UNIT 12 –

Applications of
Mechanical Systems in
Engineering
Plant Equipment & Systems
B. Marshall

2012-2013
STEAM POWER FOR ELECTRICITY GENERATION

A steam/thermal power station uses heat energy generated from burning coal to
produce electrical energy. This type of power station is widely used around the
world.

This power station uses the Rankine cycle. This is the cycle of the steam produced
in the boiler, and then taken to the Steam turbine (prime mover). From the turbine
the steam is cooled back to water in the Condenser, the resulting water is fed back
into the boiler to repeat the cycle.

Because of the abundance of fuel (coal), this kind of power station can be used to
produce large amounts of electrical energy. In most countries these power stations
are used as base load power stations. This is because steam power stations are
slow to start and cannot be used to cater for peak loads that generally occur for a
short duration.

These power stations (together with nuclear power stations) are kept running very
close to full efficiency for 24 hours a day (unless they are being maintained). They
have typical life of 30 to 40 years (although most governments have reduced this
number to 35 years).

Advantages Disadvantages
Cheap coal is used Air pollution from smoke fumes
Can be installed anywhere near fuel Costs more to run compared with other types
& water supply of power stations
Requires less construction space
Cost for Generation is less

Future generations will have to learn to depend less and less on this type of
electricity generating power station, due to a fast increasing depletion of fuels (coal
and oil). As other types of power stations become more efficient it should be possible
to completely abandon the use of this type of power station.
Stage 1: Coal & Ash handling

This stage is seen as the entrance and exit of fuel (coal) used. The initial handling,
treatment and storage of the coal and, the final handling and disposal of Ash.

Coal & Ash Handling Equipment from diagram

Coal conveyor (14), Coal hopper (15), Pulveriser mill (16), Ash hopper (18)

Stage 2: Steam Generating Plant

This stage is seen as the energy loss stage. The steam creation by heat accounts for
the greater percentage of power station in-efficiency.

Steam Generating Equipment from diagram

Boiler drum (17), Superheater (19), Reheater (21), Economiser (23), Preheater (24),
Forced d-fan (20), Induced d-fan (26), Chimney (27)

Stage 3 & 4: Steam turbine & Alternator/Generator

This stage is seen as the energy conversion stage. The steam turbine converts
steam energy to rotational mechanical energy, while the Alternator/Generator
converts rotational mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Energy Conversion Equipment from diagram

Pressure turbines (6, 9, 11), Steam governor (10), Boiler feed pump (7), Generator
(5), Transformer (4), Pylon (3)

Stage 5: Feed water & Cooling

This stage is seen as the recycling stage. Steam used in boiler chamber is
condensed back to water for re-use.

Feed water & Cooling Equipment from diagram

Cooling tower (1), Water pump (2), Condenser (8), Precipitator (25)
REFRIDERATION & AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

REFRIDGERATION

The design of the household fridge is based around two things that you will have
experienced.

1. If you wet your skin after a short time your skin will feel cold. This is because when
a liquid evaporates it absorbs heat from its surroundings.
2. When you pump up the tire on a bicycle the pump's body gets hot. This is because
when a gas is compressed it gets hotter.

The fridge contains a liquid which evaporates very easily at around the freezing point
of water. This passes through a heat exchanger or evaporator inside the fridge
(usually in the ice making compartment) where it evaporates, sucking heat out from
the fridge. The cold gas circulates to another heat exchanger or condenser located
outside the fridge. There it is compressed. This turns it back into liquid, and also
produces heat, which the exchanger transfers to the outside world, that is why the
rear of your fridge feels warm as the heat is expelled from the heat exchanger on the
outside at the back.
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

Air conditioning refers to the cooling and dehumidification of indoor air for thermal
comfort. In a broader sense, the term can refer to any form of cooling, heating,
ventilation or disinfection that modifies the condition of air. An air conditioner (often
referred to as AC or air con.) is an appliance, system, or mechanism designed to
stabilise the air temperature and humidity within an area (used for cooling as well as
heating depending on the air properties at a given time), typically using a
refrigeration cycle but sometimes using evaporation, commonly for comfort cooling in
buildings and motor vehicles.

