Semantic Structure of the English Words

1.Definition of Meaning. Types of Meaning.

Meaning is the message conveyed by words, sentences, and symbols in a context.

Two Types of Meaning: Semantic and Pragmatic

A sentence expresses a more or less complete propositional content, which is semantic meaning, and
extra pragmatic meaning comes from a particular context in which the sentence is uttered.

2.Linguistic and Extralinguistic Causes.

The factors accounting for semantic changes may be subdivided into two main groups: (1) extralinguistic
causes and (2) linguistic cases.

The extralinguistic causes are determined by the social nature of the language.

The history of the social, economic and political life of the people, the progress of culture and science
bring about changes in notions and things influencing the semantic aspect of language. The changes of
notions and things named go hand in hand. They are conditioned by the above-mentioned factors of
social life, so that the extralinguistic causes of semantic change may be classified in accordance with
these factors.

For exemple: the change of the lexical meaning of the noun pen was due to extra-linguistic causes.
Primarily pen comes back to the Latin word penna (a feather of the bird). As people wrote with goose
pens the name was transferred to steel pens which were later on used for writing. Still later any
instrument for writing was called a pen.

The linguistic cause: is discrimination of synonyms which can be illustrated by the semantic
development of a number of words.

a) Syntagmatic. There is a term – ellipsis, when instead of two components we use only one: to starve, to
propose;
b) Paradigmatic level – discrimination of synonyms. It means that there existed two or more synonymic
words but in the course of time they changed their meaning: deer denoted any beast, then a word animal
appeared. First, the coincided, but then they became two different words: deer – special beast, animal –
general beast.

3.Denotation. Connotation.

Most words have multiple meanings, which are categorized as either denotative or connotative. The
denotation of a word is its explicit definition as listed in a dictionary. Let’s use the word “home” as an
example. The denotative or literal meaning of “home” is “ a place where one lives; a residence.”

The expressiveness of language, however, comes from the other type of word meaning—connotation, or
the association or set of associations that a word usually brings to mind . The connotative meaning of
“home” is a place of security, comfort, and family. For example: “There’s no place like home,” i’m not
referring to its denotation, but the emotions “home” evokes for me and most people.

Depending on how a word has been used over time, it may have a positive, negative or neutral
connotation.
 Words may have positive or negative connotations that depend upon the social, cultural, and personal
experiences of individuals. For example, the words childish, childlike and youthful have the same
denotative, but different connotative, meanings. Childish and childlike have a negative connotation, as
they refer to immature behavior of a person. Whereas, youthful implies that a person is lively and
energetic.

Neutral connotations are referring to and have no emotional or any form of association.

4.Meaning Polysemy. Context.

The ability of words to have more than one meaning is described by the term polysemy. Polysemy is the
association of two or more related senses with a single linguistic form .

The verb "get" is a good example of polysemy — it can mean "procure," "become," or "understand."

For ex.: the word fire: 1)a flame; 2)an instance of destructive burning: a forest fire; 3)burning material in
a stove, fire-place: There is a fire in the next room. A camp fire. 4)the shooting of guns: to open fire;
5)strong feeling, passion, enthusiasm: a speech lacking fire.

The term context denotes the minimal stretch of speech determining each individual meaning of the
word.

The meaning or meanings of polysemantic words observed only in certain contexts may be viewed as
determined either by linguistic (lexical and grammatical or verbal) or extra-linguistic (non-verbal)
contexts.

In lexical contexts of primary importance are the lexical groups combined with the polysemantic word
under consideration.

e.g.: The verb to take in isolation has the meaning to lay hold of with the hands, grasp, seize. When
combined with the lexical group of words denoting some means of transportation (to take a bus, a train)
it acquires the meaning synonymous with the meaning of the verb to go. The meanings determined by
lexical contexts are sometimes referred to as lexically or phraseologically bound meanings which implies
that such meanings are to be found only in certain lexical contexts.

I. In grammatical contexts it is the grammatical (mainly the syntactic) structure of the context that serves
to determine various individual meanings of a polysemantic word.

e.g.: One of the meanings of the verb to make (to force, to induce) is found only in the grammatical
context possessing the structure make + N+Infinitive ( to make somebody do something). Another
meaning to become is observed when make is followed by an adjective or noun (to make a good teacher)
. Such meanings are sometimes described as grammatically or structurally bound meanings.

There are cases when the meaning of the word is ultimately determined not by linguistic factors but by
the actual speech situation in which this word is used. The meaning of the phrase I’ve got it is determined
not only by the grammatical or lexical context but by the actual speech situation. To get may mean to
possess or to understand.