Data Communication & Networking Concepts

Computer Networks are everywhere. We find them in large and small business, schools, government offices and high-
school students homes. If you are a responsible for a network, you need to understand how the network works and
how you can most effectively tailor the network to the needs of your organization. Networks are sophisticated and
complex but they are not difficult to understand and use. Data Communication and Networking Concepts and some
hands-on experience will make the networks work for you. Our object is to be able to provide a networking solution to
small office home office (SOHO) to large organization which has multiple sites all over the world.

Networking is all about information

Every business runs on information, whether the business is banking, dry cleaning, aerospace or computer chip
manufacturing. Inventory and payroll, account balances, contact lists and customer preferences are all types of
information that are vital to a successful business. The type of information changes from business to business and
industry to industry and the way that information is stored and worked with also varies:
A sole proprietor of a small shop/business may keep business information in his/her head.
A bookstore may track all information flow of sales on paper.
A multinational corporation may have mainframe computers and army of technicians to care for the corporate
knowledge base.

Exchanging Information
Information constantly flows through business. Orders are taken in the sales department and passed through to
shipping; research and development sends news device specification to manufacturing; accounting collects statistics
and passes them to management.
When you use a computer not connected to a network, you are working in what is called a stand alone environment.
You use software to produce data, graphics spreadsheets documents and so on but to share your information you
must print it out or put it on floppy disk so that someone else can use it.
You are moving information about yourself rather that letting the computer do it for you.

The Network
Computers connected over a network can make that information exchange easier and faster. The information moves
directly from computer to computer rather than through a human interface. People can concentrate on getting their
work done rather than on moving information around the company. The most elementary network consists of two
computers communicating over a cable. When you link computers together, you can more swiftly and efficiently move
information between them. The computers can also share resources such as printers and fax modems.

Types of Networks
Local Area Network (LAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), Wide Area Network (WAN)

Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is a number of computers connected to each other by cable in a single location.
a single floor of a building, All computers in a small company

Metropolitan Area Network

A network larger than a local area network but span a single city or metropolitan area.

Wide Area Network

Often business have offices through a large region. For instance, most banks have a headquarters site and offices
throughout a city, state or a country. Wile LANs are perfect for sharing resources within a building or campus, they
can not be used to connect large sites. Wide Area Networks fill this need. Wide area network is link between two or
more remote sites or LANs. These links are made over telephone lines leased from various telephone companies.
In rare cases WANs cab be created with satellite links, radio or microwave transceivers. Most WANs are private and
owned by the business that operates with them.

Clients, Servers and Peers

Clients, which use but do not provide network resources
Servers, which provide network resources
Peers, which both use and provide network resources

In a networked environment computer role is determined by the type of operating system the computer uses.
Servers run network Operating systems such as Windows 2000 Server, Linux, Unix, etc.
Clients run client operating systems, such as MS-DOS.
Peers run peer network operating systems such as Windows 95 or the Macintosh operating system.
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 Server Based Network

Server based networks are defined by the presence of servers on a network that provide security and administration
of the network. Server based networks have clients that rely on the services the server provides such as file storage
and printing.

Features/Advantages of Server based Networks

□ Strong Central Security
□ Central file storage and easy backup
□ Ability to share expensive hardware
□ Optimized dedicated servers for faster processing.
□ A single password allows access to all shared resources on the network
□ Freeing of users from task of managing resources
□ Easy Administration of Network

Disadvantages of Server based Networks

□ Server based networks do have some disadvantages but they are mostly related to cost of server equipment,
including
□ Expensive dedicated hardware
□ Expensive network operating system software and client license
□ A dedicated network administrator
Peer Networks

Peer Networks are useful for those small business that can not afford to invest in expensive server hardware and
software servers. Peer networks lack central control over the network. Users Manage and share resources at their
own over the network. Peer networks are managed in Workgroups.

Advantages of Peer Networks

□ Easy Setup
□ No Extra investment in server hardware and software
□ No Network Administrator required
□ Ability of users to control resource sharing
□ No reliance on other computers for their operation
□ Lower cost for small networks

Disadvantages of Peer Networks

□ Additional load on computers because of resource sharing
□ Inability of peers to handle many network connections as servers.
□ Lack of central organization, which can make data hard to find
□ No central point of storage for file archiving

Selecting the Right Network

When you decide to implement networking, your primary consideration must be weather you can afford a Network file
sever, Network Operating system and Cost of Administrator. If you can’t implement, a peer network in a way that you
reserve a computer only for file storage and other services.

