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fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/JESTPE.2019.2894007, IEEE Journal
of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics
IEEE JOURNAL OF EMERGING AND SELECTED TOPICS IN POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. x, NO.x, xx 2019 1
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of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics
IEEE JOURNAL OF EMERGING AND SELECTED TOPICS IN POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. x, NO.x, xx 2019 2
(NPC) inverter. With equivalent transformation and specialized II. PROPOSED ALGORITHM
sector distribution, the computational load of MPC was greatly In this section, the method of calculating the application time
reduced. However, this algorithm could not improve the of each switching state is introduced. The new cost function and
steady-state or dynamic performance of the inverter. In [22-23], the four steps model prediction are presented to select an OSS.
the low-complexity MPC (LC-MPC) was proposed for two
level inverter. Since the optimal vector of this algorithm was A. Application time calculation
selected without cycle calculation, the computational burden As shown in Fig. 1, the grid-connected system is constructed
was greatly eased. However, the LC-MPC was only suitable for of a T-type inverter. In the AC filter composed of inductance L
two-level inverter because it only considered the angle of and resistance R, the effect of L on the grid current is much
vectors and neglected their magnitude. In [24], a greater than that of R, thus the effect of R is neglected. In static
finite-control-set model predictive current control (FCS-MPCC) αβ coordinates, when the output voltage of T-type inverter is
scheme was used for five-phase inverter, and the eleven u(uα, uβ), the derivatives of active and reactive power are
reconstructed virtual voltage vectors were employed to [14-15]
minimize the time-consuming computation. This algorithm can dP 3 u e u e
only be used in the five-phase inverter, which limits its e ( i ) e ( i )
applications. dt 2 L L
, (1)
Some improved MPCs with fixed switching frequency in the
dQ 3 e ( u e i ) e ( u e
dt 2 i )
3L inverter were given based on VOC [25-27]. In [25], a MPC L L
with OSS was applied to control the grid current of the
where (eα, eβ) and (iα, iβ) denote the grid phase voltage and
single-phase 3L inverter. This approach altered vectors by
current, respectively; P is the active power; Q is the reactive
changing a power switch state, which increased the robustness
power; ω is the angular velocity.
of the inverter. However, when this approach was used for
three-phase inverter, its heavy computational requirements
obstructed its implementation. In [26], a modulated model
predictive control (M2PC) was introduced to modulate the grid
current of the NPC 3L inverter. Compared to conventional
approaches, the steady-state performance of this algorithm was
improved. For example, the total harmonic distortion (THD) of
the grid current was lower than 2%. However, there were so
many division operations in the duty cycle calculation that the
computational burden of the DSP was aggravated. In [27], by Fig. 1. Topology of the grid-connected system
nullifying the derivative of the cost function of FS-MPC, a
synthesized vector with a minimized cost function was When the switching states of vi (i=1, 2, 3) with the
obtained. Owing to the introduction of three-level space vector application times ti (i=1, 2, 3) and the output voltage of T-type
modulation (SVM), the cycle calculation was avoided in this inverter ui (uαi, uβi) are utilized to control the power switches. In
algorithm. However, this algorithm abandoned the a sampling interval, equation (1) can be rewritten as [15]
conventional MPC’s superiority of multivariable control. dP
f i
Here, the FSMPDPC is proposed to address the problems of pi dt u u i
the variable switching frequency and the heavy computational for i 1,2,3. (2)
burden in MPC. The major contributions of FSMPDPC are f dQi u u i
qi
dt
twofold: first, the control algorithm with fixed switching
frequency improves the steady-state performances of T-type According to [14], when the static error of the active and
inverter; second, the new cost function and the divided reactive power is the minimum, the application time of each
computational process reduce the required computing resources vector is calculated as
of the DSP. ( f q 2 f q 3 ) E p ( f p 3 f p 2 ) Eq ( f p 2 f q 3 f p 3 f q 2 )Ts
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section t1 ( f f ) f ( f f ) f ( f f ) f
II introduces MPDPC with fixed frequency, including the q2 q3 p1 q3 q1 p2 q1 q2 p3
( f q 3 f q1 ) E p ( f p1 f p 3 ) Eq ( f q1 f p 3 f q 3 f p1 )Ts
application time calculation, switching sequence selection,
t2 , (3)
simplified cost function and stepwise model prediction. ( f q 2 f q 3 ) f p1 ( f q 3 f q1 ) f p 2 ( f q1 f q 2 ) f p 3
FSMPDPC is summarized and its performance is analyzed in t T t t
Section III. In Section IV, experiments are conducted to verify 3 s 1 2
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of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics
IEEE JOURNAL OF EMERGING AND SELECTED TOPICS IN POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. x, NO.x, xx 2019 3
positive, the P type sequence increases the NP voltage, and the J 0 [( E p f pi ti )2 ( Eq f qiti )2 ] ucp (k 1) , (6)
i 1
N-type sequence decreases the NP voltage. If the active power
is negative, the sequence has the opposite effect on the NP where λ is the weight factor.
