3 per radian.

32.2X 43XrtOX(18)!
fto : -3.40
(0.8)t x 0.36 x 216 x 146.7
(n)
t=ffi=-1c'1 '82.2
X X (-0.8?) 6

Making th6ss subetitutious gives

8-- *6.81 Q: +18.67
. - *0.96 .O -.*0.98
D
BCD _ D2 _ BrE = +40.1

Binco theso five items are positive, tbe rirplane b dyDsnically stsble.

P-'
aerm? - (o5iF
- Zllfgp
{
 rl I I l-J l-J l-J l__ I t--,
.' ,.: -
i,.'ti_::;

ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 433

5.2.3. 23,020 lb. 8.L2.2. (o) 495 lb, 152 hp; (b) 659
53.r. (o) 28.4 lb; (b) 5.1 lb; (c) lb, 202 hp; (c) 771 lb, 236
28.81b. hp.
5.3.2. 1.6 ii/. 8.12.3. (a) 286Ib, 79 hp; (b) 286Ib,
5.3.3. (a) 12.3 lb; (D) 1.9 lb; (c) 100 hp.
Answers .to Problems 87.4". 8.12.4. (o) 96.5 hp; (b) 77.a hp.
5.3.4. (o) 849 lb; (b) 8,676 Ib. 8.12.5. (c) -1.5'; (D) 1.7'.
5.3.5. 8481b.. 8.13.r. (b) 236 lb; (c) 316 lb; (d)
294 lb.
8.5.1. 4,652 lb. 8.r3.2. (b) 152 lb; (c) 5".
2.5.1. O.U4 ft per scc Per ft. 3.f.f. 0.00200 slug per cu ft. 8.5.2. 2,692 lb. 8.13.3. (b) 108 lb; (c) 3'; (d) 139
2.6.1. 3.08 lb per sq in. 3.1.2. 0.00156 slug per cu ft. 8.5.3. 0'. lb. \
2.6.2. 8.58 lb pcr sq in. 3.1.3. 0.0606 lb pcr cu ft. 8.5.4. 3.8'. 8.14. l. 91.2 hp.
2.6.3. 28.6 lb per sq in. 3.4.1. (c) 0.00521 slug per cu ft,; 8.5.5. 6.4'. 8.t4.2. 409 lb.
2.6.4. O.B ft. (b) 250'F. 8.5.6. 1,001 sq ft. 8.14.3. 368 lb.
2.6.5. 2.57 sq ft. 3.4.2. (o) 0.00145 slug per cu ft; 8.5.7. 6,420 lb. 8.14.4. 7,950 lb.
2.6.6. 2.74Ib per sq in. (b) -34.2"F. 8.5.8. 4,760 Ib. 8.14 5. 163 lb.
2.6.7. 24.0lb per sq in. 3.4.3. 332'F. 8.5.9. 48.8 knots. 8.1{.6. 146 hp.
2.6.8. 0.038 lb per sq in. 3.4.4. -66.5'F. 8.5.10. 56.5 knots. 8.14.7. 97 hp.
2.6.9. 75.5lb per sq in. 3.4.5. (c) 0.00176 slug per cu ft; 8.5.11. 45 lb per sq ft. 8.r4.8. 18.8.
2.7.t. 0.388 cu ft pcr sec. (D) 1,386 lb per sq ft. 8.5.12. 33 lb per sq ft. 8.14.9. (a) 11,900 lb; (b) 909 lb.
2-7 .2. 7.51 cu ft per sec. 3.5.1. I,159 ft per sec. 8.6.1. 48.6 knots. 8.14.10. 69.9 knots.
2-7.3, 9.23 cu ft per sec. 3.5.2. f,036 ft pcr sec. 8.6.2.-52.5 knots. 8.15. l. 6,248 kg.
2.9.1. 17.3 lb per sq in. 3.5.3. 994 ft per sec. 8.6.3. 237 sq ft. 8.15.2. 37.4 m per sec.
2.9.2. J.603 lb oer sq in. 3.5-4. 1,f38 ir, pc^ scu. 8.6.4. €.81 lb per sq ft. 8.r5.3. 126 kg per sq m.
2.9.3. 103 knots. 3.5.5. 987 ft pcr scc. 8.6.5. 5,576 lb. 8.15.4. 22.8 sq m.
2.9.4. 120 knots. 3.6.1. 628 ft pcr scc. 8.6.6. 60.0 knots. 8.15.5. 196 kg.
2.5.5. C.iJrllb per sq in. 3.6.2. 634 ft, por sc'c. 8.6.7. 7.41b per sq ft. 8.16.r. 165 hp.
2.11.f. 8.9 ft per sec; 153.4o. 3.6.3. 14.0 lb pcr sq in. 8.6.8. (o) 39.0 knots; (b) 45.2 8.16.2. &1.6 hp.
2.11.2. ll.7 ft per sec; 329.0o. 3.10.1. 4,480,(n0. knotg. 8.16.3. 97.4 hp.
2.11.3. 12.8 ft pcr sec;321.3". 3.10.2. 5,900,000. 8.9.1. 1,673 lb. 8.r6.4. 23.1 hp.
2.11.4. l4.l ft per sec; 315.0". 3.10.3. 3,400,000. 8.9.2. 989Ib. 8.19.2. 9,070 ft-lo.
2.11.5. 0.35 fi per sc;; 315.0o. 3.10.4. 1,2fl) mph. 8.9.3. 1,586 hp. 8.19.3. 2,582 It lb.
2.13.1. 2,117.9 lb per sq ft. 3.10.5. 26.6 atr^r. cr5 8.9.4. 1,262 hp. 8.19.4. 3'852 ft lb.
2.13.2. 2,l0S.3lb pel sq ft. 4.7.f. 0.00118 slug per cu ft. 8.9,6 60.6 hp. 8.19.5. 2,993 ft-lb.
2.13.3. 2,L28.L lb per sq ft. 4.7.2. 0.00101 alug per cu ft. 8.10.1. (a) 6,747lb; (b) 370 Ib. 8,20.1. 39 per cent from L.E.
2.13.4. 2,ll6.2lb per sq ft. 4.7.3. 0.0m$7 alug per cu ft. 8.10.2. 7,535 lb. 8.20.2. (o) -5,7Co ft-lb;
2.L4.1. 2,124.41b per sq ft. 4.8.1. 0.000431 slug per cu ft' 8.10.3. 9E7 rb. (D) -0.126; (c) -0.0359.
2.14.2. 2,ll5.3lb per sq ft. 4.8.2. 0.000513 slug per cu ft. 8.10.4. 52.2 knot. 8.20.3. (o) 38 per cent from L.8.1
2.L4.3. 2,ll0.2lb per sq ft. 4.8.3. 0.000316 alug per cu ft. 8.10.6. 55.6 knot. (b) 38 per cent from'L.E.;
2.14.4. 2,099.2Ib per sq It. 8.!0.6. 3,250 !b. (c) '0.095.
2.L4.5. 2P98.61b per aq ft. 6.1.1. 0,630 lb. 8.10.7. 2,466 lb. 8.20.4. -0.011.
2.15.1. 2,080.5 lb per sq ft' 5.r.2. 49Ib. 8.10.8. (o) 0,669Ib; (b) 382 lb. 8.20.5. 0.39.
2.15.2. z,l04.g lb per sq ft. 5.r.3. 74,250 lb. 8.10.9. 687 bp. 8.20.6. -0.05.
2.15.3. 2,1&.3 lb Per eq ft. 5.r.1. l1.2lb. 8.10.10. 187 knota.
2.16.4. 2,L28.L lb per eq fC. 6.2.t. &2Ib. 8.12.1. (c) 220 Ib,93.9 hp; (b) 196 9.3.1. 310 lb.
2.15.5.30'. 5.2.2. L,927 lb lb, &3.7 hp; (c) 213 lb, 90,8 9.3.2. 1,542 lb.
432 hp. 9.3.3. 2,214 lb..
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ANSE-ERS TO PROBLEMS I ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS 435

