ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF TERRORISM

AND COUNTERTERRORISM

This new Handbook provides a comprehensive, state-of-the-art overview of current knowledge

and debates on terrorism and counterterrorism, as well as providing a benchmark for future
research.
The attacks of 9/11 and the ‘global war on terror’ and its various legacies have dominated
international politics in the opening decades of the 21st century. In response to the dramatic
rise of terrorism, within the public eye and the academic world, the need for an accessible and
comprehensive overview of these controversial issues remains profound.The Routledge Handbook
of Terrorism and Counterterrorism seeks to fulfil this need. The volume is divided into two parts:

•• Part I: Terrorism: This section provides an overview of terrorism, covering the history of
terrorism, its causes and characteristics, major tactics and strategies, major trends and critical
contemporary issues such as radicalisation and cyber-terrorism. It concludes with a series of
detailed case studies, including the IRA, Hamas and the Islamic State.
•• Part II: Counterterrorism:This part draws on the main themes and critical issues surround-
ing counterterrorism. It covers the major strategies and policies, key events and trends and
the impact and effectiveness of different approaches. This section also concludes with a
series of case studies focused on major counterterrorism campaigns.

This book will be of great interest to all students of terrorism and counterterrorism, political
violence, counter-insurgency, criminology, war and conflict studies, security studies and IR
more generally.

Andrew Silke is Professor of Terrorism, Risk and Resilience at Cranfield Univerity, UK. He is
author or editor of many books on terrorism, including, most recently, Terrorism: All that Matters
(2014), Prisons,Terrorism and Extremism (Routledge 2013) and The Psychology of Counter-Terrorism
(Routledge 2010).
‘The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism and Counterterrorism offers the best overview of current
­terrorism research on the market today.With over fifty concise and accessible chapters by ­leading
specialists in the field, the book is a godsend for instructors and a reference work for students,
professionals, and scholars alike.’
– Thomas Hegghammer, Norwegian Defence Research Establishment
(FFI) and University of Oslo, Norway

‘The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism and Counterterrorism is an immensely valuable collection

that is impressive in terms of scope, variety, and depth of knowledge. Editor Andrew Silke has
assembled top experts in the field to analyze key contemporary issues as well as a broad range
of important case studies.’
– Martha Crenshaw, Stanford University, USA

‘A standard complaint in the social sciences is that more research is needed. This does not apply
to terrorism research; there is too much of it – although of uneven quality. What was needed
is a synthesis of knowledge from various disciplines. Andrew Silke’s Handbook of Terrorism and
Counterterrorism does just that. It is a comprehensive compendium that should be on the shelf
of every library.’
– Alex P. Schmid, Editor-in-Chief, Perspectives on Terrorism

‘Andrew Silke has pulled together an extremely timely and comprehensive single volume that
offers much-needed insight. Readers will profit from its extensive and state-of-the-art treatment
of the very latest trends in both terrorism and counterterrorism.’
– Kumar Ramakrishna, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK
OF TERRORISM AND
COUNTERTERRORISM

Edited by Andrew Silke

 First published 2019
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2019 selection and editorial material, Andrew Silke; individual chapters,
the contributors
The right of the editor to be identified as the author of the editorial
material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted
in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Silke, Andrew, editor.
Title: Routledge handbook of terrorism and counterterrorism /
edited by Andrew Silke.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2018. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017042245 | ISBN 9781138819085 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781315744636 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Terrorism. | Terrorism–Prevention.
Classification: LCC HV6431 .R684 2018 | DDC 363.325–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017042245
ISBN: 978-1-138-81908-5 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-74463-6 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders for their
permission to reprint material in this book. The publishers would be
grateful to hear from any copyright holder who is not here acknowledged
and will undertake to rectify any errors or omissions in future editions of
this book.
 CONTENTS

List of figures x
List of tables xi
Note on editor xii
Notes on contributors xiii
Acknowledgementsxxv

1 The study of terrorism and counterterrorism 1

Andrew Silke

PART I
Terrorism11

2 Defining terrorism 13
Anthony Richards

3 Conceptualizing and measuring terrorism 22

Gary LaFree

4 A history of terrorism 34
Leonard Weinberg

5 Root causes of terrorism 57

Tore Bjørgo and Andrew Silke

6 State terrorism 66
Andrew Silke

7 Nationalist and separatist terrorism 74

James J.F. Forest
 Contents

  8 Left-wing terrorism 87
Leena Malkki

  9 Right-wing terrorism 98
George Michael

10 Lone-actor terrorism: radicalisation, attack planning and execution 112

Noémie Bouhana, Stefan Malthaner, Bart Schuurman, Lasse Lindekilde,
Amy Thornton and Paul Gill

11 Terrorist psychology and radicalisation 125

Zoey Reeve

12 Children as agents of terrorism and political conflict 135

Deborah Browne

13 Social media, the online environment and terrorism 149

Katherine E. Brown and Elizabeth Pearson

14 Terrorist group structures: balancing security and efficiency 165

Joshua Kilberg

15 The effectiveness of terrorism 174

Sarah Marsden

16 The economic impact of terrorism 185

Mikel Buesa and Thomas Baumert

17 Fundraising, organised crime and financing terrorism 195

James Windle

18 Foreign fighters and terrorism 207

David Malet

19 Suicide terrorism 216

Assaf Moghadam

20 Terrorist hostage-taking 226

Margaret Wilson

21 Chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) terrorism 240

Gary A. Ackerman

vi
 Contents

22 Cyber terrorism 253

Marcus Rogers

Part I: case studies 265

23 Al-Qaeda: formation and evolution 267

Donald Holbrook

24 Boko Haram 278

Jacob Zenn and Zacharias Pieri

25 Hamas 292
Sagit Yehoshua

26 Hizbullah 302
Raphael D. Marcus

27 Islamic State 315

Francis Gaffney

28 The Provisional Irish Republican Army 325

John F. Morrison

29 Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) 336

Ahmed Salah Hashim

30 Red Army Faction 350

Jennifer Schmidt-Petersen

PART II
Counterterrorism361

31 Conceptualising counterterrorism 363

Ronald Crelinsten

32 Policing in counterterrorism 375

Lindsay Clutterbuck

33 The military approach to counterterrorism  384

Michael J. Boyle

34 Intelligence and counterterrorism 395

Julian Richards

vii
 Contents

35 Anti-terrorism laws: the United Kingdom’s unfinished history  406

Clive Walker

36 Public support and (counter) terrorism  416

Isabelle Duyvesteyn and Bart Schuurman

37 Tackling terrorist fundraising and finances  425

Marc Parker

38 Deterring and preventing terrorism 434

Joshua D. Freilich, Steven M. Chermak and Henda Y. Hsu

39 Prisons and detention: reflections on the Northern Ireland experience  444

Jacqueline Bates-Gaston

40 Terrorist disengagement and de-radicalization 458

Kurt Braddock

41 Targeted killings: perpetual war for perpetual peace? 471

Rory Finegan

42 Ethics and human rights in counterterrorism 483

Lyndsey Harris and Rachel Monaghan

Part II: case studies 493

43 Argentina: a case study in Dirty War 495

Itai Sneh

44 Canada 504
Stéphane Leman-Langlois

45 China: people’s war on terror 517

Elena Pokalova

46 France 528
Frank Foley

47 Great Britain: terrorism and counter-terrorism since 1968 540

Steve Hewitt

48 India  552
Arijit Mazumdar

viii
 Contents

49 Iraq: terrorism and counter-terrorism in Iraq, 2003–2011 563

Michael Clarke

50 Israel: can terrorism be curbed? 574

Ami Pedahzur, Lusaura Gutierrez and Arie Perliger

51 Italy: the process of disengaging the Italian left-wing armed groups

from political violence 585
Lorenzo Bosi and Donatella Della Porta

52 Spain 593
Rogelio Alonso

53 Russia 604
Cerwyn Moore

54 The United States of America: counterterrorism pre-9/11 615

Aaron Winter

55 The United States of America: domestic counterterrorism since 9/11 635

Joshua Sinai

Index649

ix
 FIGURES

  1.1 Scholarly publications on terrorism and counterterrorism, 1980–2016 2

  1.2  Methods in terrorism research 3
  6.1  The spectrum of political violence 68
13.1  4Chan ‘Allah Quackbar’ photographs 157
21.1  Required capabilities for CBRN attack by desired consequence 246
21.2  CBRN terrorism events over time 247
21.3  Event type: actual weapon used compared to failed attempts/major interest plots 247
21.4  Casualties from CBRN terrorism 248
21.5  Perpetrator type 248
21.6  Delivery mechanisms 249
23.1  Selected milestones in the history of Al-Qaeda 270
23.2 Public statements from bin Ladin and Zawahiri in the interest of Al-Qaeda
(1994–2015)272
44.1 Chronology of serious and nuisance political violence events in Canada,
1973–2014507
 TABLES

  5.1 Indicators pointing towards the formation of terrorist groups

and the occurrence of terrorist campaigns 60
  5.2  Top ten countries suffering casualties due to terrorism, 1986–2002 61
14.1  Terrorist group structures 167
22.1  Risk indicators 258
32.1  The core elements of police counterterrorism 378
47.1  Deaths in England, Scotland, and Wales from terrorism, 1970–2017 542
50.1  Counterterrorism models 575
52.1  Number of victims in Spain and terrorist group responsible (1968–2015) 595
53.1  Hostage incidents in the First Chechen War 606
53.2  Hostage incidents in the second conflict 607
 EDITOR

Andrew Silke has a background in forensic psychology and criminology and has worked both
in academia and for government. His primary research interests include terrorism, conflict and
crime, and he is widely recognised as a leading expert on terrorism and low-intensity conflict.
He is the author and editor of several books on terrorism and counterterrorism, including
The Psychology of Counterterrorism (Routledge 2011), Prisons,Terrorism and Extremism (Routledge
2013) and Terrorism: All That Matters (2014). He tweets at @andrewpsilke.
 CONTRIBUTORS

Gary Ackerman is the director of the Unconventional Weapons and Technology Division at
the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism. His research
encompasses various areas relating to terrorism and counterterrorism, including terrorist threat
assessment, radicalization, terrorist technologies and motivations for using chemical, biologi-
cal, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) weapons, and the modelling and simulation of terrorist
behaviour. He completed his PhD in War Studies at King’s College London, dealing with the
impact of emerging technologies on terrorist decisions relating to weapons adoption.