Server Types
In every organization, there are many tasks which server has to perform. The server is dedicated to perform specific
tasks in support of other computers on the network. One server may perform all these task, or separate server may be
dedicated to one task. Common types of servers by services they provide are;
File, Print, Application, Message and Database etc.

File Servers
File severs offer services that allow network users to share files. With file services users can read, share, write and
manage shared files and data contained in them. File servers perform these tasks:
□ File transfer
□ File storage and data migration
□ File update and synchronization
□ File archiving (Backing up/restoring data)
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 Print Servers
An important factor in networking is the ability of users to share printer. Print servers perform these tasks
□ Allow users to share printer
□ Allow you to place printers where convenient, not just near computers
□ Achieve better workstation performance by using high-speed network data transfer, print queues and spooling
□ Allow users to share fax services

Application Servers
Application services allow client PC’s to access and use extra computing power and expensive software applications
that reside on a share computer. Application servers are used when efficiency or security requires a program to stay
close to the data and data stays in one place. An application server dedicated to task of providing application services
makes very useful impact on performance. An organization with such a server can accommodate growth simply by
upgrading that server. An accounting department of a large corporation might have and AS/400 machine running
OS/400 to handle its accounting database software.

Message Servers
Message servers provide message services in a wide variety of communication methods. With message services,
data can take the form of graphics, digitized video, or audio, as well as text and binary. As hypertext links become
more common in messages, message services are becoming an extremely flexible and popular means of transmitting
data across a network. E-mail and workgroup services are a few services provided by message servers.

Database Servers
Database services can provide a network with powerful database capabilities that are available for use on relatively
weak PC's. Most database systems are client-server based.(the database application runs on two separate
computers. The client-end portion of the application runs on the client, providing an interface and handling less
intensive functions, such as data requests) The server-end portion of the application handles the intensive
performance of database operations. It runs on the database server, managing the database processing queries and
replying to clients. A network with a 100 GB database. This database could be managed by a centralized application
based on the client/server model. Clients could request information from the server, which would then perform a
query and report the result to the client. The client then access the data, process it on the client end, and return it to
the server.

Network Topology
The way in which the connections are made is called the topology. Network topology specifically refers to the physical
layout of the network. Types of Topologies are;
BUS, STAR, RING, MESH

BUS TOPOLOGY
On bus network, the cable is just made of two or more wires, with no active electronics to connect all computers with
both ends of cable terminated. Because there is no signal amplification BUS is called passive topology.

Advantages of BUS
The BUS is simple, reliable in small networks, easy to use and easy to understand. The BUS requires the least
amount of cable to connect the computers together and is therefore less expensive than other cable arrangements.
It is very easy to extend a BUS. Two cables can be joined into one longer cable with a BNC barrel connector.

Disadvantages of BUS
Heavy network can slow a BUS considerably. Because any computer can transmit at any time, a BUS network with a
lot of computers can spend a lot of bandwidth (capacity for transmitting information). Each barrel connector weakens
the electrical signal, and too many may prevent the signal from being correctly received all along the BUS. It is difficult
to troubleshoot a bus. A cable break or loose connector will also cause reflections and bring down the whole network,
causing all network activity to stop.

Star
In Star topology, all the cables run the computers to a central location where they are all connected by a device call
HUB. Each computer on a star network communication with a central hub that resends the message either to all the
computers ( in a broadcast star network) or only to the destination computers ( in a switched star network).

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 There are two types of hubs. Passive Hub, Active Hub. Passive Hub acts like a connection point and does not amplify
or regenerate the signal. An active hub regenerates the electrical signal and sends it to all the computers connected
to it. This type of hub is often called a multiport repeater. Active hubs and switches require electrical power to run.