Car air conditioner systems are designed to allow the driver and or passengers to
feel more comfortable during uncomfortably warm humid or hot trips in a vehicle.
Cars in hot climates often are fitted with air conditioning.
COMPRESSOR

Commonly referred to as the heart of the system, the compressor is a belt driven
pump that is fastened to the engine. It is responsible for compressing and
transferring refrigerant gas. The A/C system is split into two sides, a high pressure
side and a low pressure side; defined as discharge and suction. Since the
compressor is basically a pump, it must have an intake side and a discharge side.
The intake, or suction side, draws in refrigerant gas from the outlet of the evaporator.
In some cases it does this via the accumulator. Once the refrigerant is drawn into the
suction side, it is compressed and sent to the condenser, where it can then transfer
the heat that is absorbed from the inside of the vehicle.

CONDENSER

This is the area in which heat dissipation occurs. The condenser, in many cases, will
have much the same appearance as the radiator in you car as the two have very
similar functions. The condenser is designed to radiate heat. Its location is usually in
front of the radiator, but in some cases, due to aerodynamic improvements to the
body of a vehicle, its location may differ. Condensers must have good air flow
anytime the system is in operation. On rear wheel drive vehicles; this is usually
accomplished by taking advantage of your existing engine's cooling fan. On front
wheel drive vehicles, condenser air flow is supplemented with one or more electric
cooling fan(s). As hot compressed gasses are introduced into the top of the
condenser, they are cooled off. As the gas cools, it condenses and exits the bottom
of the condenser as a high pressure liquid.

EVAPORATOR

Located inside the vehicle, the evaporator serves as the heat absorption component.
The evaporator provides several functions. Its primary duty is to remove heat from
the inside of your vehicle. A secondary benefit is dehumidification. As warmer air
travels through the aluminium fins of the cooler evaporator coil, the moisture
contained in the air condenses on its surface. Dust and pollen passing through stick
to its wet surfaces and drain off to the outside. On humid days you may have seen
this as water dripping from the bottom of your vehicle. Rest assured this is perfectly
normal. The ideal temperature of the evaporator is 32° Fahrenheit or 0° Celsius.
Refrigerant enters the bottom of the evaporator as a low pressure liquid. The warm
air passing through the evaporator fins causes the refrigerant to boil (refrigerants
have very low boiling points). As the refrigerant begins to boil, it can absorb large
amounts of heat. This heat is then carried off with the refrigerant to the outside of the
vehicle. Several other components work in conjunction with the evaporator. As
mentioned above, the ideal temperature for an evaporator coil is 32° F. Temperature
and pressure regulating devices must be used to control its temperature. While there
are many variations of devices used, their main functions are the same; keeping
pressure in the evaporator low and keeping the evaporator from freezing; a frozen
evaporator coil will not absorb as much heat.

PRESSURE REGULATING DEVICES

Controlling the evaporator temperature can be accomplished by controlling

refrigerant pressure and flow into the evaporator.

RECEIVER-DRIER

The receiver-drier is used on the high side of systems that use a thermal expansion
valve. This type of metering valve requires liquid refrigerant. To ensure that the valve
gets liquid refrigerant, a receiver is used. The primary function of the receiver-drier is
to separate gas and liquid. The secondary purpose is to remove moisture and filter
out dirt.

ACCUMULATOR

Accumulators are used on systems that accommodate an orifice tube to meter

refrigerants into the evaporator. It is connected directly to the evaporator outlet and
stores excess liquid refrigerant. Introduction of liquid refrigerant into a compressor
can do serious damage. Compressors are designed to compress gas not liquid. The
chief role of the accumulator is to isolate the compressor from any damaging liquid
refrigerant. Accumulators, like receiver-driers, also remove debris and moisture from
a system. It is a good idea to replace the accumulator each time the system is
opened up for major repair and anytime moisture and/or debris is of concern.
Moisture is enemy number one for your A/C system. Moisture in a system mixes with
refrigerant and forms a corrosive acid. When in doubt, it may be to your advantage to
change the Accumulator or receiver in your system. While this may be a temporary
discomfort for your wallet, it is of long term benefit to your air conditioning system.