voltage [28]. Therefore, the switching states of T-type inverter If the cost function of (6) is incorporated into the proposed
make up 48 switching sequences algorithm, the reasons for huge amount of computation are as
follows: first, in a sampling interval, its cycle calculations are
48 and more than that of the MPDPC by 23[15-16]. Second,
during the 48-cycle calculation, this algorithm needs at least
96(48×2) division operations to calculate the application time
of all vectors. Third, since the cost function in (6) includes 3
vectors, the computational amount of the cost function is also
more than that of MPDPC [15-16].
A novel cost function without application time calculation is
given to reduce the times of division operation. The goal of
FSMPDPC is to select an OSS with the least deviations
between the output power and reference. When the switching
sequence is vi (i=1,2,3) and the application time of its switching
Fig. 2. Space vector diagram for 3L inverter states are ti (i=1,2,3), the active and reactive power at sampling
instant k+1 is predicted as
TABLE I
p 3
Subsector
UNITS FOR MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
Type Switching Sequence P ( k 1) P ( k ) f pi ti
P OOO-POO-PPO
i 1
I p 3
Q ( k 1) Q ( k ) f qi ti .
N OOO-OON-ONN
P PNN-PON-POO
(7)
II
N PON-PNN-ONN i 1
3
Ts ti
P PON-POO-PPO
III
N PON-OON-ONN
P PON-PPN-PPO i 1
IV
N PPN-PON-OON When the OSS is PON-POO-PPO or PON-OON-ONN and
located in sector I, the angle of the phase A grid current is
When the switching state is altered, only one power device is calculated in between 0o and 90o [29], and the polarity of ia is
changed, which can reduce the switching loss and enhance the positive and that of ic is negative. According to Fig. 1 and (4),
stability of T-type inverter. When the switching state of the the POO and PPO increase the NP voltage, while the OON and
inverter is Siabc (Sia, Sib, Sic) and the application time is ti, the ONN decrease the NP voltage [28].Therefore, the
voltage difference between C1 and C2 is [15-16] PON-POO-PPO (v1, v2, v3) is P-type switching sequence and
duc 1 the PON-OON-ONN (v1, v3, v2)is N-type switching sequence.
Siabc i abc ,
T
(4) With assumption that there is a vector ṽ with ( α β), when
dt C
it is used to control the T-type inverter, the active and reactive
where uc is the voltage difference between the DC-link
power at time instant k+1 is equal to Pref and Qref, respectively.
capacitors and uc=uc2-uc1; and Siabc are the switching states of
Its derivatives of active and reactive power can be expressed as
the T-type inverter, i.e., |Siabc|={|Sia|, |Sib|, |Sic|}T, and Six (x=a, b,
c)∈{-1, 0, 1}. iabc={ia, ib, ic} denotes the grid phase currents of Pref P(k ) dP(k )
fp
the grid connected system. C is the capacitance of C1 and C2. Ts dt
u u u u . (8)
f Qref Q ( k ) dQ (k )
When the switching states S1, S2, and S3 with t1, t2, and t3 work
sequentially, at sampling instant k+1, the voltage difference q
between two capacitors is predicted to be Ts dt
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of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics
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3
J1 ( f p f p )2 ( f q f q )2 ,
Pref P (k 1) f pTs f pi ti
p (14)
i 1
3
(9) where
Q Q p (k 1) f T
ref q s f qi ti
dP
i 1
f
p dt u u
Substituting (1-2) into (9), equation (9) can be rewritten as . (15)
[ Pref P p (k 1)]2 [Qref Q p (k 1)]2 f dQ u u
q
dt
3 3
9( e2 e2 )[(Tsu u iti ) 2 (Tsu u i ti ) 2 ] (10) Based on (14) and (6), the simplified cost function with the
i 1
, i 1 NP voltage is
4 L2
J 2 ( f p f p )2 ( f q f q )2 ucp (k 1) . (16)
where ui (uαi, uβi) (i=1, 2, 3) denote the output voltage of T-type
inverter with vi (i=1,2,3). According to (10), if the application When the NP voltage is not considered, the computational
time of ti (i=1, 2, 3) calculated by (3) is lower than the Ts and amount of the cost function in (16) is one-third of (6) because
positive, the relationship between the ṽ and (v1, v2, v3) is given (16) only needs to calculate one vectors while (6) needs to
in Fig. 3 and the active and reactive power static errors can be calculate three vectors. Substituting (8) into (16) yields
eliminated. E E
J 2 ( f p p )2 ( f q q )2 ucp (k 1) . (17)
Ts Ts
Equation (17) can be rewritten as
J 2 ( E p f pTs )2 ( Eq f qTs )2 Ts2 ucp (k 1) . (18)
When (18) is used as the cost function, it still need 48 cycle
calculations and 96 division operations to obtain the OSS, for
the prediction of the DC-link capacitors voltage difference
includes the application time of the three switching states.