9.3.4. (o) 236Ib; (b) 2,4781b. r0.14.1. 0 47. 15.6.2. 1.62. 19.1.1. 55"2 mpb-
9.3.5. 159 rpm. tc.t4.2. 2.9. r5.6.3. 1.73. 19.1.2. 56.9 mph.
9.4.1. 12.0 ft per aec. 10.14.3. 4.0. 15.6.4. r.84. 19.1.3. 112 mph.
9.4.2. ft per sec.
O.32 10.14.4. 4.2. 15.6.5. 2.34 19.1.4. 6O:0 mph.
9.4.3. 7.96 ft per eec. 10.14.5. 3.7. 15.7.1. 2L". 19.1.5. 55.5 mph.
9.5.1. 22.O ft per sec. 10.15.1. 32.9 fr. t5.7.2. 23.. 19.2.1. 158 sq ft.
9.5.2. 27.8 ft per sec. 10.15.2. 33.8 fr. 15.7.3. 25". 19.2.2. 107 mph.
9.5.3. 46.9 ft per sec. 10.15.3. 42.9 ft. t5.7.4.23". 19.2.3. 90.3 mpb.
9.5.4. 86.4 ft per !ec. 10.15.4. 43.9 ft. 15.7.5. lg.. 19.2.4. 64.1 mph.
9.5.5. 19.2 ft per sec. 10.r5.5. 31.5 fr. 15.8.1. 1,008 lb. 19.2.5. 49.8 mph.
10.r6.1. (o) 32,000 lb, 1,760 lb; (b) 15.8.2. (c) 84.5 per cent; (b) 68.1 19.3.1. 200 mph.
10.7.1. (o) 0.81'; (b) 0.00582. 37,200 lb, 1,290 lb. per cent. 19.3.2. 302 mph.
t0.7.2. (o) 2.19'; (b) 0.0256. 10.16.2. 12,800 lb, 577.1b. 15.8.3. 1,051 lb. 19.3.3. 331 mph.
10.7.3. 112.6 lb. 15.8.4. 837 lb. 19.3.4. 172 mph.
10.7.4. 66.8 lb. ll.3.l. 649 mph. i5.8.5. 831 lb. 19.3.5. 207 mph.
10.7.5. 47.8 Ib. 11.3.2. 657 mph. I5.I1.1. 1,50O lb, ll6 mph. 19.6.f. (a) 114 mph, 645 ft, 1x,r
10.8.r. 55.9 hp. 11.3.3. 666 mph. i5.11.2. r,195 lb. min; (b) ll0 rnph, ,titrr ft,
10.8.2. 9.0 hp. 11.3.4. 806 mph. 15.11.3. 937 ]b. per min; (c) 104 rrrlrlr, ?,11)
10.8.3. 110.7 hp. 11.3.5. 574 knots. ft per min.
10.8.4. (o) 128.3 lb; (b) 167.6 lb; 11.5.1. -0.934. 17.8.r. 12.730 fr. 19.6.2. (o) 243 mph, 2,530 fr lxrr
(c) 228.1 lb. 11.5.2. -0.583. r7.8.2. 16,900 fr. min; (b) 231 mph, 1,450 fr
10.8.5. (o) 167.8 Ib; (D) 42.0 lb. 11.5.3. -0.469. 17.8.3. 12.7 hp. per min.
10.9.1. (o) 6.2^; (b) 0.0494.' 11.5.4. -0.192. 17.8.4. 383 ft per min.
10.9.2. (a) 7o'; (b) 0.0575. 11.5.5. -0.F'.;5. f7.8.5. 431 ft per min. 20.1.1. 2,,750 ft.
10.9.3. (a) C.r',; (b) 0.041. 11.6.1.0.26. 17.9.1. (a) l0:2 min; (b) lr.8 20.1.2. 2,090 ft.
10.9.4. (o) 6.1"; (b) 0.055. f 1.6.2. 8.80 per radian. min 20.1.3. 955 ft.
10.9.5. (o) 4,7'; (b) 0.23. 11.6.3.0.35. 17.9.2. 11.6 Fin. n.t.A, 490 ft.
10.10.1. (o) 0.0605; (b) 18.2. 1r.6.4. c.35. 17.9.3. ii.8 min. 20.i.5. 693 fr.
10.10.2. (o) 0.0693; (b) 15.9. 11.6.5. 0.r9. 17.9.4. 40.9 min. %.a.1. (o) 8,6"; (b) 3.5 ft.
10.10.3. (o) 0.0792; (D) 13.9. 17.9.5. 41.2 min. fr.4.2. (o) -22.5 fr; (b) l4.b ft.
10.10.4. (a) 2.0'; (b) 0.0116. 13.8.1. 60.6 lb. 17.10.1. 34,740 ft. 20.4.3. 9.9..
10.10.5. (o) 8.0"; (b) 0.055; (c) 18.5. 13.8.2. 42.0 lb. t7.t0.2. 23,750 ft. n.4.4. 226 tt.
10.10.6. (o) 6.3"; (b) 0.043. 13.8.3. 3.1 lb. 17.10.3. 9.040 ft. 20.5.1. 488 ft.
10.10.7. (o) 0.6'; (b) 0.018. 13.8.4. 20.8 lb. 17.10.4. 7,850 ft. 20.5.2. 616 fi.
10.10.8. (o) 14.l'; (b) 0.142. 13.8.5, 156 lb. 17.10.5. 8,070 ft. 20.5.3. 404 fr.
10.10.9. (o) 18.7'; (b) 0.176. 20.5.4. 501 fr.
10.10.11. (o) 0.0786; (b) 0.69. 15.2.1. 0.62 per cent. 18.5.2. 73.5 mph. 20.5.5. 534 fr.
10.10;12. 0.81. L6.2.2. (o) 0.95; (D) 0.114 lb per sq 18.5.3. 19,300 fr. 20.5.6. 908 fr.
10.10.13. 0.26. ln. 18.5.4. 83.3 mph.
10.10,14.0.44. $,2,e. 942 lb. 18 5.5. 312 mph. 2l.l.i. 13.8 iu.
10.11.1. (o) 7.87; (b) 0.0269. 16.3,1. 87.1 per cent. 18.5.6. 857 mph. 2t.1.2. 17.4tu.
10.11.2. (o) 6.82; (D) 0.0788. !6.3.2. 82.4 per cent. 18.6.i. 36.8 eec. 21.1.3. 19.5 hr.
10.11.3. (o) 7.06; (b) 0.0366. 16.6.1. (a) eOS lb; (b) 91 per cent. 18.7.1. (o) 8,392 ft; (b) 6.7". 2r.r.4.2s.2bu.
