UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT
OF
BUILDING

SHITTU FAROUK OMOTAYO

140504017

LECTURER: DR ZAKARIYYAH

BLD 507
TECHNICAL COMMUNICATIONS
 QUESTIONS

1. APA Referencing Format latest edition

2. Types of variable with 5 examples of each
3. What is a Hypothesis
4. Explain the following
a. F-value
b. P-value
c. Null hypothesis
d. Alternative hypothesis
e. T-Test
f. Statistics
5. What is sampling?
a. What are the different types of sampling, giving
explanations on each?
QUESTION 2: Types of Variables and Examples.

A VARIABLE is a measurable characteristic that varies. It may change from group to group,
person to person, or even within one person over time. There are six common variable
types:

Dependent Variables
. . . show the effect of manipulating or introducing the independent variables.
For example, if the independent variable is the use or non-use of a new language teaching
procedure, then the dependent variable might be students' scores on a test of the content
taught using that procedure. In other words, the variation in the dependent variable
depends on the variation in the independent variable.
A study finds that reading levels are affected by whether a person is born in the U.S. or in a
foreign country. The IV is where the person was born and the DV is their reading level. The reading
level depends on where the person was born.

Independent Variables
. . . are those that the researcher has control over. This "control" may involve manipulating
existing variables (e.g., modifying existing methods of instruction) or introducing new
variables (e.g., adopting a totally new method for some sections of a class) in the research
setting. Whatever the case may be, the researcher expects that the independent variable(s)
will have some effect on (or relationship with) the dependent variables.

Intervening Variables
. . . refer to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that link the independent
and dependent variables. In language learning and teaching, they are usually inside the
subjects' heads, including various language learning processes which the researcher cannot
observe. For example,
If the use of a particular teaching technique is the independent variable and mastery
of the objectives is the dependent variable, then the language learning processes used by
the subjects are the intervening variables.
The statistical association between income and longevity needs to be explained
because just having money does not make one live longer. Other variables intervene
between money and long life. People with high incomes tend to have better medical care
than those with low incomes. Medical care is an intervening variable. It mediates the
relation between income and longevity.
Continuous variable
. . . a variable that is not restricted to particular values (other than limited by the accuracy of
the measuring instrument). E.g., reaction time, neuroticism, IQ. Equal size intervals on
different parts of the scale are assumed, if not demonstrated. Synonym for interval variable.

Control variable
. . . an extraneous variable that an investigator does not wish to examine in a study. Thus,
the investigator controls this variable. As Example;
Language learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible to
consider every variable in a single study. Therefore, the variables that are not measured in a
particular study must be held constant, neutralized/balanced, or eliminated, so they will not
have a biasing effect on the other variables. Variables that have been controlled in this way
are called control variables.

Qualitative Variable
. . . a broad category for any variable that can’t be counted (i.e. has no numerical value). Nominal
and ordinal variables fall under this umbrella term.

For example:

• Eye colors (variables include: blue, green, brown, hazel).

• States (variables include: Florida, New Jersey, Washington).
• Dog breeds (variables include: Alaskan Malamute, German Shepherd, Siberian Husky, Shih
tzu

Quantitative Variable:
. . . a broad category that includes any variable that can be counted, or has a numerical value
associated with it. Examples of variables that fall into this category include discrete variables and
ratio variables;

Examples:

• High school Grade Point Average (e.g. 4.0, 3.2, 2.1).

• Number of pets owned (e.g. 1, 2, 4).
• Bank account balance (e.g. $100, $987, $-42.
• Number of stars in a galaxy (e.g. 100, 2301, 1 trillion)
• How many cousins you have (e.g. 0, 12, 22)
Discrete Variable
. . . a quantity that has changing values. A discrete variable is a variable that can only take on
a certain number of values. In other words, they don’t have an infinite number of values. If you can
count a set of items, then it’s a discrete variable. The opposite of a discrete variable is a continuous
variable. Continuous variables can take on an infinite number of possibilities.

Some examples of discrete variables:

Number of quarters in a purse, jar, or bank. Discrete because there can only be a certain number of
coins (1,2,3,4,5…). Coins don’t come in amounts of 2.3 coins or 10 1/2 coins, so it isn’t possible for
there to be an infinite number of possibilities. In addition, a purse or even a bank is restricted by size
so there can only be so many coins.

The number of cars in a parking lot. A parking lot can only hold a certain number of cars.

QUESTION 3: What is a Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction, a speculative statement about the outcome of

a research or experiment. It describes in concrete terms what you expect will happen in a
certain circumstance.
A “Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between an
independent and dependent variable.”(Creswell, 1994). Usually, hypothesis often follows an
“if/then” format. If this happens, then that may happen. For example;
'If not studying lowers test performance and I do not study, then I will get a low grade on
the test.'
A problem cannot be scientifically solved unless it is reduced to hypothesis form.