Advantages of Star
It is easy to modify and add new computers to a star network without disturbing the rest of the network. You simply
run a new line from the computer to the central location and plug into the hub. When the capacity of the hub
exceeded, you can replace it with one that has larger number of ports to plug lines into. The center of a star network is
a good place to diagnose network faults. Intelligent hubs (Hubs with microprocessor that implement features in
addition to repeating network signals) also provide for centralized monitoring and management of the network. Single
computer failures do not bring down the whole star network. The hub can detect the network fault and isolate the
offending computer or cable and allow the rest of the network to continue operating. Several cable types in the same
network with a hub that can accommodate multiple cable types.

Disadvantages of Star
If the central hub fails, the whole network fails to operate. Many star networks require a device at the central point to
rebroadcast or switch network traffic. It costs more to cable because all network cables must be pulled to one central
point, requiring more cable than other networking topologies.

Ring Networks
In a ring topology, each computer is connected to the next computer, with the last one connected to the first. The
message flows in one direction. Since each computer retransmits what it receives, a ring is an active network. There
is no termination of network because there is no end to ring. Ring networks do token passing. A short message called
a token is passed around the ring when a computer wishes to send information to another computer. The computer
modifies the token, adds an electronic address and data and sends it around the ring. Each computer in sequence
receives the token and the information and passes them to the next computer until either the electronic address
matches the address of a computer or the token returns to its origin. The sending computer then creates another
token and places it on the network, allowing another station to capture the token and begin retransmit ting. This
happens very quickly; a token can circle a ring 200 meters in diameter at about 10,000 times a second.

Advantages of Ring
Because every computer is given equal access to the token, no computer can molopolize the network. The fair
sharing of the network allows the network to degrade gracefully ( continue to function in a useful, if slower, rather than
fail once capacity is exceeded)as more users are added.

MESH
Mesh topology is created by lying dedicated links between computers. Every computer is connected with another.

Network Media
Media are the message is transmitted over. Different media have different properties and are used in different
networks. In computer networking, the medium affects nearly every aspect of communication. Most important, it
determines how quickly and to whom a computer can talk and how expensive the process is.

Cable Types
Coaxial, Fiber Optics, Twisted Pair

Coaxial
Coaxial cable is one of the most widely used network cabling. There are a couple of reasons for coaxial’s wide usage.
It is inexpensive, light, flexible and easy to work with. It is popular due to its easy installation. Coaxial cable is more
resistant to interfaces and attenuation than Twister pairs.
Types of Coaxial Cable, Thin (Thinnet), Thick (Thicknet)
Thinnet
Thinnet is a flexible coaxial cable about .25 Inch thick. Thinnet coaxial cable can carry signal up to approximately 185
meters( about 607 feet) before signal starts to suffer from attenuation)

Thicknet
Thicknet generally used in BUS. Because it is a heavy duty cable it is used where nodes are far away or as a
backbone. A thicknet segment can be 500 meters long. Thicknet Components Transceivers, Transceiver Cables
DIX or AUI Connector N Series connectors, barrel and Terminators.

Twisted Pair
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 Twisted pair cable consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around each other.
There are two types of Twisted pair cables
Shielded Twisted Pair
Unshielded Twisted Pair
Unshielded Twisted Pair
UTP is the most popular type of twisted pair cabling and is fast becoming the most popular LAN cabling system.
The Max. cable length segment is 100 meters (328 feet). UTP consists of two insulated copper wires.
There are many specifications which govern how many twists are permitted per foot.

CAT –1
This refers to traditional UTP telephone cable which can carry voice but not data.
CAT-2
This category is used to data transmission up to 4Mbps. It consists of four twisted pairs.
CAT-3
This category is used to data transmission up to 10Mbps. It consists of four twisted pairs with 3 twists per foot.
CAT-4
This category is used to data transmission up to 16Mbps. It consists of four twisted pairs.
CAT-5
This category is used to data transmission up to 100 Mbps. It consists of four twisted pairs.

STP
STP has a higher quality more protective jacket than UTP has. STP uses a foil wrap between and around the wire
pairs. This gives STP excellent insulation to protect the transmitted data from outside interface.