10.13.1. 4.7. 16.5.2. 1,667 lb. 18.7,2. 6.6.. 21.2.1. 1,482 miles.
10.r3.2. 4.6. 16.6.3. (a) 1,673 lb; (b) 880 bp. 18.7.3. 10.1". 21.2.2 495 miies.
10.13.3. 3.9. 16.5.4. 109 knots. 18.8.1. 9.3 eq ft. 21.2.3. 1,656 miles.
10.13.4. 3.i. 16.6.5. 71 per beat 18.8.2. 6,6 eq ft. 21.2.4. 819 mil€s.
10.13.6. 2.0. 16.6.1. 1.18. 1E.8.3. 7.1 eq fL 2r.2.6. l,2f,f milpa,
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21.3.1. 79.3 mph. 23.3.2. t2.8s.
21.3.2. 75.4 mph. 29.5.t. 5.2.
2it.5.2.3.2.
2.2.t. (o) 4,529 lb; (b) 5,912 lb; 23.5.3. toz.
(c) 1,717 ft. :23.5.4.9.2.
D.2.2- 84.2mph. 23.5.5. r2.9.
22.23. m hp;318 hp. 23.6.1. 12.6. Index
22.2.4. 9O"i ?25,300 lb. 23.6.2. 9.8.
t2'.2.5. (e) 252bp; (b) 3a0 hp. 23.63. r8.2.
nBJ. @)A2mph; (D) 49.0mph; 23.6.4. 13.8.
(c) 67.2 mph. 23.6.5. 10.8. Abeolut€ ceiling, 293 Altitude (Continud)
72.3.2. 62.'l mph. 23.7.1. 5.6. Absolut€ pressure, 2 effcct on wing drag, llg
22.3.3. 78.7 mph. 23.7.2.4.4. Absolut€ temperaturc, 33 pressure, 58
22.4.t. (o\ 734 fU (b) 774 ft; (c) 23.7.3. 3.9. Accelerated dives, 309 Altitude-preasure relat ion, bl
553 fU (d) 572 fr; (e) 995 fr; 23.7.4. 2.5. Accelerating force in take-off, 3Bb, Angle, blade, 237, 241-243, 248-Zb2
(/)828ft; (s).159ft. 23.7.5. 3.3. 336 dihedral, 81
22.4.2. (a) 1,967 fi,; (b) 2,070 ft; Acceleration of gravity, 2, 382 teil, 412,413
(c) i,479 ft,; (d) 1,529 ft; 25.3.1. 9.8 ft back, 7.3 ft above. Accelerations, 382 Angle of attack, of airplane, 894
(e) !,661 ft; (fl 2,2$ fr; 25.3.2. 10.6 ft back, on thrust line. due to gusts, 389 of flu,t plote, 67
k) a25 ft. 25.3.3. 10.6 ft back, 2.7 ft below. in dives, 382 of wing, 82, 95
25.3.4. 5.6 ft back, 3.7 ft belorv. in turns, 364, 383, 385 correction for aspect rzLio, 172,
23.2.L. 6.79. 25.5.1. (o) -1.e"; (b) *8.1". Acoustic velocity, 37-39 17B
23.2.2. 0.49. 25.5.2. (o) f 1.2': (b) -8.8". Adiabatic "elation, 35, 198 effective, 165,172
23.2.3. 3.1s. 25.5.3. +2.6'. Adjustable-pitch propeller., 231 induced,162. 165
23.2.4. 5.7s. 25.5.4. -4.8". ri,tivance tahior 24O of minimurn drag, 125
23.2.5. tl.ls. 25.5.5. +1.8'. Aerodynamic center of prcssure, 88, urith infinit€ aspect ratio, 165
23.3.1. 3.2s. 25.7.L. (o)-2.6'; (D) +7'4". 102, 136, 140, rl08 Angle of brn, 365, 368-373
Aerod;;ramica, definirion, I Angle of climb, 288, 291
dlerona,395-398 Angle of downwash, 162, 163, 413
balanced,4(X) Angle of glide, 299-302
differentiral,,4[00, 4Ol Angle of zero lift, 98, 175, 306
floating,399 Apparent span factor, 189
Frise,4C1,4O2 Area, equivalent flat plate, 214
aizc of, 9ry2 wing,72
Air, constituents of, 48 Arrowhead wing, 81
standerd density of, 51 Aspect ratio, dsfinitioa, f/
viscosity of, 2-4 efrect on per{ormance/323, 324
Air brakee, 209 effect on wing charactcristics, 172
Airfoils. deff ni1,iqt, 72 equivalent moooplane, 182, 186, 188
laminar flow,80 infinite. 159, 160, 175
ateble, 102 of tapered wing, 180
supersonic, 79, 80 Atmosphere, constituents of, 48
aymmetrical, 101 standard, ig, 50
Airplane, angle of attack of, 3g4 ^l,.tmospheric pressure, !, 4g
axes of, 393 Aumospheric temperature, 52
Aimpeed indicator, 17, 18 Autometic clots, 2ll, 212
Altitude, effect on eng;tne power,227 Autorotation, 378
efiect on prbpeller, 256,zffi Axes, airplane, 393
+37
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438 INDEX INDEX