Rogelio Alonso is an associate professor of Politics at Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid,
where he coordinates its Master’s programme on Terrorism. He has been a member of the
Expert Group on Violent Radicalisation of the European Commission and a member of the
Editorial Board of the Centre of Excellence of the Radicalisation Awareness Network, as well
as senior advisor on counterterrorism for the Spanish Government. He has received several
international awards for his publications on terrorism and radicalization. He has been Principal
Investigator of numerous international projects on terrorism, antiterrorism and radicalisation, as
well as the author of several books and peer-reviewed articles in top academic journals.

Jacqueline Bates-Gaston was Chief Psychologist and Head of Forensic Psychology and
Interventions in the Northern Ireland Prison Service from 1991 until 2015, during which time
she had extensive experience in the management of those convicted of terrorist offences. In
the 1990s she was instrumental in developing and implementing specialist support services for
prison staff and their families who were under intense psychological and physical threats from
paramilitary organisations. She is hopeful that the political developments will bring an end to
terrorist activities in Ireland.

Thomas Baumert is Professor of Economics and History at the ESIS Business and Marketing
School in Madrid. He obtained his PhD at the Complutense University of Madrid (2006). His
main areas of research focus on the economics of innovation, the economics of terrorism, the
economic analysis of premial law, and the history of economic thought. Among others, he co-
edited the much-acclaimed book La hora de los economistas (Madrid: Ecobook, 2010) and, with
Mikel Buesa, The Economic Repercussions of Terrorism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010) and
Juan Velarde: testigo del gran cambio (Madrid: Encuentro, 2016).
 Contributors

Tore Bjørgo is Professor at the University of Oslo and Director at Center for Research on
Extremism: Right-Wing Extremism, Hate Crime and Political Violence (C‑REX). He is also
Adjunct Professor at the Norwegian Police University College (PHS), where he has been
Professor of Police Science (since 2004) and Research Director (2005–2007). The main recur-
ring theme in his research has been violent extremism and terrorism in general and right-wing
extremism in particular, and with a focus on prevention. He is widely recognized as a pioneer
in the study of deradicalisation and disengagement from extremist groups. He has (co)edited six
volumes, and (co)authored eight other books.

Lorenzo Bosi is Assistant Professor at the Scuola Normale Superiore and Research Fellow
at the Centere for Social Movement Studies (COSMOS). He is a political sociologist pursu-
ing comparative analysis into the cross-disciplinary fields of social movements and political
violence. He has directed and collaborated on a number of national and international research
projects on topics relating to social movements, political violence, and political participation.
For the next few years his main research agenda will be to investigate those socio-spatial
relations between armed groups and their constituencies that drive shifting forms of political
violence.

Noémie Bouhana is Senior Lecturer in Security and Crime Science at University College
London, where she leads the Counter-Terrorism Research Group. Noémie is Principal
Investigator of the €2.9M FP7 PRIME project, an international consortium researching lone
actor terrorist events. She is also Principal Investigator of the $1M project “The Social Ecology
of Radicalisation”, funded by the US DoD Minerva Initiative. Prior work was funded by the
Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (DSTL), the Office of Security and Counter-
Terrorism (OSCT), the MOD Science and Technology Centre, the Engineering and Physical
Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), and the US National Institute of Justice (NIJ).

Michael Boyle is an associate professor of Political Science at La Salle University in Philadelphia

and a Senior Fellow at the Foreign Policy Research Institute (FPRI). His most recent books
are Violence after War: Explaining Instability in Post-Conflict States (2014) and the Legal and Ethical
Implications of Drone Warfare (2016).

Kurt Braddock is a post-doctoral fellow and researcher in the Department of Communication

Arts and Sciences at Penn State University. His work centres on psychological responses to ter-
rorist messaging, as well as how different communication strategies can be leveraged to counter
violent extremism in multiple contexts. Dr. Braddock’s work has been published in leading
peer-reviewed terrorism and communication journals, including Terrorism and Political Violence,
Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict, and Communication Monographs. Dr.
Braddock has worked on projects funded by the Department of Homeland Security, the Office
of Naval Research, the British Government, and others.

Katherine E. Brown is a lecturer in the Department of Religion and Theology at the

University of Birmingham, UK, specialising in gender, jihad and counterterrorism. She has
published widely in academic journals and blogs, and is currently working on a monograph
on worldwide anti-radicalization policies and gender. Her expertise has been sought by a
number of academic, policy and media outlets in the UK, USA, Tunisia, Canada, Australia,
Norway, and Austria, including, for example, the 9/11 Memorial, the European Parliament,
and UN Women.

xiv
 Contributors

Deborah Browne is a chartered psychologist who has worked in both academia and for
government. Previous work includes consultancy for UNICEF in Sarajevo during the Bosnian
conflict and providing consultancy advice on children and terrorism for research carried out by
Penn State University. Dr Browne’s key interests include the development of antisocial behav-
iours in children, children as victims of abuse, foster care, children involved in terrorist incidents
(including as combatants), prisons and offender management, adolescence and young adulthood,
and drug markets. Dr Browne has published papers and has presented on these topics at national
and international conferences.

Mikel Buesa is Professor (Chair) of Applied Economics at the Complutense University of

Madrid (UCM), where he held the Chair for the economics of terrorism from 2006 to 2014.
He has focused his research on the economics of innovation, and terrorism and the economy.
He has been the president of two Spanish civic organizations devoted to the promotion of intel-
lectual and political work on counter-terrorism. Buesa has co-edited (with Thomas Baumert)
The Economic Repercussions of Terrorism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010) and is the
author of ETA, S.A. (Madrid: Planeta, 2011). In 2003, he was honoured with the Spanish Order
of Constitutional Merit.

Steven M. Chermak is Professor in the School of Criminal Justice at Michigan State University,
an investigator for the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism, and
co-Director of the United States Extremist Crime Database (ECDB). He studies domestic terror-
ism, media coverage of crime and justice issues, and the effectiveness of specific policing strate-
gies. Recent publications have appeared in Terrorism and Political Violence, Crime and Delinquency,
and the Journal of Quantitative Criminology.

Michael Clarke was Director General of the Royal United Services Institute from 2007 to 2015.
Before that he was Deputy Vice Principal at King’s College London and founder of the Centre
for Defence Studies as well as the International Policy Institute at KCL, where he remains a
Visiting Professor. He is also Associate Director of the Strategic Studies Institute at the University
of Exeter. He served as Specialist Adviser to the House of Commons Select Committee on
Defence from 1997 to 2017 and to the Joint Committee on the National Security Strategy
from 2015 to 2017.

Lindsay Clutterbuck, BSc, MA, PhD, is an independent researcher and consultant. Until 2015,
as a Senior Research Leader of the Defence and Security team at RAND Europe, he led a range
of research projects in the EU and other countries relating to terrorism and counterterrorism,
insurgency and counterinsurgency. Prior to this he served in the Metropolitan Police Service
(MPS), retiring as a Detective Chief Inspector in 2006. He spent over twenty-two years within
the Specialist Operations Department at New Scotland Yard, serving throughout in specialised
counterterrorism roles. He is a member of the European Union Experts Network on Terrorism
(EENeT).

Ronald Crelinsten is Associate Fellow at the Centre for Global Studies at University of
Victoria. He was Professor of Criminology at the University of Ottawa for over 20 years and
Visiting Professor at the Middle East Technical University in Ankara,Turkey from 1999 to 2002.
His publications include Counterterrorism (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2009/2014; Arabic ver-
sion: UAE, 2011), Intelligence and Counter-Terrorism in a Multi-Centric World (Stockholm: Swedish
National Defence College, 2006), The Politics of Pain: Torturers and Their Masters (Boulder, CO:

xv
 Contributors

Westview Press, 1995), Western Responses to Terrorism (London: Frank Cass, 1993), Hostage-Taking
(Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1979), and Terrorism and Criminal Justice (Lexington, MA:
Lexington Books, 1978).

Donatella Della Porta is Professor of Political Science, dean of the Institute for Humanities
and the Social Sciences and Director of the PD program in Political Science and Sociology at
the Scuola Normale Superiore in Florence, where she also leads the Center on Social Movement
Studies (Cosmos). Among the main topics of her research are social movements, political vio-
lence, terrorism, corruption, the police and protest policing. She has directed a major ERC
project, Mobilizing for Democracy, on civil society participation in democratization processes
in Europe, the Middle East, Asia and Latin America. In 2011, she was the recipient of the Mattei
Dogan Prize for distinguished achievements in the field of political sociology.