Fiber Optics Cables

In fiber optic cable, optical fiber carry digital data signals in the form of pulses of light. This is a safe way to send data
because in this method there are no electrical pulses. This means that fiber optics can not be tapped and the data can
not be stolen. Fiber Optic cable is good for very high speed, high capacity data transmission because of the lack of
attenuation and purity of signal. Each glass core (Strand) passes signal in only one direction. So a cable consists of
two strands in separate jackets. One strand transmits and one receives. A reinforcing layer of plastic surrounds each
glass strand while Kevlar fibers prove strength. Fiber optic transmissions are extremely fast up to 200,000 Mbps for a
distance of 2000 meters

Wireless Media
Wireless LAN’s use these techniques for transmitting data:
□ Infrared
□ Laser
□ Radio
Infrared
All infrared wireless networks operate by using an infrared light beam to carry the data between devices. These
systems need to generate very strong signals because weak transmission signals are susceptible to light from
sources such as windows.

LASER
Laser technology is similar to infrared technology in that it requires a direct line of sight and any person or thing that
breaks the laser beam will block the transmission

Radio
This approach is similar to broadcasting from a radio station. The user tunes both the transmitter and receiver to a
certain frequency. This does not require line of sight focusing. This signal cannot go through steel or walls.
Customer are required to have a proper license.

Cellular Networks
This uses the same technology and some of the same systems as cellular telephones.
It offers computer data transmission over existing analog voice networks.

Satellite Stations
Microwave systems are good for interconnecting short distance stations, but it is not useful for a large distance.
Direct Satellite links offer network services for a very large enterprise networks.
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 Earth Stations are directly connected to satellites.

Protocol Operation
The entire technical operation of transmitting data over the network is performed in several steps. At each step,
certain actions take place which can not take place at any other step. Each step has its own rules and procedures.
The steps must be carried out in a consistent order that is the same on every computer in the network. In the sending
computer these steps must be carried out from the TOP-DOWN. In the receiving computer, these steps must be
carried out from the BOTTOM-UP.

The Sending Computer

Breaks the data into smaller sections, called packets, that the protocol can handle. Adds addressing information to the
packets so the destination computer on the network will know the data belongs to it. Prepares the data for actual
transmission through the network adapter card and out onto the network cable.

The Receiving Computer

At the receiving computer a protocol carries out the same series of steps in reverse order. Takes the data packets off
the cable. Bring the data packets into the computer through the network adapter card. Strips the data packets of all
transmitting information added by the sending computer. Copies the data from the packets to a buffer for reassembly.
Passes the reassembled data to the application in a usable form. Both the sending and the receiving computers need
to perform each step the same way so that the data will look the same when it is received as it did when it was sent.
For example: two protocols might break data into packets and add on various. Sequencing, timings and error
checking. But they will do it differently. Therefore a computer using on these protocols will not be able to communicate
successfully with a computer using the other protocol.

Common Protocols
□ TCP/IP
□ NETBEUI
□ X.25
□ XEROX NETWORK SYSTEM (XNS)
□ IPX/SPX AND NWLINK
□ APPLE TALK
□ DECNET
□ OSI PROTOCOL SUITE

Network Architectures
Network architecture combines standards, topologies and protocols to produce a working network. A network’s
architectures includes structure and all components that makes it functional including hardware and system software.

Common Architectures
□ Ethernet
□ Token Ring
□ Apple Talk
Ethernet
The first Ethernet was designed as 2.94 Mbps system to connect over 100 computers on a 1-Kilometer cable. It was
developed at Xerox’s research center. Xerox Ethernet was so successful that Xerox, Intel Co. and DEC developed
new standard for a 10Mbps Ethernet. Ethernet is currently the most popular network architecture.
This baseband architecture uses BUS/Star topology and uses CSMA/CD to regulate traffic on the main cable
segment. The Ethernet is passive. Passive: It draws power from the computer and thus will not fail unless the media
physically cut or improperly terminated.

Ethernet Basics
Traditional Topology BUS
Other Topology Star
Type of Architecture Baseband
Access Method CSMA/CD
Specification IEEE802.3
Transfer Speed 10/100Mbps
Cable Types thin/thick & UTP
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 In Ethernet there are some specifications which are related to segment length or use of different technologies.
10baseT, 10base2, 10base5, 10baseFL(2KM)
100baseT4 (4 telephone grade cables), 100baseTX (2 data grade cables), 100baseFX (fiber optic using two strands
of FO cable)

100baseVG-AnyLan Ethernet
100VG(Voice grade) AnyLan is an emerging networking technology that combines Ethernet and Token Ring
developed by Hewlett Packard. It is rated as 802.13