Balance, lateral, 420 Circulation, 148-150, 163, 164 Diemeter of propeller, 248, 252-2bb Effective angle of attack, l6E, lZ2
longitudinal, 407 Clark Y airr-oil, 77, 78, 101, 174, 176 Differential ailerons, 4(n, 401 Effective.rihedml, 421
Balanced controis, 4O0 Clearing obstecles, 3A, 343, 3ffi Dihedral,8f, 99 Efficacy, 124
Banking,3f373 Climb, angle of ,291, V)2 eulect on **o g*-"lric chord, Efficiency of pr6pellers, 2BS,24.0, Z4g,
Barometric height relation, 51 forcea in, 288 /o 249
Berometric preosure, standard,. 49 rate of, at altitude, 292 effect on stability, 420 Elevators, fxed, 414
Beam components, 135 st ses level. 288-29L Directional stability, 421 free,'395, 4O3
Dcrnoulli': la:r,- fcr. coropresdble tine to, m[ m6 Distance, landing, 347 -349 Elliptic loeding, 162
fluids, 4O-41, 195-20f Climbing propeller, 289, 290 take.oif, 3:]4, 544 Enciurance, git2-354
for non-compressible fluids, 11-13, Climbing turns, 374 Distribution of lift across span, 16O Equation of continuity, g, 10, 195,
85 Coefficients, flat plate, 62, 67 Dive, definition, 299 r96
Biot-Savart's law, l5l-154 friction, 335 Dive flaps, 209 Equation bf etate, tlil
Biplanes, lift distribution in, 185, 186 fusclage drag, 215 Dive moment, 88, 408 Equivalent drag area, 214
mean aerodynamic chord of, 182 heat, 34 Downwash, 162, 163, 165, 412, 4lB Equivalent flst, pl&t€ area,2L4
Blade anglb, 237, 241-243, 24V252 induced dreg, 167, 168, 183 Drag, curves of,277, 337 Equivalent monoplane aspect ratio,
Biude-element theory, 236-240 Iift, 99 definition, 98 186-r88
Body interference, 263 parasite d,rag, 214-217 equation,99, 108 Equivalent monoplanc span, lgg,
Boundary layer, 83, 84, 93 power-speed, 245-247 fuselage, 214,215 189
Boyle's law, 33 profrle drag, 167 induced, biplanes, 181-l8g ,Uquivaicnt skin friction, 2Lg, 221
Breguet formulo, 358 tail moment, 415 mo::cpl.rnes, 166-f80
Burble,94,90,98, 167 thrust, 241 par8site, 124,213-224 Facbors, load, 382-3gl
viscosity, 3,5, M profile, 161 Munk's span, 189
G€0 airfoil, 112 wetted ares, 219 structural, 2L3-224 Prandtl's interrerence, 181
C-able, dreg of, 215. wing moment, 89 tests of, 313 wetted area, 215, 219-222
Cember, 74,7719 Compressibility, 18 Drzwiecki,2W240 Fin, 395
Canard-type airplane, 395 correction for, 195-207 Duration, 352-354 Fineness ratio,2l5
Cathedral, 421 Compreesibility burble, 198 Dynamic pressure, 17, 87 Fittings, dreg of, 2f8
Ceiirng, m3-m6 Constant-speed propeller, 253-26L f)ynamic stability, 4224m Fixed elevator, 414
Center of gravity, 4OHL2 Constituents of air, 48 Dyrurrnic viscosity, 4 Fixed-pitch propellers, 24&-252, 26g
Center of pressure, of airfoils, 88, 102, Consumption of fuel, 226,278, 359- Fixed slots, 2lO,2LL
136, 140,408 357, 360 &lges, leading and trailing, 74 Flaps, 208, 209
of flat platei, 69, 70 Continuity,9, 10, 14, 196, i97 Effect of altitude, on airplane per- Flat pletes, 6l-€7
Characterietics of airfoils, 100-102 Control eurfaces, 395 formance, 2W-283 Flat, spin, 379
G8O, 112 Correction, aspect ratio, 172-777 on engine perf ormatrce, 227 Flattest glide, 302
Clark Y, 77,78, l0l, 174, 176 compressibility, 195-207 on lift, tlg Flettner rotor, 151
Gdttingen 398, 111 scale, 194,195 on propeller performance, zbl-Zffi Flight, climbing, 288-298
laminar flow, 117 Critical Mach number, 2W, 2OI, 2O7 Etiect of ground, 190-l9B gliding, 299-314
M-6, 112 Critical pFessure, ?ol, n2 Effect of power loading, 322 level, at altitude, 118-121, 2W-ZB7
NACA-2212, 116 Critical velocity, 197-199, 206 Effect of power on pei;formance, 820, at aee level, 104!-110, 26+-2W
NACA-2412, LL6, 17? Curve of baeeball, 151 321 Flippers, 395
UBA-35, 128 Curved pletes, 68 Effect of Bpsn looding, 168, 170, 323- Floating ailerons, 399
Cbarlesl law, 33 Cylinders, drog of, 216 826 Flow around iylinders, 29
Chord, definition, 78 flow around, 29-81 Effect of weigbt, 315-317 Flowe, aimilar,46
meurr BerodJmamic, 74 Effect of wind, on clirnb, 344 FIu!.|, defrnition qf, I
meen geombtric, T4-70 Deneity, definition, 2 on glide, 311 Force, accelerating, 83&1337
Cbord cgmponent, 87,88, 135 standard air, 61 on r&ngo, 360-462 centrifugal, 3C I
Circular cylinder, 29-81 Deperdeesin control, 896 Efroct of wing area, 318, 319 centripetal, 364
Circular motioo, 140, 147 Dow point, 60, 67 Effect of wing loading, 3t2, g\g decelerating, U7,548
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INDEX INDM
Forces, ia flight, 102, 265, 299, n8 Horsepower (CoAhwd) Lift'drag ratio, 124, 125 Momentumtheory, W-85
in loope, 377 required,'at altitude, l2f, m-287 Load factofa, 381-392 Monoplane rDor, eqrdval€nt, f 88, f89
in epina, 379 at eea level, f09, 267 in divea, 382, 386 Mrrnk aFsn factor, 189
Fowler fap, P09 in trrrng, 366-3€9, 371,372 in gusts, 38f391 Mutual ioterfercnoe of biplanea, 181
Fred elevator, 41.g,4m Horseshoc vortex, 154 in turns, 383-386
Friction, coefficient of, 3&5 Humidity,56-58 Loading, inwer, 322 NACA airfoil8, ff5, 1f6, l7f
Friae aileron, 401, ,$9 Hump, ?9,280 spen, 168, 170, gn-lztri NACA wind tunnel,46
Fmude, 232 Hydrwtatic pre"ssure, 7, 8 wing. 104, gI2, 3%;369, 370 Normrl component, Ef/
Fuel consumpti on, if,6, 2?8, 353, 355, Locked elevator, 414 Normal apin,379
357, 360 I.C.A.N. atmospbere, 50 I-ongitudind balunce, 407
Fuselege dng,2l4,2l5 Ice formation, 136 Inops, 377 Obstacl€s,. clearing oI, ?42, 341, 3510
Imprct pressure, 6l Low angle of ettack, 97 Optimum gliding angle, il)l, 302, 311
17 , 42,
Gap, efrect, of, on induced drag, 183, Induced angle of attack, 162, 165 Oscillations, 4in, 423, 4Xl
184 Induced drag, bf biplan'es, f81-189 M-ri airfoil, ll3 Oswald method,32,F3:!3
Gapchord ratio, 182 of monoplanes, 166-18l Mach number,43, 196 Outword.flow, 100
Gas constant, 33 of tepered wings, 180 critical, mO,mi,m7
Geared propellere, 261, 262 Induced velocity, 152-154, 16l, f62 efrect on lift, 203, ZX Paratxrlic atrve, W\ ?/I}3