QUESTION 4

F- Value.
The F-Value is a value gotten from one of the tests usually conducted to test a
hypothesis, the F-Test. A test based on the test statistic which follows F-distribution to show
significant difference between variances of two populations based on all samples drawn
from those population. F test will tell you if a group of variables are jointly significant.
This test shows either to support or reject the null hypothesis. In your F test results, you’ll
have both an F value and an F critical value.
The value you calculate from your data is called the F value (without the “critical”
part).
The F critical value is also called the F statistic.

In general, if your calculated F value in a test is larger than your F statistic, you can reject the
null hypothesis. However, the statistic is only one measure of significance in an F Test.
The F value should always be used along with the p value in deciding whether your results
are significant enough to reject the null hypothesis

Assumptions
Samples are drawn at Random
Samples are drawn from normal populations
Population standard deviations are tested as equal but unknown.
Uses
Test equality of variance of two pop8lationss
To test quality of means of three or more population

P-Value
P-Value Approach: In the p-value approach, researchers compute the p-value on the basis
of a test statistic and then compare it with the significance level (test size). If the p-value is
smaller than the significance level, researches reject the null hypothesis. A p-value is
considered as amount of risk that researchers have to take when rejecting the null
hypothesis.
The null hypothesis provides a probability framework against which to compare our data.
Specifically, through the proposed statistical model, the null hypothesis can be represented
by a probability distribution, which gives the probability of all possible outcomes if the null
hypothesis is true; it is a probabilistic representation of our expectations under the null
hypothesis. The p-value can be viewed as a measure of the strength of evidence against the
null hypothesis
After Standardization of test results, normal distribution is used in computing the
probability of obtaining a certain z score.
Assuming that H0 is true:
Area to the left of z = The probability of obtaining scores lower than z.
Area to the right of z (p-value) = the probability of obtaining scores higher than z.
The smaller the p-value, the stronger the evidence against H0 provided by the data.
The F value should always be used along with the p value in deciding whether your results are
significant enough to reject the null hypothesis

Null Hypothesis.
Null Hypothesis (H0) are hypothesis of no difference. i.e. Hypothesis proposed with the
intent of receiving a rejection for them.

Null Hypothesis (H0) is an assertion that we hold as true unless we have sufficient statistical
evidence to conclude otherwise. Null hypothesis is denoted by H0
Sometimes researchers choose to state their hypothesis in "null" form. This may seem to
run counter to what the researchers really expect, but it is a cautious way to operate. When
(and only when) this null hypothesis is disproved or falsified, the researcher may then
accept a logically "alternate" hypothesis.

Alternative hypothesis.
The alternative hypothesis denoted by H1 is the claim that researchers are actually trying to
prove is true. However, they prove it is true by proving that the null hypothesis is false.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1) It is the negation of null hypothesis i.e. The rejection of null
hypothesis leads to acceptance of alternative hypothesis.
Sometimes researchers choose to state their hypothesis in "null" form. This may seem to
run counter to what the researchers really expect, but it is a cautious way to operate. When
(and only when) this null hypothesis is disproved or falsified, the researcher may then
accept a logically "alternate" hypothesis.
T-test
The t-test can be carried out in 3 scenarios
One sample: –compare the mean of a sample to a predefined value
Dependent (related) samples: –compare the means of two conditions in which the
same (or closely matched) participants participated
Independent (unrelated) samples:
compare the means of two groups of participants

The One Sample t-test

The One-sample t-test is used to compare a sample mean to a specific value (e.g., a
population parameter; a neutral point on a Likert-type scale, chance performance,
etc.).
Examples:
1. A study investigating whether stock brokers differ from the general population
on some rating scale where the mean for the general population is known.
2. An observational study to investigate whether scores differ from chance.

Hypothesis testing with t-test

We can draw a sampling distribution of t-values (the Student t-distribution)–this
shows the likelihood of each t-value if the null hypothesis is true
The distribution will be affected by sample size (or more precisely, by degrees of
freedom)
We evaluate the likelihood of obtaining our t-value given the t-distribution

Assumptions
The one-sample t-test requires the following statistical assumptions;
1. Random and Independent sampling.
2. Data are from normally distributed populations.
Note: The one-sample t-test is generally considered robust against violation of
this assumption once N >30.
QUESTION 5

Sampling means the process of selecting a part of the population. A population is a group
people that is studied in a research. These are the members of a town, a city or a country. It
is difficult for a researcher to study the whole population due to limited resources e.g. time,
cost and energy. Sampling thus, allows researchers to infer information about a population
based on results from a subset of the population, without having to investigate every
individual.
The reliability of the findings of a research depends upon how well you select the sample. A
sample should be a true representative of the whole population.
There are different techniques employed in the selection of this representative sample and
they can be subdivided into two groups;

• Probability Sampling
• Non- Probability Sampling

which are further divided into sub-types as follows:

1. PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Stratified Random Sampling
3. Systematic Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multi-stage Sampling
2. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Purposive Sampling
2. Convenience Sampling
3. Snow-ball Sampling
4. Quota Sampling

1. PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Probability sampling is a type of sampling where each member of the population has a
known probability of being selected in the sample. It’s alternatively known as random
sampling. For example, if we want to pick some sugar from any part of a bag containing
sugar, the selected part will have similar characteristics. In such a case, each member has a
known chance of being selected in a sample. Hence, the sample collected from any part of a
bag containing sugar will be a true representative of the whole sugar. In such a situation,
probability sampling is adopted.
The types of probability sampling are explained below:
Simple Random Sampling
In simple random sampling, the members of the sample are selected randomly and purely
by chance. As every member has an equal chance of being selected in the sample, random
selection of members does not affect the quality of the sample. Hence, the members are
randomly selected without specifying any criteria for selection.
One way of obtaining a random sample is to give each individual in a population a number,
and then use a table of random numbers to decide which individuals to include.
Stratified Random Sampling
In stratified random sampling, the population is divided into sub-groups (known as strata)
who all share a similar characteristic. The members from each sub-group are selected
randomly. This technique is adopted when the population is not highly homogeneous, when
we might reasonably expect the measurement of interest to vary between the different
subgroups, and we want to ensure representation from all the subgroups.
Systematic Sampling
In systematic sampling, a member occurring after regular interval is selected. The intervals
are chosen to ensure an adequate sample size. If you need a sample size n from a
population of size x, you should select every x/nth individual for the sample. For example, if
you wanted a sample size of 100 from a population of 1000, select every 1000/100 = 10 th
member of the sampling frame.
Cluster Sampling
In cluster sampling, various segments of a population are treated as clusters and members
from each cluster are selected randomly. Though it seems similar to stratified sampling but
there is difference in both. In stratified sampling, the researcher divides the population into
homogeneous sub-groups on the basis of similar characteristics e.g. age, sex, profession,
religion and so on. On the other hand, in cluster sampling, the does not divides the
population into sub-groups or cluster but randomly select from already existing or naturally
occurring sub-groups (clusters) of the population e.g. families within a society, towns within
a district, organizations within a city and so on. A researcher may treat each family within a
community as a cluster. Similarly, a researcher may treat each town within a big district as a
cluster. Unlike stratified sampling where the focus is on ensuring homogeneity, in cluster
sampling the focus is on ensuring the convenience for a research study. Each cluster may be
more or less homogeneous but the focus is on tactfully and conveniently studying the
population in terms of clusters.
Multi-stage Sampling
Multi-stage sampling is a complex form of cluster sampling. In multi-stage sampling, each
cluster of the sample is further divided into smaller clusters and members are selected from
each smaller cluster randomly. It is called a multi-stage sampling as it involves many stages.
First, naturally occurring groups in a population are selected as clusters, then each cluster is
divided into smaller clusters and then from each smaller cluster members are selected
randomly. Even the smaller cluster can be further divided into smallest cluster depending
upon the nature of the research.

2. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Non-probability sampling is a type of sampling where each member of the population does
not have known probability of being selected in the sample. In this type of sampling, each
member of the population does not get an equal chance of being selected in the sample.
Non-probability sampling is adopted when each member of the population cannot be
selected or the researcher deliberately wants to choose members selectively. For example,
to study impacts of domestic violence on children, the researcher will not interview all the
children but will interview only those children who are subjected to domestic violence.
Hence, the members cannot be selected randomly. The researcher will use his judgment to
select the members.
The types of non-probability sampling are explained as below:
Purposive Sampling
It is a type of sampling where the members for a sample are selected according to the
purpose of the study. For example, if a researcher wants to study the impact of drugs abuse
on health. Every member of the society is not the best respondent for this study. Only the
drug addicts can be the best respondents for this study as they have undergone impacts of
drug abuse on their health and they can provide the real data for this study. Hence, the
researcher deliberately selects only the drug addicts as respondents for his study.
Convenience Sampling
It is a type of sampling where the members of the sample are selected on the basis of their
convenient accessibility. Only those members are selected which are easily accessible to the
researcher. For example, a research may visit a college or a university and get the
questionnaires led in by volunteer students. Similarly, a researcher may stand in a market
and interview the volunteer persons.
Snow-ball Sampling
Snow-ball sampling is also called chain sampling. It is a type of sampling where one
respondent identifies other respondents (from his friends or relatives) the study. Snow-ball
sampling is adopted in situations where it is difficult to identify the members of the sample.
For example, a researcher wants to study ‘problems faced by migrants in an area’ . The
researcher may not know enough number of migrants in the area to collect data from them.
In such a case, the researcher may ask a migrant to help him locate other migrants to be
interviewed. The respondents may tell the researcher about his other friends who are also
migrants in the area. Similarly, the new respondents (identified by last respondent) may
suggest some other new respondents. In this way, the sample goes on growing like a
snowball. Research continues this method until the required sample-size is achieved.
Quota Sampling
In this type of sampling, the members are selected according to some specific characteristics
chosen by the researcher. These specific characteristics serve as a quota for selection of
members of the sample. Hence, the members are selected on the basis of these specific
characteristics such as age, sex, religion, profession, ethnicity, interest and so on.