Token Ring
A token ring network is an implementation of IEEE802.5. The token passing method distinguishes token ring network
from other networks rather than physical layout.
Star wired Topology Token passing, IBM Type STP/UTP 4/16Mbps Speed,
Base band transmission 802.5 Specification

MODEM
A modem is a device that makes it possible for computers to communicate over a telephone line. When computer are
too far apart to be joined by a standard computer cable, a modem can enable communication between them.
Computers cannot simply connect over a telephone line because the computer communicates in digital electronic
pulses (digital signals) and a telephone line can only send analog pulses (sound). A modem at the sending end
converts the computer’s digital signals into analog and transmits the analog signals onto the telephone line. A modem
at the receiving end converts the incoming analog signals back into digital signals for the receiving computer.

Modem Hardware
Modems are known as data communications equipment DCE and share the following characteristics. A serial
(RS232) communication interface. An RJ-11 telephone line ( a four wire telephone plug). Modems are available both
internal and external models. The internal modems are installed in an expansion slot like any other circuit board.
An external modem is a small box that is connected to the computer by a serial (RS-232) cable running from the
computer’s serial port to the modem’s computer cable connection.

Modem Standards
There are industry standards for just about every area of networking and modem are no exceptions. Standards are
necessary so that modems from one manufacturer can communicate with modems from another manufacturer.

Hayes
In 1980, a company pioneers in Modem manufacturing called Hayes Microcomputer Products Inc. developed a
modem called Hayes Smartmodem. The smartmodem became standard against which other modems were measured
and generated the phrase Hayes-compatible. Because most vendors conformed to the Hayes standards nearly all
modems can connect to each other.

International Standards
In 1980 International Telecommunication Union (ITU) developed standards for modems. These specifications known
as the V Series include a number which indicates the standard. (V.22). Sometimes it included the word bis which
mean second in French. This indicates that the standard is a revesion of an earlier standard. (V.22bis)
Example: the V.22 bis modem would take 25 seconds to send 1,000 words letter and V.34 may only take 2 seconds
to send the same letter. Newer versions of modems have compression capabilities built-in. Newer V.42bis modem
may take only second to transmit 1000 words. Modem speed is measured in Kbps which may be called BAUD rate.

STANDARD SPEED

V.22BIS 2400
V.32 9600
V.32BIS 14400
V.34 28800
V.42 57600

Types of Modem Communication

There are different types of modems because there are different types of communication environments which require
different methods of sending data.
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 These environments can be divided categories.
Asynchronous
Synchronous

Asynchronous Communication
In Async each character, number or symbol is turned into a string of bits. Each of these strings is separated from the
other strings by a start of character bit and a stop bit. Both sending and receiving computer must agree on the start
and stop bit. The receiving computer uses the start and stop markers to schedule its timing functions so it is ready to
receive the next byte of data. Communication is not synchronized. There is no clocking device or method to
coordinate transmission between the sender and the receiver. The sending computer just sends data and the
receiving computer just receives data. 25% of data traffic in async communication consists of data traffic control and
coordination. Because of potential for error, async can include a special bit (parity).

Synchronous Communication
Synchronous communication relies on a timing scheme coordinated between two devices to separate group of bits
and transmit then in block known as frames. Because the bits are sent and received in a timed, controlled way, Start
and Stop bits are not required. Transmission stops at the end of one frame and starts again with a new one. This start
and stop approach is much more efficient than asynchronous transmission. If there is an error, the synchronous error
detection and correction scheme simply implements a retransmission. Synchronous communication are used in
almost all digital and network communication. Synchronous modems are not used home computing because they are
at higher cost and more complex.