Isabelle Duyvesteyn is Professor of International Studies/Global History at the Institute of

History at Leiden University. She completed her PhD at the Department of War Studies at
King’s College in London. Previously she has worked at the Royal Military Academy in the
Netherlands and the Netherlands Institute for International Relations. Her research interests
include the history of terrorism and counterterrorism, the nature of war and peace in the devel-
oping world, irregular warfare and strategy, strategic culture and intelligence. She is a member
of the national Advisory Council for International Affairs assigned to advise the Netherlands
government on issues of peace and security, a member of the Scientific Advisory Board of the
Netherlands Defence Academy and a member of several book and journal editorial boards,
notably the Journal of Strategic Studies and Small Wars and Insurgencies.

Rory Finegan is a serving officer in the Irish Defence Forces with 33 years of experience in
a diversity of portfolios, including three separate tours of UN duty in the Middle East and a
fourth in Kosovo. He has lectured extensively in International Relations and Terrorism Studies
and was Head of Department at the United Nations Training School Ireland (UNTSI) for a
number of years, where as Course Director he delivered the bespoke International Human
Rights Course. His PhD examined the impact of Targeted Killings (TKs) in Northern Ireland
during the course of the Troubles.

Frank Foley is Senior Lecturer in International Relations at the Department of War Studies, King’s
College London. His research focuses on counterterrorism, human rights, intelligence and police
agencies in Europe and the United States. He is the author of Countering Terrorism in Britain and
France: Institutions, Norms and the Shadow of the Past (Cambridge University Press, 2013). Dr Foley
holds a PhD in Political Science (2008) from the European University Institute in Florence and
was the Zukerman post-doctoral fellow at Stanford University’s Center for International Security
and Co-operation (CISAC) in 2008–09. His works have appeared in various outlets, including
Security Studies, the Review of International Studies, and the European Journal of International Security.

James J.F. Forest, PhD, is Professor and Director of Security Studies at the University of
Massachusetts Lowell, and a Senior Fellow at the Joint Special Operations University. He has
published 20 books and numerous research articles, and serves as co-editor of the international
journal Perspectives on Terrorism.

Joshua D. Freilich is a member of the Criminal Justice Department at John Jay College. He is
the creator and Co-director of the United States Extremist Crime Database (ECDB), an open

xvi
 Contributors

source relational database of crimes committed by political extremists in the U.S. Freilich’s
research has been funded by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and the National
Institute of Justice. His research focuses on the causes of and responses to terrorism, bias crimes,
measurement issues, and criminology theory, especially environmental criminology and crime
prevention.

Francis Gaffney works as an analyst in the risk management sector with particular interests in
terrorism, strategic policy and international cyber security. His academic background includes
Master’s degrees in Terrorism Studies and International Law, and he is currently completing the
final year of his PhD at Cranfield University, UK. His current research primarily focuses on the
different aspects of international education paradigms that could potentially impact on, or act
as a source of potential triggers for, radicalisation – specifically on understanding psychological
motivations and identifying methodologies that could strengthen young people’s resilience to
violent extremism.

Paul Gill is a senior lecturer in Security and Crime Science. He has conducted research
funded by the Office for Naval Research, the Department of Homeland Security, DSTL, the
European Union, the National Institute of Justice, CREST and MINERVA. These projects
focused upon various aspects of terrorist behaviour, including the IED development, crea-
tivity, terrorist network structures, and lone-actor terrorism. His doctoral research focused
on the underlying individual and organizational motivations behind suicide bombing. This
piece of research won the Jean Blondel Prize for the best PhD thesis in Political Science in
Europe for 2010. He has published in leading psychology, criminology and political science
journals.

Lusaura Gutierrez holds a BA in government from the University of Texas, where she has
worked in various areas of research including immigration, counterterrorism, and U.S. health
care policy. She is a research associate at the Child and Family Research Partnership at the
Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs.

Lyndsey Harris is an assistant professor in Criminology at the University of Nottingham, UK.

She is Vice President and Chair of Conferences of the Society for Terrorism Research (STR)
and co-editor of the journal Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression. Lyndsey’s
research interests include terrorism, extremism, political and domestic violence with a qualitative,
empirical focus. Her doctoral thesis, ‘A Strategic Analysis of Loyalist Paramilitaries in Northern
Ireland’, included over 50 interviews with Loyalist paramilitary members and e­ x-members of
the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) and the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). She is currently
working on projects examining victimology and the impact of countering terrorism on families
and the criminal justice system in England and Wales.

Ahmed Salah Hashim is Associate Professor in the Military Studies Programme at the Institute
of Defence and Strategic Studies at the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies (RSIS).
He received his BA in Politics and International Studies from the University of Warwick, UK
and his MSc and PhD from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). He has worked
extensively in the fields of strategy and policy, dealing in particular with irregular war and
counterterrorism for the past 20 years prior to taking up his current position at RSIS in 2011,
where he teaches courses on insurgency and counterinsurgency, terrorism, and defence policies
at RSIS and SAFTI Military Institute (SAFTI MI).

xvii
 Contributors

Steve Hewitt is Senior Lecturer in the Department of History at the University of Birmingham,
UK. He has published extensively on topics related to security and intelligence, including The
British War on Terror: Terrorism and Counterterrorism on the Home Front since 9/11. Currently, he is
working on a history of terrorism and counter-terrorism in Canada that will be published by
McGill-Queen’s University Press. He tweets at @stevehewittuk.

Donald Holbrook is a lecturer at the Department of Politics, Philosophy, and Religion at

Lancaster University, UK. Prior to that he was Senior Research Fellow at the Centre for the Study
of Terrorism and Political Violence, University of St Andrews, UK. He was also Visiting Fellow
at the International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, The Hague. His research has focused mostly
on beliefs, ideas, and media in the context of terrorism and political violence. He has published
on a wide variety of topics relating to these themes, including books, journal articles, and reports.

Henda Y. Hsu is an assistant professor of Criminology at the University of Houston-Clear

Lake,Texas. His research focuses on situational crime and terrorism prevention, with a particular
focus on unintended consequences of counterterrorism. His other interests lie in criminology
theory, policing, and time-series analysis.

Joshua Kilberg is an adjunct research professor at the Norman Paterson School of International
Affairs at Carleton University, Ottawa. His research focuses on terrorist group organizational
structures and terrorist leaders. He holds a PhD in International Affairs from Carleton University
and an MA in War Studies from King’s College London.

Gary LaFree is Director of the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses
to Terrorism (START) and Professor of Criminology and Criminal Justice at the University of
Maryland. His research is on the causes and consequences of violent crime and terrorism. His
most recent books are Putting Terrorism in Context (with Laura Dugan and Erin Miller) and
Countering Terrorism (with Martha Crenshaw).

Stéphane Leman-Langlois is Professor of Criminology at Laval University, Québec. He holds

the Canada Research Chair on Surveillance and the Social Construction of Risk. He is Director
of the Terrorism and Counterterrorism Research Group and of the Centre on International
Security at Laval University. He is also Co-director of the Observatoire sur la radicalisation et
l’extrémisme violent (OSR).

Lasse Lindekilde is Associate Professor at the Department of Political Science, Aarhus

University, Denmark. He holds a PhD from the European University Institute. His research is
focused on violent radicalization and the implementation and effects of counter-radicalization
policies. He is Co-PI on the FP7-sponsered project PRIME, focusing on lone actor extremism.
As a visiting fellow at the University of California, Santa Barbara, he has conducted experi-
mental research on the effects of small group deliberation on the radicalization of attitudes and
action preparedness. He is currently undertaking research looking at the efficiency of pre-event
communication campaigns aimed at interdiction and mitigation of violent extremism.

David Malet is Director of the Security Policy Studies Program and Visiting Associate Professor
of International Affairs at the George Washington University Elliott School of International
Affairs,Washington, DC. Prior to his work in academia he served as a defense and foreign policy
advisor to the US Senate Majority Leader. He is the author of Foreign Fighters: Transnational

xviii
 Contributors

Identity in Civil Conflicts, Biotechnology and International Security, and Transnational Actors in War and
Peace: Militants, Activists, and Corporations in World Politics. He regularly consults on foreign fighter
policy challenges for international, governmental, military, and civil society organizations.

Leena Malkki has specialized on the study of political violence and terrorism in Western countries.
She currently works as a university lecturer at the Network for European Studies, University of
Helsinki and is a visiting researcher at the Institute of Security and Global Affairs, Leiden University,
Campus The Hague. Her research interests include the dynamics of terrorist campaigns and trans-
national dimensions of terrorism waves. She is a steering committee member of the European
Consortium for Political Research standing group on political violence and a member of the
European Expert Network on Terrorist Issues and the Revolutionary New Left researcher network.

Stefan Malthaner is Research Fellow at the Hamburg Institute for Social Research (HIS).
Previously, he was Assistant Professor at Aarhus University, Marie Curie Fellow and Max Weber
Fellow at the European University Institute (EUI) in Florence, Researcher at the Institute for
Interdisciplinary Research on Conflict and Violence (IKG) in Bielefeld, and a member of the
research group ‘Micropolitics of Armed Groups’ at Humboldt University Berlin. His research
interests include political violence, civil wars, and militant movements, with a particular focus
on the relationship between militant movements and their social environment as well as on
processes of conflict escalation and transformation.