Geometric pitch, 248, 261
Glauert, H., 167, m3, m6
Glide, accelerat€d, 307-310
angle of, 299-301
distance, 302
cver obstacles, 350
spiral, 37tl-377
tests, 313
time of, 309
velocity of, 304
riith wind, 3;,\L,3L2
Giittingen 398 airfoil, 111
Gouge flap, A)O
Gradient, temperature, 62
Gravity, 2, 49, 381
Ground edect, 19(F193
Ground friction, 833
Ground speed;300, 361
Gusts, 38$-391
Handley-Page alot, 2lH2t2
Hcat coeffcients, ii4
F[eet prceesses, 35
High angle of attack, 97
Horizonial gliding distance, N2,
303
Horiz-atal tail surface, 403, 4O4
Homepowqr, available, 250, 267 r
261,275,WI
brake,t2.5,nB,U&,rc,
minimruq 181, 182, tn-nS
Infinite rspect ratio, f60, f65, 175 Magnus effect, 150 Pansite drl;4, 124, 2Lg-t?A
Interference, body, 263 I\{aneuverability, 406 Parasite loading, 325
Interference factor, Prandtl's, l8l Msnifold Dressure, 22&-2,3{J Pnscsl's law, 6, 7
Invertrd flight, 387 Mass, 1, 381 Performance, airplane, at altitude;
Inward flow, 16O
Maximum endurance, 352-354 N-A7
Meximum range,35F-362 at sea level, zfu-N
J (advance ralio), 24O, 241 Ma:cimum speed, st altiilde, 287 definition, 264
et sea level, 275 efiect of aspect ratio on, *l
Kinemstic viscosity, 4, 5 Mean aerodynamic chord, 74, NI efiect of power loading on,3?2
Kinetic energy, 12, 62, 903 Mean geometric chord, 74-76 efect of pover on, ffi,3|L
Medisn line,78 efiect of sp..n looding on, SPil
Mcxlium angle of sttaf,k, Y/ efiec0 of weiglt on, 315, 316
Lacbmrnn,210
Metric units, 99, 130 efrect of wing a,rea oi, 3f8, 3f9
Lsrninar ffow airfoils, 80
Minimum drag, 125 efrect of ring loading on, 322
Laoding over obstacles, 350
Landing run, 347 Minimum fuel consumntion, ?78 engine, at dtitude, tn-2n
Landing speed, 105, 190, 208
Mirimum gliding angle, 3Ol, 3(D, 311 engine, at aea levd, n5-tZI,229
Minimum power, 131-133, YI7, ng piopeller, at altitude, zffi-zffi
Leteral control, 395, 397-402
Minimum radius of turn, il69-372 propeller, at sea level, 2,1.L-263
Lateral atability, 420
Minimurn speed, st altitude, 282 Phugoid ccillation, 423
Layer, bounda4r, 83, 84, 93
at seo level, 105, f06 Pitch,39:l
L/D rilio, L24,125
Lenticular wire, 216 . in turns, 368 Pitcblng noment, 403
Minimum thrust, I32 Pitot tube, r7
Icvel flight, at altitude, 118, 119
Moment, diving,88,393 Plau fonn, taper in, 79
at *a level, 266,267
longitudinal, ll(8,410 P- latea, cunred, 63
Lift, --Bnd circulation, l4l8-150, 163,
pitching, 403 flat, 6l
164
definition, 98
rolling, 393, 4021 Polar curvea, l%, 176, ln,ZArD?A,
stalling, 88 305
egust'ion of, 9{1, l(D
tsit, 415 Power, defnition, 69'
rfu of airfoils, 98-100, 1(}2 wiog, 88, 417 Power availa,biG, at altihrdg 287
of fat plates, 67 yawing,394,4{N at aea levelr.?S
LiIt distribution acnoes span, 159-162
in bipboes, 185-187
Moment coefrcient, 13Ff39, 416,4L7 Power coeEcien\ 2AI, 28
 r. "1':ii$':-,. i .ir