D. Four steps model prediction
Since the T-type inverter focuses on improving the
Fig. 3. Relationship between ṽ and (v1, v2, v3)
performance of the active and reactive power, the weight factor
λ is relatively small. Moreover, Equation (2) and (4) show that
the two different types of switching sequence have the same
Therefore, the OSS can be selected by searching the location
effect on the active and reactive power and the opposite effect
of ṽ. The location of ṽ can be gained by the distance between ṽ
on the NP voltage. Therefore, the predictive model equation of
and the center of triangle. For example, in Fig. 3, when the OSS
active and reactive power is used to search the subsector
is PON-POO-PPO or PON-OON-ONN, the shortest distance is
containing the OSS, and the suitable switching sequence is
l3 which is the distance between the ṽ and the center of
selected to balance the NP voltage. The process of the
subsector III in sector I in Fig. 2. The distance between ṽ and
conventional MPDPC is divided into two steps: subsector
the center of the ith triangle can be calculated by
selection and switching sequence selection. The cost function
li [(u u )2 (u u )2 ], (11) of (18) can be divided into two cost functions.
The first cost function choosing the subsector is
where
J ( E p f pTs )2 ( Eq f qTs )2 , (19)
u i u ( i 1) u ( i 2)
u where
3
, (12)
u
u i u ( i 1) u ( i 2) dP u i u ( i 1) u ( i 2)
f p u
3 dt 3
. (20)
where the output voltage of the T-type inverter with switching f dQ u i u ( i 1) u ( i 2)
u
sequence (vi, vi+1, vi+2) is ui (uαi, uβi), ui+1 (uα(i+1), uβ(i+1)), and ui+2
q
dt 3
(uα(i+2), uβ(i+2)). Therefore, the proposed cost function which
The second cost function for selecting the OSS is
makes the active and reactive power trace the reference is
defined as
1 3
9(e2 e2 )li2 J uc (k 1) ( ti Siabc iabc ) uc (k ) .
T
J1 (21)
2 C i 1
2L
(13)
9(e2 e2 )[(u u )2 (u u )2 ]
.
2 L2
Substituting (1- 2) and (8) into (13), we obtain
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of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics
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The second cost function can be developed to achieve selected switching state is vs1. Meanwhile, The Pf and Qf
multi-objective optimization. For example, if the proposed represent the active and reactive power of FSMPDPC, and the
algorithm is utilized to achieve the common-mode voltage OSS of FSMPDPC is (v1,v2,v3). The FSMPDPC searches an
reduction, the cost function of common-mode voltage with OSS and combines the switching states of OSS linearly with its
multiplying weigh factor is incorporated into (21). application time to regulate the active and reactive power. To
The process of choosing the subsector is also divided into 2 decrease the deviations of active power and reactive power
steps. As shown in Fig. 2, each sector includes one zero vector further, the T-type inverter with FSMPDPC is applied with the
and two long vectors, similar to a two-level space vector. In the 5-segment switching state.
first step, the sector including the OSS is also obtained by the
distance between its center and ṽ. According to the cost
function (19) and the center vector, the sector including the
OSS is selected in the first step. Then, the four subsectors in the
chosen sector is substitute into (19) and (20) successively, and
when the cost function gets its minimum, the subsector with
OSS is searched.
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of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics
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FSMPDPC is lower than that of MPDPC. The active and The experimental platform is composed of controlling board,
reactive power deviations of FSMPDPC at time k+1 are sampling board, driver board, AC filter and main circuit board.