Raphael D. Marcus received his PhD from the Department of War Studies, King’s College
London. He is the author of the forthcoming book Israel’s Long War with Hezbollah: Military
Innovation and Adaptation Under Fire (Georgetown University Press, 2018). He is a member of
the Insurgency Research Group in the Department of War Studies, where his research interests
include Middle East security issues, terrorism, military affairs, and organizational learning. He is
currently working as an intelligence and counterterrorism analyst at a law-enforcement agency.

Sarah Marsden is Lecturer in Radicalisation and Protest in a Digital Age at Lancaster University,
Lancashire, UK, prior to which she was a lecturer in Terrorism Studies at the University of
St Andrews. Sarah has a PhD in International Relations from the University of St Andrews,
a Masters in Forensic Psychology, and a BA (Hons) in Philosophy and Literature from the
University of Liverpool. Her research takes an interdisciplinary approach to questions of ter-
rorism, radicalisation, and contentious politics. She has published widely on global jihadism,
religious nationalism, and radical social movements, including the book Reintegrating Extremists:
‘Deradicalisation’ and Desistance (Palgrave, 2017).

Arijit Mazumdar PhD is Associate Professor of Political Science at the University of St.Thomas,
St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. His research interests include comparative politics and international
relations of South Asia, Indian foreign policy, and India’s internal wars (insurgencies and terror-
ism). His book, entitled Indian Foreign Policy in Transition: Relations with South Asia, was published
by Routledge in 2015. His work has been published in several journals, including Asian Affairs: An
American Review, Asian Survey, Contemporary Politics, India Quarterly: A Journal of International Affairs,
Indian Journal of Political Science, Journal of Asian and African Studies, and Strategic Analysis.

George Michael is a professor of Criminal Justice at Westfield State University in Massachusetts.

Previously, he was an associate professor of Nuclear Counter-Proliferation and Deterrence
Theory at the Air War College in Montgomery, Alabama. He is the author of seven books,

xix
 Contributors

including The Enemy of My Enemy: The Alarming Convergence of Militant Islam and the Extreme
Right (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2006), Willis Carto and the American Far Right
(Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2008), Theology of Hate: A History of the World Church
of the Creator (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2009), Lone Wolf Terror and the Rise of
Leaderless Resistance (Nashville, TN:Vanderbilt University Press, 2012), and Extremism in America
(editor) (Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 2014).

Assaf Moghadam is Associate Professor at the Interdisciplinary Center (IDC) Herzliya, Israel,
and Director of Academic Affairs at the International Institute for Counter-Terrorism (ICT),
also at IDC. He is a non-resident fellow at the Combating Terrorism Center at West Point and
a Research Affiliate of the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to
Terrorism (START) at the University of Maryland. He is the author or editor of five books on
terrorism, most recently Nexus of Global Jihad: Understanding Cooperation among Terrorist Actors
(New York: Columbia University Press, 2017).

Rachel Monaghan is a senior lecturer in Criminology at Ulster University. Her research interests
focus on the area of political violence, informal justice, single-issue terrorism, counter-terrorism
and crime and insecurity. She has published articles in the International Criminal Justice Review, Space
and Polity, Terrorism and Political Violence and Journal of Conflict Studies. She is the co-editor of the
journal Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism & Political Aggression and is on the editorial board for Studies
in Conflict and Terrorism. She is also currently the president of the Society for Terrorism Research.

Cerwyn Moore is a senior lecturer in POLSIS, University of Birmingham, UK. He has pub-
lished extensively on ‘foreign fighters’ (2008), suicide attacks (2012) and the insurgency in the
North Caucasus (2010). His 2015 article used a new dataset and body of theory on ‘kin’ to exam-
ine foreign fighters in the conflicts in Southern Russia and Syria. Dr Moore is a Programme
Director in the Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats, a consortium commis-
sioned and launched by the ESRC in October 2015. CREST brings together world leading
researchers at Birmingham, Cranfield, Lancaster, Portsmouth, Bath and the West of England.

John F. Morrison is the director of the Terrorism and Extremism Research Centre (TERC)
and Senior Lecturer in Criminology at Royal Holloway, University of London. Prior to this he
worked as a post-doctoral researcher at the International Center for the Study of Terrorism at
Pennsylvania State University. He is the author of the 2014 book Origins and Rise of Dissident
Irish Republicanism, published by Bloomsbury Press. Dr. Morrison holds a PhD in International
Relations from the University of St. Andrews, an MA in Forensic Psychology from University
College Cork, and a BA in Psychology from University College Dublin.

Marc Parker is an operational counter terrorism professional and an experienced Countering

Terrorist Finance practitioner. He has briefed and lectured widely on the subject to fellow profes-
sionals, the military and various government agencies in the UK, Europe and the United States. In
2014, he received a PhD from the University of St Andrews. His research challenged conventional
operational approaches to CTF in the UK and their relevance in combatting new diffuse and
increasingly discreet security threats. He remains a strong advocate of the utility of financial intel-
ligence to inform and provide insight to shape counterterrorism responses generally.

Elizabeth Pearson is a PhD candidate at War Studies, King’s College London, where she works
on gender and cumulative extremism. She is also a visiting researcher at the VOX-Pol Network

xx
 Contributors

of Excellence for the study of Violent Online Political Extremism and responses to it, and is an
associate fellow at the defence think tank the Royal United Services Institute. Prior to academic
research she worked as a radio producer, mainly for the BBC.

Ami Pedahzur is Professor of Government and the Arnold S. Chaplik Professor in Israel and
Diaspora Studies at the University of Texas at Austin. He is also the founding director of the
Institute for Israel Studies at UT Austin. His recent books include The Triumph of Israel’s Radical Right
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012); The Israeli Secret Services and the Struggle against Terrorism
(New York: Columbia University Press, 2009); Jewish Terrorism in Israel (New York: Columbia
University Press, 2009, with Arie Perliger); and Suicide Terrorism (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2005).

Arie Perliger is a professor of Security Studies at the School of Criminology and Justice
Studies, University of Massachusetts, Lowell. In the past 15 years, Dr. Perliger has studied exten-
sively issues related to Terrorism and Political Violence, Politics of Security, Politics of the Far
Right in Israel, Europe and the US, Middle Eastern Politics and the applicability of Social
Network Analysis to the study of social phenomena. Dr. Perliger is the editor-in-chief of the
journal Democracy and Security and a member of the editorial board of Studies in Conflict and
Terrorism. For more information, please visit: http://aperliger.wix.com/arie-perliger

Zacharias Pieri is a lecturer in International Relations and Security Studies at the University of
South Florida Sarasota-Manatee. Dr. Pieri’s research focuses on the relationships between religion,
politics, and violence, as well as militant networks in Africa and beyond. He specializes on reli-
gious extremism, and in particular on the ideological and strategic development of Boko Haram
and the evolution of Islamic State’s franchises. He has consulted on international projects investi-
gating counter-radical discourses amongst Muslim communities around the world, and regularly
publishes on issues of Islam and international security. Dr. Pieri has advised UK and US govern-
ments on conflict in Africa, and also regularly appears as a subject matter expert in the media.

Elena Pokalova is an associate professor of International Security Studies at the College of

International Security Affairs of the National Defense University, Washington, DC. She is an
expert in security studies with a focus on terrorism, counterterrorism, and ethnic conflict. Dr.
Pokalova has a vast record of publications, including her book Chechnya’s Terrorist Network: The
Evolution of Terrorism in Russia’s North Caucasus. Her articles have appeared in such journals as
Terrorism and Political Violence, Critical Studies on Terrorism, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, and
Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies.

Zoey Reeve is an early-career researcher at the Department of Political and Social Science,
University of Edinburgh. She has degrees in Psychology, Terrorism and International Relations,
and a PhD in Political Science from the University of Edinburgh. Zoey’s research focuses on
applying psychological theory and methodology to the study of terrorism and radicalisation.

Anthony Richards has published widely on terrorism-related themes, including British public
and Muslim attitudes towards both terrorism and counterterrorism, homeland security, ter-
rorism in Northern Ireland, and terrorism and sport (he was the lead editor for the volume
Terrorism and the Olympics: Major Event Security and Lessons for the Future (London: Routledge,
2011). His most recent book, Conceptualizing Terrorism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015),
was nominated for the Political Studies Association’s best political science book of the year
award. He has presented to a wide range of academic and policymaking audiences and has con-

xxi
 Contributors

tributed to briefings on terrorism, radicalization and extremism at the UK Home Office and
the Foreign and Commonwealth Office.

Julian Richards is the co-director of the Centre for Security and Intelligence Studies (BUCSIS)
at the University of Buckingham, UK, which he jointly founded in 2008 after a long career
working for the British government in security and intelligence. He is the author of four books
on various aspects of intelligence, security policy and counterterrorism, in addition to a num-
ber of scholarly articles and book chapters. He is also a regular commentator on national and
international radio and TV on various aspects of contemporary intelligence and security policy.

Marcus Rogers, PhD, CISSP, CCCI, DFCP, is the Dept. Head in Computer & Information
Technology, at Purdue University. He is a Professor, Fellow of the Center for Education and
Research in Information Assurance and Security (CERIAS), Fellow of the American Academy
of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) and Chair of the Digital & Multimedia Science Section of the
American Academy of Forensic Sciences. Dr. Rogers is also the former co-editor of the IEEE
Privacy & Security Cyber Crime Department and Chair of the NIST/OSAC-DE Education
Task Group. Dr. Rogers is a former police detective from Canada.