Carriers
A modem is useless unless it communicate with another component. All modem communication take place over some
kind of communication line of cable. What type of cable it is, and who provides it and its related services makes a
difference in network performance and cost. The general principle at work is that it is difficult and expensive to move
data quickly over long distance. The three factors an administrator must take when considering how to implement
modem communication.
□ Throughput
□ Distance
□ Cost
Telephone Lines
There are two types for telephone lines available for modem communication
□ Public Dial Network Lines (Dial Up)
□ Leased Lines (Dedicated Lines)
Public Dial Network Lines
These are common telephone lines. They require users to manually make a connection for each communication
session and are slow and are not totally reliable for transmitting data.
However, for some companies it may be practical to temporarily dialup a communication link between sites for a
certain amount of time each day to transfer files or update database.
Leased or Dedicated Lines
These provide full time dedicated connection that do not use a series of switches to complete the connection.
The quality of the line is often higher than the quality of a telephone line which was only designed for voice
transmission. They typically operate from 56Kbs – 45Mbps

LAN Expansion
As companies grow, so do their networks, LAN’s tend to out from their original design. LAN expansion is necessary
when; The cable begins to get crowded with network traffic. Print jobs require longer wait times. Traffic generating
applications, such as databases, have increased response times

Repeaters
As signals travel along a cable they degrade and become distorted in a process that is called attenuation.
• If a cable is long enough attenuation will finally make a signal unrecognizable. A repeater enables signals to travel
farther. A repeater takes a weak signal from one segment regenerates it and passes it to the next segment.
• A repeater will not be able communication between and 802.3 LAN and and 802.5 LAN.
• Repeaters do not translate or filter anything.
• For a repeater to work both segments that the repeater joins must have the same access method.
• Repeaters can move packets from one physical medial to another.

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 • Repeaters can take an Ethernet packet from a thin net coax segment and pass it on to a fiber optic segment if
repeater is capable of accepting the physical connections.
• Some multiport repeaters act as multiport hubs and connect different types of media.
• Repeaters work at the PHYSICAL layer of OSI model.
Bridges
• Like a repeater a bridge can join segments.
• A bridge can divide a high volume LAN segment into two isolated different LANs.
• A bridge can also connect two unlike networks together like Ethernet_802.3 and Token Ring 802.5 and forward
packets among them.
• Bridges work at the Data link layer of the OSI model.
• Because they work at this layer all information of higher layer is unavailable to them.
• Therefore they do not distinguish between one protocol and another.
• Bridges simply pass all protocols along the network.
• Because all protocols pass across bridge it is upto the individual computer to determine which protocol they can
recognize.
ROUTERS
Router Operation
The routing table found in routers contains network address.
However host address may be kept depending on the protocol the network is running.(IPX number & IP Address)
A router uses a table to determine the destination address for incoming data.
HOW ROUTER CHOOSES SHORTEST PATH
Unlike bridges, routers can accommodate multiple active paths between LAN segments and choose among
redundant path. Because router can link segments which use completely different data packaging and media access
schemes, there will often be several paths available for the router to use. This mean if one router fails, the data can
still be passed over alternate routers.

Types of Routers
There are two types of routers

STATIC:
Static routers require an administrator to manually setup and configuration the routing table and to specify route

DYNAMIC
Dynamic routers do an automatic discovery of routes and therefore have a minimal amount of setup and
configuration.

STATIC ROUTES
Manual setup and configuration of all routes. Always use the same route which is determined by a routing table entry
Static routers are considered more secure because the administrator specifies each route.

Dynamic Routers
Manual configuration of first route. Automatic discovery of additional networks and routes. Can choose a route based
on factors such as cost and traffic links. Can decide to send packets over alternate routes. Security can be improved
in dynamic routers by manually configuring the routers.

GATEWAYS
Routers can connect networks with protocols that function in similar way. When the network that must be connected
are using completely different protocols from each other, A more intelligent device is required. A Gateway is a device
that can interpret and translate the different protocols that are used in two entire different architectures.

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Standard Topologies
 Bus - A single cable (trunk) that connects all computers in a single line.
 Star - Computers connect to a centralized hub via cable segments.
 Ring - Connects all computers on a single cable. Ends are not terminated, but form a full loop connecting the
last computer to the first computer.
 Mesh - Commonly used in WAN configurations. Routers are connected to multiple links for redundancy and to
give the ability to determine the quickest route to a destination.

Bus Ring Star Mesh

Access Methods
 CSMA/CD - Collision Detection; listens to cable prior to sending data. (EtherNet)
 CSMA/CA - Collision Avoidance; Announces intention to send data. (Appletalk)
 Token-Passing - Token revolves around ring, computer which has token is permitted to data. (TokenRing)
 One device designated media administrator. Secondary device waits to be polled by primary device to check if
it has data to be sent.
Cables
 Thinnet Coaxial - .25 inches thick, carries signal 185 meters. Known as RG-58 family, and has a 50 ohm
impedance.