3 In the controlling board, the application time of each vector is
Pf | Pref P(k ) f piti | calculated using DSP (TMS320F28335), and CPLD
i 1
3
, (22) (EPM570T144C5) is used to decode the switching state
Q | Q Q (k )
f ref i 1
f qiti | transmitted from TMS320F28335 into gate signals. The T-type
inverter is placed on main circuit board and its power switches
where ΔPf and ΔQf are the active and reactive power deviation are insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), whose type is
of FSMPDPC, respectively. Substituting (3) into (22) yields IKW50N60T (Infineon technologies). The DC-link voltage is
ΔPf=0 and ΔQf=0. set to 370 V. The root mean square (RMS) of the grid line
The active and reactive power deviations of MPDPC at time voltage after the Y/Δ isolation transformer is 220 V.
k+1 are In practical applications, the MPC contains the delay time
Pm | Pref P(k ) f ps1Ts |
compensation algorithm to compensate for the adverse effect of
, (23) the delay time [15-16,30-31]. Normally, the predictive power at
Qm | Qref Q(k ) f qs1Ts |
time k+2 is used to trace the reference power. This algorithm is
where ΔPm and ΔQm are the active and reactive power adopted in this paper.
deviations of MPDPC, respectively. The ripples of active and A. Estimated amount of calculation
reactive power can be regarded as their cumulative deviation in To estimate the computational time of the three algorithms,
the fundamental period. As shown in Fig. 5, ΔPf and ΔQf are an output pin is set as high level when the microchip of the grid
smaller than ΔPm and ΔQm, respectively. Therefore, the connected inverter is assigned to accomplish the control
FSMPDPC have smaller active and reactive power ripples than algorithm. As shown in Fig. 7, the computational time of
the MPDPC. MPDPC is 91 us and more than that of FSMPDPC by 24 μs.
The computational time of DPC-SVM is the least of three
IV. EXPERIMENT RESULTS algorithms, because the cycle computation is avoided.
As shown in Fig.6, an experimental platform whose
parameters are given in Table II is established to test the
improvement in the steady state performance and the
computational amount reduction of FSMPDPC [15-16].
Furthermore, the experimental results of DPC-SVM in
reference [11] are also provided to verify the steady-state
performance improvement of FSMPDPC more strictly.
TABLE II
SYSTEM PARAMETERS Fig. 7. Required running time of three algorithms
Parameter Value
Inductance of the AC filter(L) 6mH To validate the computational amount reduction in
DC-link capacitor(C) 1000μF
DC-link voltage(Udc) 370V FSMPDPC further, we assume that the active power reference
Grid phase voltage 220/√3V is 3.8kW and its sampling interval is reduced to 80 μs, i.e., the
Grid frequency 50Hz sampling frequency is 12.5 kHz.
Weigh factor(λ) 0. 1
Dead-time 3μs
In Fig. 8(a-b), when the sampling interval is lower than the
computational time of MPPC, the T-type inverter cannot
control the grid current and the active and reactive power. If the
sampling time is ignored in Fig. 8(c), then at the time instant kTs
or kTc (Tc is the computational time of MPPC in each sampling
interval), the sampling system is triggered and the DSP starts
accomplish the control algorithm.
In MPDPC, the active and reactive power at time instant
(k+1)Ts is predicted as[16-17]
P p (k 1) P(k ) f piTs
p . (24)
Q (k 1) Q(k ) f qiTs
Actually, the switching state is updated at time instant
(k+1)Tc, and the accurate predictive model of active and
reactive power are
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P (k Tc / Ts ) P(k ) f piTc
p
p . (25)
Q (k Tc / Ts ) Q(k ) f qi Tc
In Fig. 8(c), as time passes, when the Tc exceeds Ts, the
predictive model of active and reactive power of MPDPC in (24)
becomes more and more inaccuracy. At the sampling instant
k+4 in Fig.8(c), the instant time difference caused by the
sampling interval and the computational time is 4(Tc-Ts).
(a)
(b)
(a)
Fig. 9. Waveforms of FSMPDPC with 80 μs sample interval: (a) grid
voltage ea and current ia and (b) active and reactive power
(b)
(a)
(c)
Fig. 8. Waveforms of MPDPC with 80 μs sample interval: (a) grid
voltage ea and current ia, (b) active and reactive power and (c) analysis
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Fig. 11. Current THD with the three approaches and different active (a)
power reference
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Fig. 14. Grid phase voltage ea and current ia in DPC-SVM: (a) grid phase
voltage and current and (b) grid current spectrum
(c) In Fig. 15, when the FSMPDPC is adopted, the grid phase
Fig. 12. Waveforms of the active and reactive power with the three
approaches: (a) MPDPC,(b) DPC-SVM and (c) FSMPDPC
current ia is close to a pure sinusoidal wave, and its even-order
harmonics are almost eliminated, its current THD is 1.4% less
The waveforms of the grid phase voltage ea, current ia and than that of the MPDPC. Comparing with the grid phase current
the grid current spectrum with MPDPC are exhibited in Fig. 13. of DPC-SVM, the grid phase current’s 5th, 7th and 17th
There are prominent distortions in the grid phase current ia, harmonics are decreased clearly.