Jennifer Schmidt-Petersen has an MSc in Forensic Psychology from London Metropolitan

University and an MSc in Investigative Psychology from the University of Huddersfield, UK.
She has lectured in Criminology, Psychology and related areas for several educational establish-
ments and universities in the UK. Her research interests focus particularly on terrorism, organ-
ised crime and investigative psychology.

Bart Schuurman is an assistant professor at Leiden University’s Institute of Security and

Global Affairs. He obtained his PhD at Leiden University, the Netherlands by studying how
and why involvement in the Dutch ‘Hofstadgroup’ materialised. Alongside his doctoral work, he
has conducted research on a variety of topics related to contemporary terrorism. These include
projects on the pre-attack behaviour of group-based and lone actor extremists, an evaluation of
a Dutch re-integration effort focusing on jihadist offenders, and a strategic analysis of the French
intervention in Mali. Bart is a research fellow at the International Centre for Counterterrorism
(ICCT) and Associate Editor for the journal Perspectives on Terrorism.

Joshua Sinai is a principal analyst at Kiernan Group Holdings (KGH), a homeland security
consulting firm, in Alexandria, VA. Dr. Sinai has more than 30 years’ experience in terrorism,
counterterrorism and homeland security studies in government, academia and the private sec-
tor. His publications include a handbook on active shooter prevention (ASIS International, May
2016) and an annotated bibliography on terrorism and counterterrorism (Routledge, 2018). He
also serves as Book Reviews Editor of the online journal Perspectives on Terrorism, for which he
writes the ‘Counterterrorism Bookshelf ’ review column. Dr. Sinai earned his PhD in Political
Science/Comparative Politics at Columbia University, New York.

Itai Sneh is an associate professor and tenured at the Department of History in John Jay
College of Criminal Justice of the City University of New York. He completed his doctorate
in American History at Columbia University, New York. He holds a law degree, and a Masters
in Eastern European Jewish Studies, from McGill University in Montreal, Canada, and a BA in
Jewish History (with minors in International Relations, Biblical Studies, and Yiddish Language
and Culture) from Hebrew University in Jerusalem, Israel. His research and teaching interests

xxii
 Contributors

encompass global history of international human rights and justice. His first book was The
Future Almost Arrived: How Jimmy Carter Failed to Change U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Peter
Lang, 2008). He also has published numerous review articles in prestigious fora that include
H-HUMAN RIGHTS, H-LAW, H-DIPLO, H-POL and Reviews in American History.

Amy Thornton is a teaching fellow in the Department of Security and Crime Science at
University College London. Her research interests include radicalisation, terrorism and coun-
terterrorism, forensic science, crime reduction strategies, evaluation methods, and qualitative
methods. Amy has worked on PRIME, an EU FP7 project which aims to ‘Prevent’, ‘Interdict’
and ‘Mitigate’ lone actor extremism, and on the Vox-Pol project, which aims to understand
extremism online. She has worked with UK and EU governments, international institutions and
organisations in the charity sector in order to provide strategic research partnerships in diverse
crime and security areas.

Clive Walker is Professor Emeritus of Criminal Justice Studies, University of Leeds, UK. He
has published extensively on terrorism laws, policies, and practices. His books on terrorism
laws are leading authorities: Terrorism and the Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), The
Anti-Terrorism Legislation (3rd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), Routledge Handbook of
Law and Terrorism (New York: Routledge, 2015), and The Civil Contingencies Act 2004 (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2006). He was appointed by the Home Office in 2010 as Senior
Adviser to the Independent Reviewer of Terrorism Legislation and has acted as an adviser and
witness before many parliamentary ­committees.

Leonard Weinberg is Foundation Professor of Political Science at the University of Nevada,

Reno. He is a senior fellow at the National Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism
in Oklahoma City and at the National Security Studies Center at the University of Haifa, Israel.
Over the course of his career he has been a Fulbright senior research fellow for Italy, a visit-
ing scholar at UCLA, a guest professor at the University of Florence, and the recipient of an
H.F. Guggenheim Foundation grant for the study of political violence. He has also served as a
consultant to the United Nations Office for the Prevention of Terrorism. He is Editor-in-Chief
of the journal Democracy and Security and has written and edited 20 books, including Political
Parties and Terrorist Groups (London: Frank Cass & Co., 1992), Global Terrorism: A Beginner’s Guide
(Oxford: Oneworld, 2005), and The End of Terrorism? (London: Routledge, 2012). In 1999, he
received the Thornton Peace Prize for his work in promoting Christian–Jewish reconciliation.

Margaret Wilson is a forensic psychologist specializing in the study of terrorist behaviour.

She is currently based at the Institute for Security Science and Technology at Imperial College
London. She is also a research investigator with the US National Consortium for the Study of
Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START), and teaches a course on terrorist hostage tak-
ing at the University of Maryland.

James Windle is Lecturer in Criminology at University College Cork, Ireland. His main
research interests are illicit drug markets, illicit enterprise and organised crime. Several of his
papers have, however, analysed the interaction between political violence and illicit enterprises,
and the impact of counterterrorism/insurgency on drug policy. He is author of Suppressing Illicit
Opium Production: Successful Intervention in Asia and the Middle East (London: I.B.Taurus, 2016) and
lead editor of Historical Perspectives on Organised Crime and Terrorism (London: Routledge, 2017). In
2015 he participated in the Brookings Institute ‘Improving Global Drug Policy’ project.

xxiii
 Contributors

Aaron Winter is Senior Lecturer in Criminology and Criminal Justice at the University of
East London and a member of the Terrorism and Extremism Research Centre (TERC), Centre
for Human Rights in Conflict (CHRC) and Centre for Migration, Refugees and Belonging
(CMRB). His research is on organised racism, right-wing extremism and terrorism. He is
co-editor of Discourses and Practices of Terrorism: Interrogating Terror (London: Routledge, 2010),
Reflexivity in Criminological Research Experiences with the Powerful and the Powerless (Basingstoke,
UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014) and Researching the Far Right: Theory, Method, Practice (London:
Routledge, 2018), as well as co-editor of the Manchester University Press series Racism, Resistance
and Social Change.

Sagit Yehoshua is a criminologist, specialising in profiling and the psychology of terrorism. She
has completed her PhD thesis at King’s College London University in 2013, entitled The Social-
psychology Profile of Terrorist Leaders in Israeli Prisons. Her work encompasses years of researching
and teaching the mindset and conduct of individuals and groups involved in terrorism and
political violence. Sagit is Research Fellow at Institute of Counter-Terrorism (I.C.T.), Inter-
Disciplinary Centre, Herzliya, Israel, and also joined ICSR-International Centre for the Study
of De-radicalisation, at King’s College London as an Atkin Research Fellow in 2009.

Jacob Zenn was Component Leader for Strategic Communication under European Union
Technical Assistance to Nigeria’s Evolving Security Challenges (EUTANS) from 2014 to May
2016, supported a Counterterrorism in the Sahel (CT Sahel) project in Niger as part of the
Instrument for Stability (IfS) of the EU and supported the Nigeria Stability and Reconciliation
Programme (NSRP) in drafting a Policy Framework and National Action Plan on countering
violent extremism (CVE) in Nigeria. In 2015–2016 he also provided analyses of Boko Haram’s
organizational structure to support negotiations for the kidnapped Chibok schoolgirls. One
of his recent projects was with Voice of America, analysing 18 hours of internal Boko Haram
­videos for a forthcoming documentary.

xxiv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I want to thank publicly the fantastic group of contributors who penned the chapters in this
volume. Early in my career I used to think that editors did contributors a favour by asking them
to write a chapter. Once I started to edit books myself, however, I quickly realised that it is the
contributors who are doing the favours. Every edited collection is hostage to the quality and
work of the contributors and I was exceptionally fortunate in this project to be able to benefit
from such a superb collection of writers, composed in roughly equal measure of key leading
researchers and rising stars of the future. My sincere thanks again to you all for your generosity.
I would also like to thank Hannah Ferguson and Andrew Humphrys at Routledge for their
support, practical assistance and great patience with this long-running project.
Finally, I would like to briefly acknowledge my many former colleagues at the University
of East London, who through many years helped create such a positive environment clustered
around the workings of the criminology group in particular. Some are contributors to this col-
lection but, in brief, among many great colleagues special appreciation to Maureen Azubike,
Anil Balan, Pat Berwick, Daniel Blackman, Joel Busher, Barry Collins, Randolf Cooper, Fiona
Fairweather, Lara Frumkin, Pete Fussey, Francis Gaffney, Jérémie Gilbert, Anthony Gunter,
Edel Hughes, Matthew Humphreys, Shamima Islam, Sharon Levy, Douglas Monroe, Maurice
Moore, John Morrison, Sunitha Narendran, Deirdre O’Kelly, Stella Odiah, Clare Olley, Suzanne
McDonald, Jane Pickford, Ian Porton, Anthony Richards, Mandy Ross, Mark Roycroft, Shampa
Roy-Mukherjee, Jennifer Schmidt-Petersen, Sharon Senner, Chandra Sriram, Elizabeth Stokes,
Paul Stott, John Strawson, Dinaz Trudeau, Alan Wilson, James Windle, Aaron Winter and Sagit
Yehoshua. Humble apologies to others who deserved better from my cursed memory!
 1
THE STUDY OF TERRORISM
AND COUNTERTERRORISM
Andrew Silke