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lcz INDEX l'''
I'ower lqoding, 322 Rraistsnce, cables; 216 Spiral glide, 374-gn Temperature, atmoepheric,
I'ower rrquired, by airplane, at alti- cylindera, 215 Split, flape, Z)9 .S2
Temperature ersdient 52
hrdb,28F282, &-Al fittingp, 218 Spoilers, gg8
Tbrehundred-and*ixtydegree turn"
atalevel,6T-N fuselage, 214,215 Stability, directional. 421
3?3 '":
forinduced drag, r70, 171 Rlbultant fcrce, 97, 98 dynamic,407, +tZ-+m Thrust,277,ggz
for tlmar'366 Iieynolds.irumber, rL4, 4$, 84, 194 lateral,. 420'
Thrust coefrcienl 24t
byving, atsltitudg 120, 121 Roll, 392-394 longitudinal, 4L4-4lg Time, to climb, 2gE, 2g6
ai aea ievel, lfi) Rolling.momenl 402 offat platca, ?l to glide, B0O
'ower-speed coeffi cient, 245-249 Rotation,4(X Btstii,4O64.n '
to turn, 873
f

l'ower atall, 107 Rudder,395 Snbilizer, B9S, 408, 40i, +tZ .

Tip(wing-) vortices, g3
Itsndtl, L, 182-184, N,m Stagnation point, t6
Trailing dge, Z4
Itr€ssure, atmospheriq 2 Scale effect, l!)4 Stasnati-on pressure, compressible, 42,
Transition distance, g42, Bffi
c€nter of, 69-71, 13tF142, 414, 417 Schrenk flap, 209 \. 43, 6l Trim tabs, 896
coefficient of,93,W2 Semi-elliptic 4iqtribution, 162 rncompressible, l7 Troposphere, E0
distribution of, 89-91 Separntion, 93, 91, 387 stoll, 107,379 Tube, Pitot, lZ
tiynamic, 17, 87 Service ceiling, 293, 294 . power, 107, 108
Venturi, 14
enerry, 12 Shear, 2, 3 St&lling nroment, gg, 40g
Turns, 364-377
hydrostatic, 7, 8 Shock,199 Stalling speed, lOE
Tu'o<limenoionel flow, g3_g4
stagoation, 17, 12, 43, 6l Similar flows, 4{c-46 Standard atmospherc, 5l
standard, 52-51 Sinks, 22, 23 State, equation of BB
Uniform flow, 23
I\easure allitude, 55 Skin friction, zlg, Z2l Static pressurd, 17
Universal gas coris[ant. 83
Profile drag, 167 Slip, 371, g7g,4n Static thrrfst, 338
Unsupercharged en gines, 225-22g
Propeller, blade angle, 237, 241-243, Slipstream, efiect on t&il, 405 Stick control, 895
248-252 Slots, 210-212 Stratosphere, 50
Vapor pressure, 52
blade+lement theorv, 236-?,40 Slug, deinition,2 Stream functio n, N, I , yjiaPledensity wind tunnel, 46, 42
efiect on tsil, 415 Sound, velocity of,37-39, 196, 108 Streamline wire, 216
Variable-pitch prop4ller,
e6cieDcy, ?35, 2A, i24:3, 24&-26L fSowces, t)-Xl Streamlines, 8, 20, 96 28 I
Velocity, critical, 1g7, lbg
ganad,262,81 Spen, definition, TS Streamtubes, 8, g
of sound, BZ-Bg
DolDeDtum t}f,,,ry,82-W equigdent monoplane, 188, 189 Structural drag, 2lB
fslminql, 306
tlrust,252-259 Span factor, 189 Strut4 r82, 2lZ
versus angle of attack, llg
toryue,4(X Span loading, 168, 170, 323-325 Supercharged en gines, ?lS-2?0
Venturi tube, 14
Pullout atreaa, 38&-3t19 Spanwie lift dietribution, lffl Superpolition of flows, 28
Vertic&l dive, 806
P;ilon turn, 374 Specific fuel consumption, 226, 355 Supersonic airfoils, Zg-gO, lt2 Vertical rail surface, BgS, .104
Specific weight, 2 Surfaces, control, gg5, 400
Verticsl velocity, 2gg
Rsdius of turn, 3&5, 369-373 Speed, gtiding, 300-304 Sweepback, 76, 80
7. l diagram, 3g2
RAF-15 airfoil cheracteristica, ll4 ground, 360, 361 effect on mean geometric chord, ZE,
Viscosity, dy"rmic, 24,
/o 44, g4
Range, *55-.362 landing, 190-193 kinetic, 4, 5
Rspi{ performance eetimation, 324- madmum, at altitude, 287 effect on stabilizer, 421
Vortex, definition, 146
&13 at aea level, 275 horseshoe, 154
R^ate of climb, 288-292 miniqlqq at eltitude, 282 Tabs,396, 392,84
sheet, 158
R^rtio, aipect,.77 ai sea leval, 105, 1Cl6 Tail angle, 4t2,4la
wing-tip,88
Gnetreqr 2lb in turne, 368 Tail Ioad, 4O8, &9,4L4
gap/rpan,183 aonic, 37-39 Tail momenf, 4lE
Wake,2l4
LlD, t2L, t25 take-off,336 Takeoff distence, Bg4--ggg
Warp,397, rtOE
Recovery fmm diveq 386-389 terminal, 306 Taper, 79, 80 'W*shin,405
Relative hunidity, 5G-58 Speed range, 208 effect on in'luced drag, lg0
!9asbout, rOF
Belative motion, 16, 62 Speed veruu angld of attsck, 118 gfrec! o1 mean geometric cbond,
75 Water vapor, 56-5g
Belative win4 81, 14 162 Spinri, 379,380, ,i03 etandard, 8l
Weight, definition, I
o
 I
il
il

.,1

Wing loading (Cntind) tii

on glide, 3ll
: iln Isnger.3$C:382
oD'tskeoq 31.3,U4.
Wiird tunnel, 46
Wing area, dsfinilisn, fl
effect on performance, 318, 319
Wing loading, definition, 104
g
'- e$ect da perforrnat"e,372, fi3
--iEfCt on turns, 369, 3?o
Wing momen! 88, 416.
I
Wing-tip vorLices, flil I
.Wire, drag df,.215; 216
'Work, defnition, 68
Wrigbt brothera, 397, 429
Yaw, 365, 393,394, 398, 4{X
Zap flapt,209
Zerclifl, angle of,93, 175, 306

t
I

t1 _

o
The following list of symbols and theil identification is included ets a convenient ret'erence. It
represents a fairly contplete listing of the more standard aercxll,namib and engine ternrs used in
industrv.

a = speed of sound, ft/sec"

a = sccelerfitioil, ftlsrc2

a siope of the lifi cr.rrve({J1 'vs u), per dcgr-ee"

4.1,. arrocllria.nric r-:g;iisr, distance fron:r lcading erige, ft orhaction of cirorcl r:.

A cross*sectionnl aiea., sr1-ftr.

Aw rvett::cl rsea, sc;.it-

AR aspec:t rntio =' blAj-

b rr,'.ing syr;n. fi.

c cl'rord of rving. ft.
rnean aeroCrlnp;nir; chnrri., ft.

t chorrJ ei.t the root of taperetl wings, f t.

vt chord ai 'di:e rip c"rf *rn":rf,.li wings, ft"

CD drag crn{ficir:nt, dirncrisionless.

coi induced cl, ag,.:cr:lficient, dimensionless.

C- i-, 11.;a sirr,il :r fi i; r,: i:.-'iii,.:i r;rrt, rlimens icxlle s s.

v

co* en nir., eJ,';:n t li er:l :: it* r'.ira g r.x n{ ficient, rlirn*nsi rrul e:sr.

coo h on tni ir*a rilir g i:o:: ificient, cLimensi.oirl,r-lss.

CDrc ReynoftJs number incrernent of cirag coefficient, dimensionless.

cf wetted area coeilic.ient" cl.irnensionless"

cL lift coef fii;:ient, Ciirao:ns;ionless.

location of iift ancl drag foro$s, c"p:lc.

q p:re ss rre cce ff ; r:ic.;{:t" cl'-r- :,*n sic,i'l tres s.

C.I. rDsl in'ii:,.i,

D6-i4?C |\ "i
May 1989
 c.P. center of pressure, distance from leading edge, ft
c.g. centcr of gravrty.

cv specific heat at constant voluup, #+

cp specific heat at constanr pressure,
#S-
cm pirching moment coefficient =
th
ctrr. moment coefficient about tlre aerodynamic center.

d diameter,. ft; length or distance, fL

D fug= CoqS, lb.

q induced drag, lb.

profile drag, lb.

%
E bulkmodulus, lb ft2.
u*' ulo
= induceddrag effrciency facror = dq/dcD.
-i
e = 2.7L8281828, base of narural logarithms.

f = equivalent parasite drag.area, sq.ft.

F ='forcG, lb.
g = acceleraticin due to sy = jt.tl!g{} ffsecZ al sca levul, .";-ro latitucle.

& = corlstant.= 32.!74v.,r rt-lb*Abf -seC.

h = altitude, ft.
b = pr:ssure altitude, ft.
b, = indicatedpressure akirude, ft.

ahe = altimetcipositiorr-errorcorrection, ft.

4.8 D6-i42{'
May 1989

t I
hI*, test indicatecl. preesure altirurJe, ft.

I incidence angle, degrees.

L Cs q S, lb.
*
It taiilength, *ing .la totail cl4, h:

ln natural logarithrn

log conmlon logarithrn, to the base 10.

m siope of the lift curve, perradian.

a
M mass in slugs, ttr se* / fr
M pitching mornent = Qn c q S, ft lb.
M Mach number.

t"b frree-su"am Mach number.

n load factor

n revolutions per minute.

n number of engines.

naur aif distance, nautical aA mile.

nm distance, nautical mile.

ry*d
Pamb arnbient pressure, lb I f&.

p static pressure, lb / ft?.