Types of Thinnet Coaxial

RG-58 /U Solid Copper Core
RG-58 A/U Stranded Wire Core
RG-58 C/U Military Specification of RG-58 A/U
RG-59 Broadband transmission (Television Cable)
RG-62 ArcNet Network Cable

When troubleshooting thinnet coaxial cable, the cable terminator must read 50ohms.

 Thicknet Coaxial - .5 inches thick, carries signal 500 meters. A transceiver (Vampire Tap) is used to make a
physical connection with the thicknet core.
 Unshielded Twisted Pair - Twisted pair wiring, carries signal 100 meters, is susceptible to crosstalk.
 Shielded Twisted Pair - Twisted pair wiring, carries signal 100 meters, has foil or braided jacket around wiring
to help reduce crosstalk and to prevent electromagnetic interference.

UTP/STP Category Speeds

Cat 2 4 Mbps
Cat 3 10 Mpbs
Cat 4 16 Mbps
Cat 5 100 Mbps
 Fiber-Optic - Carries light pulse signals through glass core at speeds of between 100Mbps - 200,000Mbps.
 Attenuation - The degrading of a signal as it travels farther from its origination.
 Crosstalk - Signal overflow from one wire to another adjacent wire.
 Jitter - Instability in a signal wave; Caused by signal interference or an unbalanced FDDI ring or Token Ring.
Ethernet Specifications

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 Type Cable types Connection Type Max Length
10Base2 RG-58 thinnet coaxial cable BNC T Connector 185 meters (607 ft)
10Base5 Thicknet coaxial cable DIX/AUI 500 meters (1640 ft)
10BaseT Category 3, 4, or 5 UTP cable RJ-45 100 meters (328 ft)
100BaseT Category 5 UTP cable RJ-45 100 meters (328 ft)

Signal Transmissions
 Baseband - Uses digital signalling over a single frequency. Transmits birectionally.
 Broadband - Uses analog signalling over a range of frequencies. Transmits unidirectionally. Uses amplifiers for
signal regeneration.
OSI Model
OSI Layers
Application
Allows applications to use the network. Handles network access, flow control, and error recovery.
Layer
Translates data into a form usable by the application layer. The redirector operates here.
Presentation
Responsible for protocol conversion, translating and encrypting data, and managing data
Layer
compression.
Allows applications on connecting systems to establish a session. Provides synchronization
Session Layer
between communicating computers.
Responsible for packet handling. Ensures error-free delivery. Repackages messages, divides
Transport Layer
messages into smaller packets, and handles error handling.
Translates system names into addresses. Responsible for addressing, determining routes for
Network Layer sending, managing network traffic problems, packet switching, routing, data congestion, and
reassembling data.
 LLC - (802.2) Manages link control
and defines SAP's (Service Access
Sends data from network layer to physical layer. Points).
Data Link Layer Manages physical layer communications between
connecting systems.  MAC - (802.3, 802.4, 802.5,
802.12) Communicates with adapter
card.
Physical Layer Transmits data over a physical medium. Defines cables, cards, and physical aspects.
LAN Enhancement Components
Component Function
Regenerates signals for retransmission. Moves packets from one physical media to another. Will
Repeater
pass broadcast storms. Cannot connect different network topologies or access methods.
Bridges are used to segment networks. They forward packets based on address of destination node.
Uses RAM to build a routing table based on hardware addresses. Some bridge types are capable of
Bridge
connecting dissimilar network topologies. Will forward all protocols. Regenerates the signal at the
packet level
Remote
Same as bridge, but used for telephone communications. Uses STA (Spanning Tree Algorithm).
Bridge
Routes packets across multiple networks. Uses RAM to build a routing table based on network
addresses (i.e. IP address). Shares status and routing information to other routers to provide better
traffic management and bypass slow connections. Will not pass broadcast traffic. Are slower than
Router
bridges due to complex functions. Strips off Data Link Layer source and destination addresses and
then recreates them for packets. Routers can accomodate multiple active paths between LAN
segments. Will not pass unroutable protocols.
Brouter Will act as a router for specified protocols and as a bridge for other specified protocols.
Used for communications between different NOS's (i.e. Windows NT and IBM SNA). Takes the
Gateway
packet, strips off the old protocol and repackages it for the receiving network.
Multiplexer Device that can divide transmissions into two or more channels.
Hub with bridging capabilities. Switch filters traffic through MAC addresses. Creates sessions on
Switches
ports within the hub. Used when upgrading to 100mb Fast Ethernet.