Introduction
Terrorism and counterterrorism have always been challenging subjects to study. Emotive,
­controversial and sometimes even dangerous, throughout the 20th century the study of both
has lurked on the fringes of scientific research. There were few scholars willing to commit their
careers to the area, funding was extremely limited and inside and outside academia there were
plenty who questioned whether terrorism and counterterrorism were even appropriate subjects
for scientific study, and questioned too the motives of any researcher willing to explore such
controversial issues.
It was only after the 9/11 attacks in 2001 that terrorism moved from the fringes of scien-
tific interest to a subject of major attention. Controversy remained, but the funders of research
were now taking it seriously as a subject of interest. Prior to 9/11, research on terrorism had
usually been conducted on shoestring budgets. Ultimately, a lack of funding and a shortage of
researchers stifled the ambition of research plans. Expensive and time-consuming methodolo-
gies and analysis could only rarely be contemplated. Instead, making do with what was available,
researchers favoured methods and approaches which could be accomplished with the meagre
resources at hand. The result was that, although quite a lot was still written, much of it was of
limited quality, often adding little or no new data to the field. Adding to the mire, much of the
research was often conducted by authors with only a limited understanding of the existing lit-
erature on terrorism, with a result that a lot of dead-end research was unnecessarily repeated and
some of the rest was incredibly poorly linked with the rest of the field.
Much of this changed in the aftermath of 9/11.There was a massive surge in research interest
on terrorism and counterterrorism and as Figure 1.1 highlights, a dramatic and instant change.
The figure shows all the scholarly works recorded by Google Scholar which had at least one of
the following terms in the title: terrorism, terrorist, political violence, radicalisation, radicalisa-
tion or insurgency. This, though, should not be seen as a complete tally of the relevant research.
A book or an article which focused on a particular terrorist group or conflict but which did
not use any of the search terms in its title would be missed. Nevertheless, the graph demon-
strates that almost overnight, terrorism went from an exotic curiosity to a subject of apparently
strategic international importance. Research budgets were massively increased and substantial
funding was made available for a wide range of studies. Major new research centres and institutes

1
 Andrew Silke

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016

Figure 1.1  Scholarly publications on terrorism and counterterrorism, 1980–2016.

were established at many universities, while the handful of existing centres were able to grow
significantly in size and scope.
Terrorism and counterterrorism entered university course curriculums across the globe and
became widely taught. Today it is rare to find any medium-sized university in the West which
does not offer at least one module on terrorism in its syllabus. Before 9/11, it was a rarity.
Figure 1.1 also illustrates that the surge in interest has largely been sustained in the years
following 2001. New research continues to be published at a formidable rate. Almost 35,000
scholarly works have been published since 9/11 with ‘terrorist’ or ‘terrorism’ in the title. That
number jumps to 635,000 if you also include those works which mention terrorist or terrorism
somewhere in the text. It averages at over 100 scholarly works published each and every day
since 9/11: books, journal articles and theses. Keeping track of such a blizzard of research and
analysis is a massive challenge in itself. And yet, despite this incredible flood of output, a recur-
ring fear among researchers is that the study of terrorism and counterterrorism is actually failing.

Challenges in understanding terrorism and counterterrorism

A variety of factors drive this fear of failure, but the reason most often cited is that the research
methods used to study terrorism and counterterrorism are too weak. A vocal recent critic is
Marc Sageman (2014), who argued that research on terrorism has stagnated. In a stark overall
analysis, he concluded that:

Overall, the post-9/11 money surge into terrorism studies and the rush of newcomers
into the field had a deleterious effect on research. The field was dominated by lay-
men, who controlled funding, prioritizing it according to their own questions, and
self-proclaimed media experts who conduct their own ‘research.’ These ‘experts’ still
fill the airwaves and freely give their opinions to journalists, thereby framing terror-
ist events for the public. However, they are not truly scholars, are not versed in the
scientific method, and often pursue a political agenda. … The voice of true scholars is
drowned… it is hard to escape the judgment that academic terrorism research has stag-
nated for the past dozen years because of a lack of both primary sources and vigorous
efforts to police the quality of research, thus preventing the establishment of standards

2
 The study of terrorism and counterterrorism

of academic excellence and flooding the field with charlatans, spouting some of the
vilest prejudices under the cloak of national security.
(Sageman, p. 8)

This was not the first time that experienced researchers had hit out at the poor quality of large
amounts of terrorism research. In an early famous review of research, Schmid and Jongman
(1988) found that most researchers were not producing substantively new data or knowledge.
Instead, they were primarily reworking old material which already existed. In the 1980s, only
46 per cent of the researchers said that they had ever managed to generate data of their own on
the subject of terrorism. For the majority of researchers, all of their writings and analyses were
based entirely on data produced by others.
Figure 1.2 comes from a review at the end of the 1990s which showed that researchers
remained very heavily dependent on easily accessible sources of data. Only about 20 per cent of
articles provided substantially new knowledge which was previously unavailable to the field.The
field thus was very top-heavy with what are referred to as pre-experimental research designs.
Unfortunately, these are ‘the weakest designs since the sources of internal and external validity
are not controlled for. The risk of error in drawing causal inferences from pre-experimental
designs is extremely high and they are primarily useful as a basis... for exploratory research’
(Frankfort-Nachmias and Nachmias, 1996, p. 147).
There was some improvement after 9/11, but a 2009 review still found that only 35 per
cent of articles in the core terrorism studies were providing new data (Silke, 2009). Most of
the rest were again essentially rehashing knowledge that was already there. This leads us back to
Sageman’s stagnation argument, which recognised that while a great deal was being written on
terrorism and counterterrorism, the heavy reliance on weaker methodologies and limited data
analysis meant that the field was failing to make meaningful progress.

Documentary A/R
Documentary
+ Interviews (<5%)
Analysis/Review
11%
62%

Unstructured
Non-Systematic
Interviews
9%

Structured
Systematic
Interviews
1%

Database
7%

Surveys/
Questionnaires
No Sources 3%
6%

Figure 1.2  Methods in terrorism research (Silke, 2001).

3
 Andrew Silke

There was a polemic edge to the stagnation argument and many serious and ­experienced
t­errorism researchers countered that Sageman had overstated the case (e.g. Taylor, 2014;
McCauley and Moskalenko, 2014). Yes, there were a lot of mediocre studies, but there were
also definite signs of progress. Indeed, some have argued instead that the study of terrorism and
counterterrorism is actually in a golden age: a period of unparalleled research activity where
a wide range of progress is taking place, even if somewhat more slowly and hesitantly in some
areas than others (e.g. Schmid, 2011; Silke and Schimdt-Petersen, 2017).
To a degree, patchy progress is a reflection of the multi-disciplinary nature of terrorism
studies. It has long been recognised within the field that terrorism studies is a strongly inter-
disciplinary subject area (Silke, 2004), and while it has often traditionally been dominated by
the political sciences, there have been very significant contributions from other areas, including
psychology, criminology, economics, anthropology, history, religious studies, etc. (e.g. Schmid,
2011; Horgan, 2017; LaFree and Freilich, 2016). The interdisciplinary nature of the field is gen-
erally widely viewed in positive terms, helping to ensure an extensive range of perspectives and
methodologies can be brought to bear. One challenge, however, is the risk of disciplinary silos
developing, with researchers from one discipline being poorly aware of potentially useful and
relevant findings from others.
Richard English (2016, pp. 148–149) highlighted that breaking down such silos was one of
the major challenges now facing the future of terrorism research:

Sometimes, what we know about terrorism and how to respond to it can only be seen
most clearly if we read along continua and across disciplines and beyond a narrowly-
defined field of work. There has recently been something of an eirenic turn in the
wider scholarly literature relevant to terrorism and counter-terrorism; but this is only
properly visible if one reads well beyond the terrorism studies literature itself, and if
one digs deeply into diverse disciplines… in order to see this scholarly insight properly,
we have to read across methodological boundaries and, equally importantly, to address
the problem that some people still too narrowly define the boundaries around the
study of terrorism (and discuss terrorism research as if it occurs overwhelmingly in a
very small set of journals and titles). Much of the best work on terrorist violence and
terrorist actors is not published in terrorism studies journals, or in books with ‘ter-
rorism’ in the title. Instead, it addresses the contextually, historically, culturally located
emergence and dynamics of political violence which many would consider to be
terrorism. To ignore this wider literature limits the profundity and accuracy of the
conclusions that can be reached.