Pg reference static pressure = plr"f + A Ps, lb / t&.

Pt total pressure, lb/ftz.

PIrcr railing cone rcfelence indicated static pressure, lb /

.
ff.
Pttot, airplane test static pressure, lb lt:F.

AP differential pressrrre = &r.f - IL, lVft?

APs Trailing cane posrion error correction 1b/ft2

D61420 4.9
May 1989

.'.,
 ''r ' E.l
q = di'namicl)r*s$$rc =, ',, ,' j)1, i.., , la. .

qc = irupact pressure = (irt - p), rb /tp.

qc = reference impact pressure = ecJref - A Ps, tb ltlP

9qr"r = reference impact. pressue = pt - plr"f , lb / t&

1q*, = test impact pressure = Qclr"f * AP, lbltjJ.

R - r&ng€, nautical air ud]us, narn"
R = radiusofrurn, ft.
R = gos corstimt, ft lby' ltlm "R.
R' = therrsal gas constiurt, :it2i secZ "R,

rlc rare of cliru!, ft/rnin.

rld rate of descent, fi/min.

RN Relmolds number, dirnensionless,

s wfu:g area" sq.ft

sc ground run, t'L

s?r = propor area, plan or frontal, sq. ft.

s.L. sea level.

SM statute mile

ot stall coridition.

t airfoii thickless, ft-

t tenrperature, oF.

T total thr.rst =. n Fn, lb"

T absolute temperiarure

T*n absolute iemperatutr N36,889.24 feet (110ffi meters).

T.0. takcoff cnndii:iorL.
J
uoo clesigp gust veloci:v, tr/ rx:c"

v specific rrolume, ft:nU.

Vi uldici*ed airspae"rtr, (unccrre;te,.J), kt.

VI indicatecl airspeed, {corrected), kr

v^ calibmte{i ai::sp**J (or compilted airspeed.), kt

vs equivalent airspeed, kt"

V true airspeerl, kt.

VA desi gii nranc:ur,'*rj.n fi lirsiieetl, !.t-

VB rie:;igh ilirsper,ri lbr ruarimr:in L{itst iiirtensity, ki.

vc rJesitr;n cnrisirl:i ;iirsperd" k1.

vD design *Ji'ne spr,,:rt. kL

VF flap iimit air:.;preed, l:t.

vr; landing gear extended limit airspeert, 1*.

vro landing gear opcrating, trit.

v*"o afu'minimirrn coniroi airspeed, *r.

vtnrcg ground nriirisnr::-r: aonu'ol airspe*ci, kt.

v*to n:exinium cperadng li'init airspeeil k-f-

1tts a:rplarre srall aiisneerJ., kt-

vl takeoff rje<:ision spee;J. kl.

vrr' engine. firilurc sp*cd, .k.t-

VMIJ minimurn ur-t:rti,clt speciJ, kt-

vR ta"keoff nitation si:e<xi, ,kt"

vr-op mkeul [ ]if,t- ,.,f 1' spe*r i. ts i.

v2 tnkeofi sitt-ety air:npeeri. l<t"

D$l424 A"i 1
May 198?
w specific weighr, lb/ ft3.

cr (aii;i:u) angle ,rf attacu ui wrag, icgru,*;.

cll,o angle of anack fgr zero lift, degrees.
v = ratioof specific heat, glCu

A (delta) increment noii{tion.

6 (dela) plessure ratio, p/pg

6666(delta) pressure ratio, Farnlpc.

A OamMa) sweepback angle (.2"i E ), rJegices

0 (theta) temperatwe ratio, T/To"

oarru temperature ratio, T"*5lfg

0 (theta) ciirnb or descerrt angle, r:ad.ians or degrees.

0 (theta) tuin angle, degrees. i

0 (phi) bank angle, dcp-ees"

0 runway slope.

o (sigma) d.ensity ratio, plpo.

lu 0amMa) standard day temperarure Lapse rare, .0035661d olVft (.001gg12 oxlfti"

L wing taper rario, crlc.

P Gho) mass air density, slugs/ft3.

po rnass air d.ensity at sea level standand day conditions, siugs/ft3.

Ps (mu) coefficient of l:raking fricrion, dimensionless-

4.1 L
l]6-r4?0
May 1989
Nr/
'r, = corrected low pressure rotor speed, 4ls1.

N2 =. higir pressurJ rulor s{leli, rpffi. .

*rtJtu = corected high pressure rotcr speed, rPB.

P% totdl average prossrue at compressor inlet, lbt#.

pt7 turbine disbharge total pressurc , lb/f&,

Ptt/P"*u rarn pressure nado.

Pv/0rt inlet average pressure recovory ratio".

?t7&u*u jet nozde expansion ratio.

Pt/Pae engine pressure ratio, EPR.

Trro elgrne inlet average total tempemturc.

T toul thnrst - .n Fo"

Tq turbine discharge otal tempe,rature"

TSFC = thnrst specific fuel consumption, \/Fn, lblhr I ib ttnust.

% = engine airflow, lb/se<,.

% = total gas flow, lb/sec.

w2 = primary engrne air{Iow on fan engines, lb/scc.

wrz = fan airflow, lb/sec.

wre;
v
--5, corrected airflow, lb/ sec.

Wr = engine fuel flow, ib/rr.

wf
ffi 1A correctetl firel liow, lti/ lrr, bas,:d ori total conditions.

A.1 4 D+r420
May 1989
 \r r't-_\!rr-\

It f
J.

coriiii:lia i'i;u, fin',rr. iiy' hr, iiii

6anlt)'\/le Ji'tl,
-_----:::'r
base,:i entl,if:rrt contliiioirs.

0
"afnb :-: (i:irilir,iii...i::.;.i..,:,.r
i^rY.r1FiY1r:1r"^',-:r! i 'l'
lli:..i.,"' ii,.

?q.n : i'iiril ternpcrfitii:e ;iiii'f . '';t;/T0.

6amb
, = rr--j
,,,.)lisul'f,'filtir:'i, P.,ilt/P{i.

Otzrr ":'! Iiliil r:-i: :'il'!iil i r;l - 1''r' l;",'

Y - ratio c:f slrecifrr; hi:ar"-

I teta) :n r:-[ fir-:iiltr',:lr, i}()i' \:r,ilt.

\[ (psr) :: lirq:,lri:iir.:rl i;lirr.'r tlu'rl'.,1 l'ulli-:tiriu, djnlcnsioillt:l;s.

flhe fcli.o',',rini: is a ii'rt of- i;ui.rtr:;ri,.rr:, i-rr;i:r.t ri-rrsl.tJinol;t tl]is d,rr,r;iilneu.L

& ;-' fili. {lli/,,r),

anib :: il:;.:;;irni., i'lirir,rl.).

avg :; ii.'VilL ilir:,i:],"

:: i.:crnjr; rls;iirir" ir,.. i

g.r ::: r-r-ilir--.]