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 Component Which OSI layer it resides on
Repeater Physical
Bridge Data Link (MAC Sublayer)
Remote Bridge Data Link (MAC Sublayer)
Router Network
Brouter Data Link and Network
Gateway Transport, Session, Presentation and Application
Mulitplexer Physical
Switch Data Link

 Spanning Tree Algortithm - was developed for bridges to determine the most efficient network in path when
there are multiple paths to choose from.
 Multiplexing - Several signals from different sources are collected into the component and are fed into one
cable for transmission.
Protocols
 Routable - TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, AppleTalk, DECnet, XNS.
 Non-routable - NetBEUI, DLC, LAT.
 NetBEUI - Microsoft protocol designed for small LANs; non-routable. Not compatible with UNIX networks.
 IPX/SPX - Fast protocol for small and large Novell networks; is routable. Also known in NT as NWLink.
 TCP/IP - Internet protocol; is routable. Used by UNIX networks.
 DECnet - Defines communciations over FDDI MANs; is routable.
 Appletalk - Apple protocol designed for small LAN file and print sharing; is routable.

OSI layer Major Protocols residing here

Application SMB, NCP
Presentation NCP
Session NetBIOS, Named Pipes
Transport TCP, SPX, NWLink, NetBEUI
Network IP, IPX, NWLink, NetBEUI, DLC, DecNET
Data Link
Physical
 RIP (Routing Information Protocol) - Routers use this to communicate with each other to determine the least
busy and shortest network routes.
 SLIP (Serial Line IP) - Provides dial-up communications, but is unable to simultaneously transfer multiple
protocols.
 PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) - Performs dynamic IP addressing, multi-protocol support, password login and
error control.
Packet Switching Networks
 Packet Switching - Packets are relayed across network along the best route available.
Type Function
Designed to connect remote terminals to mainframe host systems. Is very slow due to constant error-
X.25
checking.
Frame Point-to-point system which uses digital leased lines. Will provide bandwidth as needed. Requires frame relay
Relay capable bridge or router for transmission.
Advanced implementation of packet switching. Transmits at speeds of 155Mbps to 622Mbps with capabilities
of higher speeds. Transmits data in 53 byte (48 application, 5 header) cells. Uses switches as multiplexers to
ATM
permit several computers to simultaneously trasmit data on a network. Great for voice and video
communications.
Transmits at 128k/sec. Has three data channels - 2 B channels @ 64k/sec & 1 D channel @ 16k/sec. The B
ISDN
channels carry data while the D channel performs link management and signalling.
FDDI 100 Mbps token-passing ring network which uses fiber-optic media. Uses a dual-ring topology for
redundancy and in case of ring failure. Each ring is capable of connecting 500 computers over 100 kilometers

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 (62 miles). Can be used as a network backbone. Uses beaconing for ring troubleshooting.

 Beaconing - Computers are used to detect network faults, then transmit the fault signal to the server.
Security levels
 Share-level security - Used in Windows 95 to share resources. A password is needed to access the resource.
 User-level security - Used in Windows NT to share resources. When you attempt to access a shared resource,
the server will make sure your user account has been authorized to access the resource.
Network Diagnostic Tools

Tool Function
Digital Volt Meters Measures voltage passing through a resistanace. Primarily used for network cable
(DVM) troubleshooting.
Time-Domain Sends sonar-like pulses to look for breaks, shorts or crimps in cables. Can locate a break
Reflectors (TDRs) within a few feet of actual fault.
Oscilloscope Measures amount of signal voltage per unit of time. Displays crimps, shorts, opens, etc.
Network Monitor Examines packet types, errors and traffic to and from each computer on a network.
Look inside the packet to determine cause of problem. Contains built in Time-Domain
Protocol Analyzer Reflector. Gives insights to many problems including connection errors, bottlenecks, traffic
problems, protocol problems, etc.

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