Adding yet another hurdle for research to grapple with is the troublesome issue of how terror-
ism is defined. To put it bluntly, there has never been a widely agreed definition of terrorism,
and some writers have concluded that ‘it is unlikely that any definition will ever be generally
agreed upon’ (Shafritz, Gibbons and Scott, 1991). The failure to find a widely acceptable defini-
tion of terrorism is tied to the political use of the word. Fundamentally, ‘terrorism’ is a pejora-
tive term with a range of negative meanings. These concerns tie into the long-standing truism
that ‘one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter.’ Individuals such as Nelson Mandela,
for example, were labelled as terrorists for many years, and yet Mandela went on to become an
internationally respected statesman.
Terrorists rarely describe themselves as ‘terrorists’. While on trial in 1878 for shooting a
Russian police general, Vera Zasulich proudly proclaimed in court, ‘I am a terrorist, not a
murderer’ (Bergman, 1983), but subsequent inheritors of her legacy have shied away from the

4
 The study of terrorism and counterterrorism

label. Instead, later generations of ‘terrorists’ portrayed themselves as soldiers, freedom fighters,
­volunteers, partisans or the resistance (at least in their own minds if nowhere else). Normally
they were equally bitter about any effort to describe them as criminals.
The dividing lines between terrorism, guerrilla warfare and insurgency, for example, have
never been clear-cut. For some, inevitably, the terms are completely interchangeable. For others
there are important and powerful differences.The common thread running across all three is the
use of violence for political purposes, but little else is agreed about, and many governments tend
to be quick to apply the label ‘terrorist’ to an opponent if they can possibly get away with it.
Uncertainty over what terrorism is not only has political implications, but also has real
consequences for research. For example, if you are interested in understanding the root causes
of terrorism, one study might have a very narrow focus only exploring instances of terrorism
perpetrated by lone actors; another might focus instead on conflicts which could be regarded
as insurgencies or civil wars; while a third study might try to look at the state use of terrorism.
All three studies might in theory be looking at ‘the causes of terrorism’, but what each means
by ‘terrorism’ is very different. Inevitably, the studies come to different conclusions. Similar
problems apply in terms of research on counterterrorism: exactly what type of terrorism is
being countered? This is not always clearly spelt out with the inevitable result that there is often
confusion and mixed findings around the impact of counterterrorism too.
Persistent concerns about the impact of how terrorism was defined within research partly
contributed to the development of the sub-field of Critical Terrorism Studies (CTS) in the
2000s. Formally established in 2007, CTS argued that a variety of issues had not been adequately
addressed by mainstream terrorism research. A particular concern was that research tended to see
terrorism as something only non-state actors did. As Jackson (2009, p. 70) noted:

An important consequence of these conceptual practices are that terrorism comes

to be understood and studied solely as a form of violence carried out by non-state
groups, and terrorism by states remains unstudied and mostly invisible… When state
terrorism is discussed, it is usually limited to descriptions of ‘state-sponsored terrorism’
by so-called ‘rogue states’. Further, the subsequent silence on the direct use of terror-
ism by state actors within the Terrorism Studies literature underpins a mostly unspo-
ken belief that Western liberal democratic states in particular never engage in terrorism
as a matter of policy, but only occasionally in error or misjudgement.

A linked concern for CTS was how:

much of the literature defines the ‘terrorist’ as the main or exclusive security problem
and inquiry is largely restricted to the assembling of information and data that would
solve or eradicate the ‘problem’ as the state defines it.This focus ignores both terrorism
being a social phenomenon which is typically the outcome of a long dynamic process,
and the potential contribution of the state itself to the creation of the conditions in
which terrorist action by non-state actors occurs.
(Jackson, Gunning, and Smyth, 2007)

Controversy around the appropriate role of research with regard to terrorism is not new.
Terrorism is an emotive subject, and many researchers have traditionally not been overly con-
cerned with remaining objective and neutral in how they view the subject and its perpetrators.
Indeed, it has been noted that many researchers seem confused by their roles. As Schmid and
Jongman (1988, p. 179) pointed out, the researcher’s ‘role is not to “fight” the terrorist fire; rather

5
 Andrew Silke

than a “firefighter,” [the researcher] should be a “student of combustion”’. But such objectiv-
ity is often relatively rare in the field (not especially surprising when most of the research is
paid for by one side in the terrorism equation). Most researchers do seem to believe they are
fulfilling – or are meant to fulfil – a firefighting role. The result is that research is often largely
driven by policy concerns, and the area has often fallen into a trap where it is largely limited to
government agendas.

Outline of this volume

Given the focus of much of the chapter so far, one would be forgiven for assuming that research
on terrorism and counterterrorism must inevitably then be in a shocking state, ruined by weak
research methods, conceptual confusion and political bias. And yet, that would be far too pes-
simistic. While there are problems, overall, terrorism research is still remarkably vibrant and pro-
lific, and amid the herd of mediocre studies in many areas, there are still real gems which offer
findings of genuine progress and insight. Overall, it is likely that future scholars will look back
at this period as an important and transformational phase in our understanding of terrorism and
counterterrorism. The study of terrorism itself has been catapulted from academic obscurity to
a mainstream multi-disciplinary subject, now widely taught at most universities. The field pro-
duces an unprecedented level of research and writing. Never before in history have the issues
of what causes terrorism and how it should be combatted attracted such wide international
attention and controversy.
Bearing in mind this rich and varied context, the need for an accessible and comprehensive
overview on these controversial issues remains profound. This then was the motivation behind
the current volume: to provide a wide-ranging overview of the current state of academic analy-
sis and debate on terrorism and counterterrorism, as well as a detailed survey of key historical
and contemporary terrorist groups and major counterterrorism campaigns. The volume inten-
tionally adopted a wide focus, highlighting both key trends as well as cutting-edge topics and
emerging critical issues. A wide net was cast internationally, to deliberately bring a rich range of
conflicts and case studies from across the globe. Ultimately, this handbook is intended to provide
a comprehensive, state-of-the-art overview of our current knowledge, as well as hopefully pro-
viding a benchmark for future work.

Terrorism
The first part of the book opens with a chapter from Anthony Richards, who tackles the ever-
present issue of defining terrorism. We have already touched on the significant impact this has
for research, and Richards highlights both the major problems in reaching a widely agreed
definition but also some of the best avenues forward. Gary LaFree follows with a closely linked
chapter examining the conceptualisation of terrorism and in particular what this means in
terms of measurement – a cornerstone of research. As one of the key figures behind the Global
Terrorism Database, LaFree is extraordinarily well-placed to highlight the implications even
small changes in definition and measurement have on our assessment of trends and the impact
of counterterrorism policies.
Having set the conceptual framework for the first part of the volume, Leonard Weinberg
then takes us on a swift tour of the history of terrorism. Too often, the history of terrorism is
assumed to have begun on September 11, 2001. Weinberg comprehensively destroys that myth,
and in what is rightly the longest chapter in the volume, he outlines the rich and complex evo-
lution of terrorism over the past 100 years.

6
 The study of terrorism and counterterrorism

One of the fundamental questions facing terrorism studies is, what causes terrorism? One
of the key writers on this subject, Tore Bjørgo, together with myself, tries to pull together the
evidence around what factors drive terrorist conflicts. The findings challenge many widely held
assumptions and also drive home that we need to be sophisticated in terms of how we think
about causes and the different levels at which they work.
At this point, the volume moves into discussion and analysis of different types of terrorism.
I open with a chapter on state terrorism. Too often there is an assumption that terrorism only
applies to non-state actors, but as the CTS school would argue, states can and have engaged
in terrorism. How we examine state terrorism again raises important questions about how we
define and conceptualise terrorism in general.
The most successful terrorist groups over the last 100 years tended to all come from the
nationalist and separatist camp. James Forest provides an overview of the characteristics of this
type of terrorism and discusses some of the more well-known examples, such as the IRA in
Northern Ireland and the ETA in Spain. Leena Malkki follows with an analysis of left-wing
terrorism: a significant force in Europe in the 1970s and 1980s, but even stronger in other parts
of the world, such as Latin America. George Michael then assesses their counterparts on the
right-wing, drawing attention to (among other things) how the right-wing concept of ‘leader-
less resistance’ fed steadily into the rise of lone-actor terrorism. This theme is developed further
in the following chapter by Noémie Bouhana and her co-authors, who review what we know
about lone actors today. Historically, the far right may have set the scene on lone-wolf terror-
ism, and while they remain present, it is increasingly Islamist-inspired lone actors who are of
growing concern.
In different ways, radicalisation and recruitment are the major themes of the next three
chapters. Zoey Reeve opens with an overview on what we know about terrorist psychology
and the radicalisation process. Had this book been written 20 years ago, we would not have
mentioned the term ‘Radicalisation’, though we would certainly have talked about individu-
als being recruited or joining terrorist groups. The growth of the concept of radicalisation as
the framework for how we understand how people become involved in terrorism is one of
the major developments in terrorism studies in recent years. Deborah Browne follows with an
assessment on how children and teenagers in particular are drawn into terrorism, extremism
and political violence. Finally, Katherine Brown and Elizabeth Pearson explore the increasingly
important role played by social media and the online environment, both in terms of facilitating
and hindering radicalisation.
Next, Joshua Kilberg focuses on terrorist group structures, a subject with important implica-
tions in both assessing the nature of the threat posed by terrorism but also in assessing the likely
effectiveness of various counterterrorism measures. Sarah Marsden is also concerned with effec-
tiveness, but this time in terms of assessing, what impact does terrorism have? Intense debate has
raged on this question in recent years and Marsden assesses the different ways in which terrorism
‘works’. Linked to this, in the subsequent chapter Thomas Baumert and Mikel Buesa explore the
economic impact of terrorism. Their conclusion is that terrorism can be a remarkably effective
low-cost form of conflict. For modest outlays, terrorist violence can inflict disproportionately
high costs on opponents. Building further on this theme, James Windle outlines how terrorists
raise the money needed to fund their campaigns and how this can link into organised crime
and even in some cases to the watering down of political ideals when some movements become
increasingly motivated by profit.
David Malet’s chapter on foreign fighters represents yet another topic that if this book had
been written 20 years ago would probably have been overlooked. Today, however, foreign fight-
ers are a major international issue and the focus of enormous attention.