which contains many even-order harmonics. In 3L inverter, the NP voltage is a very important aspect to
When the grid-connected inverter is controlled by the evaluate the control algorithm, and the corresponding
DPC-SVM, the even-order and 3th harmonics of the grid current waveforms are displayed in Fig. 16. As shown in Fig. 16, three
is decreased remarkably. As shown in Fig. 14, the grid current algorithms balance NP voltage successfully with little ripples.
waveform is greatly improved and has a smaller distortion, Additionally, the max voltage ripple in the three algorithms is
compared to Fig. 13. approximately 4V. Therefore, in FSMPDPC, the adverse effect
of the four steps model prediction on NP voltage is negligible.
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(a)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 15. Grid phase voltage ea and current ia in FSMPDPC: (a) grid phase
voltage and current and (b) grid current spectrum
(b)
(c)
Fig. 17. Dynamic response of active power with three approaches: (a)
MPDPC,(b)DPC-SVM and (c) FSMPDPC
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 16. Waveforms of two DC-link capacitors voltage in three
algorithms :(a) MPDPC, (b) DPC-SVM and (c) FSMPDPC
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of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics
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of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics
IEEE JOURNAL OF EMERGING AND SELECTED TOPICS IN POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. x, NO.x, xx 2019 11
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Kowloon, Hong Kong, in 2013.
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10.1109/TIE.2011.2157284. From 2005 to 2008, he was a
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predictive control scheme for the PWM rectifier-inverter system based on Nortel Network, Guangzhou, China. In
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2014, he joined the South China University of Technology,
pp. 5197-5208, Aug.2016,doi: 10.1109/TIE.2016.2558138
Guangzhou, where he was an Associated Professor at School of
Automation Science and Engineering. His research interests
include power electronics applications, nonlinear control, high
Bihua Hu (S’17) received his B.S. degree frequency power distribution system, and motion control
in Automation and M.S. degree in power system.
engineering respectively in 2011 and 2014
from Xiangtan University, Xiangtan,
China. He is studying for his Ph.D. degree Jun Zeng (M’11) received her Ph.D.
in Power Electronics and Power Drives at degree in control theory and control
the School of Electric Power, South China engineering from the South China
University of Technology, Guangzhou, University of Technology, Guangzhou,
China. His current research interests China in 2007. She is a professor in the
include energy storage, multilevel converters and the application Electric Power College of the South
of power electronics in renewable energy systems. China University of Technology,
Guangzhou, China. Her current research
interests include power electronics
applications, energy management and intelligence control in
Longyun Kang(M’12) received his B.S. distributed generation and integration of renewable energy to
degree in Physics from Yanbian smart grid.
University, China, in 1982, and his M.S.
and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical
Engineering from the Engineering Shubiao Wang was born in Jiangsu, China.
Department of Kyoto University, Japan, in He received his B.S. degree in electrical
1996 and 1999, respectively. engineering from Dalian Maritime
From 1999 to 2001, he was a University, Dalian, China, in 2015. He is
Researcher with the Department of currently working toward his M.S degree
Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology. From 2001 to 2006, in electrical engineering at the South
he was an Associate Professor with the Institute of Mechanical China University of Technology,
Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University. Since 2006, he has been Guangzhou, China. His primary research
with the School of Electric Power, South China University of interests include power electronics and
Technology, where he is currently a Professor. He supervises their applications in battery management systems.
seven Ph.D. students and serves as a Director of Guangdong Key
Laboratory of Clean Energy Technology. His current research
interests lie in the area of renewable energy and electric vehicles, Zhi Zhang received his B.S. degree in
including wind energy, solar energy conversion, hybrid energy Automation from Xiangtan University,
systems, and hybrid-drive technology of electric vehicles. China, in 2003, the M.S. degree in Power
Electronics and Power Drives from
Guangxi University, China, in 2007, and
the Ph.D. degree in Power Electronics and
Power Drives from South China
University of Technology, Guangzhou,
China, in 2010.
Currently, he is a senior engineer in the Department of
Electrical Engineering, Dongguan University of Technology,
China. His special field of research interests includes power
electric, electrical machine, new renewable energy, UPS system.
2168-6777 (c) 2018 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.