.. , .'.n
,.r,ali.r r
,

f :i {irr,:i, f i,yUi.

g ::: iiiLir:l:i, (I"',, i

i :: ir;rliicnttrl, i!:,1
,.
': ..jr:r. ( ; j.
T
J

n r: Iiiil., fitr,)

0 ::: sl.a;iciii;'*1 lt';t ,. , :'. ,i;ir.,, ;. i:;r. 'i'.,. i;i;: :.

D5-1420 j'jr 1 l:
l\. .t.i
lv{a1'l9iil
 (tlplp).
propulsion, (tl

r.am, Gr).

static, (T. , ps ).

total, (I1, p1).

t thermal, (Tlr).

v volume, (cu).

For calculation purposes, the following values of the constants are used:

g = 32.174Mg ft / s*2

gc = 32.174049 fr/se&
pO = 2116.2166 lb/frz L\c6''/")'
= 14.695949 lb / i12 ,'r.r\b/i..
= 1013.25 mb '-" '

= 29.92126 Inches of Hg 2a :" ' " ','^,

To = 518.67'R = 59oF a1:r:
= 288.15.K = 15 oC 1 .4a
t',-

po = .AA2376892 slugsfft3 or 1b,n-sec2/# o nzsft *2

tu = 1116.4501 fVsec

= 661.4786 krl

L = .00356516 "Flfr

= .0019812 oC/ft
R = 13.352374 ,ft lby'lbm "R

= 96.034273 ft lbE1b* "K

A.1 6 D6-1420
May 1989
R.'

l lilrr-l

'1.:....'tl)';.r..,

1\ r.l '
!(\,.,, r /1,'- '"
- j J,. .:

r. ':1i I r: L/:
cv ,ti,. ii ' /,- t._/..-..,1 I \.,

4,1'!:1 ..i0.i','.i

^t-t*,! (1q r"<

/ / J.-1.^-'-'()-r-)

i i t.-.
i.'t.i ,-.i-.\
tt\rr .ri;/

Lt6-1420 A"i7
 Couversions
1ft 0.3048 mer.ers EJ^s.gjb.

lnm 1852 nreters exacd!,

Lnm ffi76.115486 ft.

lnm LL547794481 sm.

1 rneter 3.280839895 ft. E.zq J,

39.37007874 in. s1 ?)- i,^
1 knot 1.687809857 ftlsec.

A.514444444 rn/sec,

1 "852 kilometers/hr. exaet]y

lkg 2.204622622 lbs.

1lb 0.45359237 kgs" exactly

I inch 2.54 cnn.

1 radian 57.29577951 degrees"

*t
1 slug 32.L74A49 lb* sec2/ft.

1 BTU "17&.26 ft Lb.

4.1 8 D6-1420
lv{ay 1989

\
 i$Aslc trQUATr0NS
SECTXAN I., ,derodYnarnics

ChaPter 1.'2
Jb-
pressure fcice ?er'il"nii iJl':' p=-[ .ts
frz

differenial Prsssurfl' dP = wclh

Chapten 1-3
F = Ma lb
Ne',l'ir::' i; Zncj'! n-','' eql'lir*cn'
)
- sec"
lbrr,

M=T slug, or -- It*'

rnass,

gL rlesJ.
t
rnass densifY, ^--
,r- ry
D ft'

Chapter 1-S
slugs.
continuiry equation, pAV = constant sec

oIt prArVr=9.,},zYz

Chapter t-6
( limited to aPProx-
incompres sible B ernoulli e4uation' P+Q = Pt
250 knots )

lb
v2
q=p T
dyna.rnic Pressure, ft-

Chapter l'7
p= pgRT valid for any Process
equation of state Seneral),

()r, p=: pRT

D6-1420
at9
I

May 1989 \
 11 * ibf
thermai gas constant, R" = 53.35113?4
l'.
o-
i')

,,)

$
R' = 171{t"5619 oR
srrcz

D
*i;; - Constant
equation of state (adiabatic process), pt

' ratio of specific heat, ,cu

.t
CD
_*i_
= ( = 1.4 for air)

Chapter 1-8

Fr3tz lb - sec
'*-T*
dynamic viscosity coefficient, P= TrrF It

uq3 lb - sec
P = = 0.312505s(ro-7)
'Trt*
^0 ftz\m
lb* ,,sec
tLa= 3-745zgg(n*1) @b,l&

1I

To= 288.15 "K

S = 120
oK, Sutherlan<ls cors*, ;i

Chapter 1-9

l-jg {r
speed of sound, ^={dp $ec

^:#=1ffi=uo

A20 D(t-1420
May 1989

L
Chapter L-10
comprcs sibie Bernoulli otruation,

ff
(frF.+=constant w2
oft

(#Hi .+=(#) V.4

Chapter l,-1l.
adiabatic {low relarionsndPs:

-L
v-1
'
lqldges.sure = Ir =f, *
static pressure P L-
#z "t']J
l_
tnfrigpss dqgity. : & = [, .*' fj 2 *r-lt-t
-'-
smdc mass densiry P L- J

pr=
Mach nunober,
# dimensionless

Chapter 1-X?"

Auroospheric rela.donships:

basic definitions, 6=*

s=t
"**=*
 standard day below the rropopause. (36,089.24 feet/ 11,000 meterc):

1'= To'- i\;r i '

I (+)'o = [t)""88 s""B*

=
* = =.

/ T \4.25588 "-0 4.25588

[T;J

standard day above rhe u'crpopause" (36,0t19.?,1 fect / 1I,U)0 nletcrs):

_ r h :36082.24'\
* P= toop
o=
e [--m;-J
}-; "
Eoon = '22336O87

/ h-3608924 \
, p
o= p; =o*op"
t.-Er;-J
ouop =.29708

Trop = 216.55 0K
RT.
uop =
20805.825

e - 2.7tr8281828

speed of sound ratio,

$*Vs
d.0
dimensiorrless

A2? D6-1420
May 1989

t
Chapter l-LS
Aelodynarnic propertie s :

basic lift equation, 1=eqS lb

corrected lift,
r -
t+gt-351 cLI'\ -yt2s lb
F=

basic drag equadon, D= Coq S

lb

corrected drag,
3 = tout.3sl ciM2 s lb

.n
ctynauric pressurc,
P
"4o %'
Y- 2 '- 295.375
^-.re-
lbs / ft2

for levetr flight, L = 1'V' lb

for unaccelerated f} igltt, f)*T lb

Reynotrds number effect on drag:

cn=toorr*oto*
 Physical properries:

)
aspect rauo, AIT=
+ diurcnsionless

ct
taper ratio, ^ ur dinrensionless

mean aerodynamic chord, r\4AC - l:" qu ft

Sn,C'l'I0N ?, Powerplunt
Chapter 2-4 to
Chapter 2-1.2
1) Single exhaust turbojet engine:

a) basic thrust equation,

tb

M< lintailpipe

M>linuilpipe

A.24 D6-1420
lvlay 1989