7
 Andrew Silke

The remaining chapters in this section look at particularly prominent terrorist tactics. Assaf
Moghadam starts off with an overview of suicide terrorism, an exotic curiosity in the 20th century,
but a mainstream terrorist tactic in the 21st. Moghadam assesses how and why that transforma-
tion occurred. In contrast, hostage-taking has been a mainstream terrorist tactic for much longer.
Margaret Wilson provides a review of the history of hostage-taking, outlining the dynamics and
objectives typically seen when terrorists use this tactic. Gary Ackerman then provides a clear-
headed assessment of chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) terrorism. In an age
of mass casualty terrorism, the use of CBRN weapons by terrorists poses sobering questions which
can be easily inflamed and inflated in public imaginations. Ackerman, however, provides a sensible
and informed assessment of the threat and challenges here. Another area often subject to hype and
hysteria is the threat of cyber terrorism. Again, Marcus Rogers provides some sensible analysis in a
chapter that links well with Brown and Pearson’s earlier analysis on the role of social media.
The final section of Part 1 focuses on case studies of particularly significant groups: Al-Qaeda;
Boko Haram; Hamas; Hizbollah; Islamic State; Provisional Irish Republican Army; Liberation
Tigers of Tamil Eelam; and Red Army Faction. Most terrorist groups are eventually defeated,
and indeed most are usually defeated relatively quickly. One survey found that 90 per cent of
terrorist groups were defeated within one year of their first attack (Rapaport, 1992). Of those
few who managed to survive the first year, nearly half were finished off within the next 10 years.
Thus, on that measure, the eight groups explored here are not typical terrorist groups: all have
endured for a considerable amount of time, some for more than decades. Their longevity, how-
ever, allows for a deeper analysis of the driving forces behind each movement and also an assess-
ment of the changing dynamics and fortunes of their respective campaigns of violence. In each
of the eight cases, the authors try to cover relatively similar issues: the origins and history of the
group; ideology and strategy; key figures and critical events. They also aim to give an overall
assessment of the major trends and issues in the conflict.

Counterterrorism
In the second part of the collection, the focus shifts to counterterrorism. The policies, strategies
and tactics that states use to combat terrorism and deal with its consequences are referred to as
counterterrorism. Counterterrorism can take many different forms, and it is not specific to any
one agency or department. It can be carried out by government departments, the military, law
enforcement agencies, intelligence agencies, emergency responders and many other groups and
bodies. Ronald Crelinsten opens this section with an important chapter to remind us that just as
we have to think about how we define and conceptualise terrorism, we need to do exactly the
same when approaching counterterrorism.
Subsequent chapters explore some of the main approaches to counterterrorism. Historically,
two main frameworks have dominated thinking on counterterrorism: the criminal justice model
and the military model. Lindsay Clutterbuck opens with the criminal justice framework and a
particular focus on the role of policing in counterterrorism. Clutterbuck draws particularly on the
UK experience and how policing evolved to tackle terrorism over many decades. Michael Boyle
follows with the military framework. This draws heavily on recent experiences from the ‘war on
terror’, and not for the last time, for example, particular attention is focused on the use of drone
warfare in counterterrorism. Next, Julian Richards explores the crucial and often hidden role of
intelligence in counterterrorism, before finally Clive Walker gives an overview on how legislation
has been used to attempt to deal with terrorism (again, with a particular focus on the UK).
Having examined some of the major approaches and frameworks, the next series of chapters
explore more focused issues. Isabelle Duyvesteyn and Bart Schuurman concentrate on the key

8
 The study of terrorism and counterterrorism

issue of popular support. There is often a general acceptance that terrorism conflicts are, at their
core, a battle for hearts and minds.What this means in practice, however, is often poorly thought
through and sometimes only haphazardly linked to a wider counterterrorism strategy. Efforts to
tackle the financing of terrorism can in some regards be more straightforward, though as Marc
Parker points out in the next chapter, efforts to do so can often be incredibly slow and only
tackled after the failures of other approaches. Joshua Freilich and his co-authors then explore the
issue of how to deter and prevent terrorist attacks from taking place. Their review shows that a
variety of measures can be taken, but that the consequences are not always positive.
The role of prison and detention in counterterrorism has often been overlooked. It is per-
haps a strange oversight given that such a large proportion of terrorists will at some point even-
tually spend time behind bars. Jacqueline Bates-Gaston examines some of the issues this raises.
Drawing on the rich experience in Northern Ireland, she outlines some of the risks, challenges
and opportunities prison presents. Kurt Braddock follows directly on from this by exploring
terrorist disengagement and de-radicalisation. Most terrorists eventually leave violence behind.
Our understanding of why they move on has often been very poor. In this chapter, Braddock
outlines what we know about how terrorists disengage and what this then means for those who
are interested in encouraging militants and their supporters away from campaigns of violence.
Rory Finegan takes us back to the subject of targeted killings and explores whether their use is
an effective or counter-productive strategy in counterterrorism.The chapter explores not only the
current era of drone strikes but also historical cases from Northern Ireland, Spain and elsewhere.
Finally, and appropriately, Lyndsey Harris and Rachel Monaghan explore issues around eth-
ics and human rights in counterterrorism. Too often these have been overlooked in analysis and
discussions, and far too often they have been sources of profound concern in how states have
waged campaigns of counterterrorism.
The final section of Part 2 provides case studies on the counterterrorism experiences
of particularly significant countries. Thirteen detailed case studies are explored: Argentina;
Canada; China; France; Great Britain; India; Iraq; Israel; Italy; Spain; Russia; the United
States of America pre-9/11; and the United States of America since 9/11. The challenges
faced across these different regions are not the same, and how each has responded to terror-
ism has varied enormously. Part of the purpose of this range of chapters is to illustrate this
variety and to drive home that there are multiple ways in which states can respond to the
terrorism puzzle. Some of the case studies take a narrow focus, for example, the Argentinian
case explores the disastrous impact of the ‘dirty war’ in the late 1970s and early 1980s and
how it weakened rather than strengthened the state that resorted to it. The Italian case study
focuses particularly on the collapse of the left-wing terrorist groups in the 1980s, and how
that was achieved primarily through criminal justice avenues. Most of the other chapters
provide overviews of the history of terrorism and counterterrorism in the particular coun-
try, examining and assessing some of the political, military, legal and other policies that the
governments have used in dealing with the terrorism. Valuable and important efforts are
made to assess the effectiveness of different policies, what ultimately enjoyed some success
and what were the political and social costs of the failures.

References

Bergman, J. (1983). Vera Zasulich: A Biography. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
English, R. (2016). ‘The Future Study of Terrorism.’ European Journal of International Security, 1 (2), 135–49.
Frankfort-Nachmias, C. and Nachmias, D. (1996). Research Methods in the Social Sciences (5th edition).
London: Arnold.

9
 Andrew Silke

Horgan, J. (2017). ‘Psychology of Terrorism: Introduction to the Special Issue.’ American Psychologist, 72 (3),
199–204.
Jackson, R. (2009). ‘Knowledge, Power and Politics in the Study of Political Terrorism.’ In Jackson,
R., Smyth, M.B. and Gunning, J. (eds.), Critical Terrorism Studies: A New Research Agenda, pp. 66–83.
London: Routledge.
Jackson, R., Gunning, J. and Smyth M.B. (2007). ‘The Case for a Critical Terrorism Studies.’ Prepared for
delivery at the 2007 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, August 30–September 2,
2007.
LaFree, G. and Freilich, J. (2016). The Handbook of the Criminology of Terrorism. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.
McCauley, C. and Moskalenko, S. (2014). ‘Some Things We Think We’ve Learned Since 9/11: A
Commentary on Marc Sageman’s “The Stagnation in Terrorism Research”.’ Terrorism and Political
Violence, 26 (4), 601–606.
Rapaport, D. (1992). ‘Terrorism.’ In Mary Hawkesworth and Maurice Kogan (eds.), Routledge Encyclopedia
of Government and Politics. London: Routledge.
Sageman, M. (2014). ‘The Stagnation in Terrorism Research.’ Terrorism and Political Violence, 26 (4), 565–80.
Schmid, A. (2011). The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research. London: Routledge.
Schmid, A. and Jongman, A. (1988). Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, Authors, Concepts, Data Bases,
Theories and Literature. Oxford: North Holland.
Shafritz, J.M., Gibbons, E.F. Jr. and Scott, G.E.J. (1991). Almanac of Modern Terrorism. Oxford: Facts on File.
Silke, A. (2001). ‘The Devil You Know: Continuing Problems with Research on Terrorism.’ Terrorism and
Political Violence, 13(4), 1–14.
Silke, A. (2004). ‘The Road Less Travelled: Trends in Terrorism Research.’ In A. Silke (ed.), Research on
Terrorism:Trends, Achievements and Failures, pp. 186–213. London: Frank Cass.
Silke, A. (2009). ‘Contemporary Terrorism Studies: Issues in Research.’ In R. Jackson, M. Smyth and J.
Gunning (eds.), Critical Terrorism Studies: A New Research Agenda, pp. 34–48. London: Routledge.
Silke, A. and Schmidt-Petersen, J. (2017). ‘The Golden Age? What the 100 Most Cited Articles in Terrorism
Studies Tell Us.’ Terrorism and Political Violence, 29 (4), 692–712.
Taylor, M. (2014).‘If I Were You, I Wouldn’t Start From Here: Response to Marc Sageman’s “The Stagnation
in Terrorism Research”.’ Terrorism and Political Violence, 26 (4), 581–586.

10