THERMAL EXPANSION VALVE

Another common refrigerant regulator is the thermal expansion valve. This type of
valve can sense both temperature and pressure, and is very efficient at regulating
refrigerant flow to the evaporator.
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

CRANES

A crane is a type of machine used for lifting, generally equipped with a hoist or
winder, wire ropes or chains and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower
materials and to move them horizontally. It uses one or more simple machines like a
hoist to create mechanical advantage and thus move loads beyond the normal
capability of a human. Cranes are commonly employed in the transport industry for
the loading and unloading of freight, in the construction industry for the movement of
materials and in the manufacturing industry for the assembling of heavy equipment.

If you have ever looked at the end of a crane, or if you have ever used an engine
hoist or if you have ever looked at the rigging on a sailboat, then you have seen a
block and tackle at work. A block and tackle is an arrangement of rope and pulleys
that allows you to trade force for distance.

Understanding the Block and Tackle

Imagine that you have the arrangement of a 100 pound (45.4 kilogram) weight
suspended from a rope, as shown below:
In the above figure, if you are going to suspend the weight in the air then you have to
apply an upward force of 100 pounds to the rope. If the rope is 100 feet (30.5
meters) long and you want to lift the weight up 100 feet, you have to pull in 100 feet
of rope to do it. This is simple and obvious.

Now imagine that you add a pulley to the mix, as shown below:

Does this change anything? Not really. The only thing that changes is the direction of
the force you have to apply to lift the weight. You still have to apply 100 pounds of
force to keep the weight suspended, and you still have to reel in 100 feet of rope in
order to lift the weight 100 feet.

The following figure shows the arrangement after adding a second pulley:
This arrangement actually does change things in an important way. You can see that
the weight is now suspended by two pulleys rather than one. That means the weight
is split equally between the two pulleys, so each one holds only half the weight, or 50
pounds (22.7 kilograms). That means that if you want to hold the weight suspended
in the air, you only have to apply 50 pounds of force (the ceiling exerts the other 50
pounds of force on the other end of the rope). If you want to lift the weight 100 feet
higher, then you have to reel in twice as much rope 0- 200 feet of rope must be
pulled in. This demonstrates a force-distance tradeoff. The force has been cut in half
but the distance the rope must be pulled has doubled.

The following diagram adds a third and fourth pulley to the arrangement:

In this diagram, the pulley attached to the weight actually consists of two separate
pulleys on the same shaft, as shown on the right. This arrangement cuts the force in
half and doubles the distance again. To hold the weight in the air you must apply
only 25 pounds of force, but to lift the weight 100 feet higher in the air you must now
reel in 400 feet of rope.

A block and tackle can contain as many pulleys as you like, although at some point
the amount of friction in the pulley shafts begins to become a significant source of
resistance.
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

A fundamental feature of hydraulic systems is the ability to apply force or torque

multiplication in an easy way, independent of the distance between the input and
output, without the need for mechanical gears or levers, either by altering the
effective areas in two connected cylinders or the effective displacement between a
pump and motor.

Above is shown a simple hydraulic circuit to open and close a door, the same
principle could be used to change the direction of a conveyor belt, slide parts from a
production line, lift parts and assemblies etc.

Fluid Power Symbols

To prevent system designers from having to use pictorial representations of all the
parts required within a hydraulic system a set of standard symbols have been
devised to help depict a circuit. Examples of some of them are shown below

Hydraulic Tank (fluid reservoir)

All hydraulic systems must have some form of a reservoir to

hold the fluid in the system. Most systems have vented tanks; however aircraft are
one application where a closed tank is appropriate. The symbol shown here is a
vented tank, a box with the line in the centre would indicate a closed system. The
line could also not go to the bottom of the tank, which would mean that the line stops
above the fluid level in the tank and the fluid falls in. It is better to stop the line below
the fluid level, otherwise the falling fluid may cause bubbles in the fluid.
 Hydraulic Pump

A pump displaces fluid which creates flow. There are fixed

displacement pumps and variable displacement pumps. The pump symbol is very
similar to a hydraulic motor symbol, the difference is that the pump has the small
triangle pointing out and a motor has the small triangle pointing in to the centre. An
angled arrow typically indicates that a device is variable, thus this is a variable
volume pump. Fixed displacement pumps provide the same output volume with the
same input RPM. Variable displacement pumps can change the output volume while
maintaining the same input RPM. Hydraulic pumps are precision components and
have very close tolerances; they must be treated with care.

Pressure Relief Valve

Hydraulic fluid is virtually non compressible, if the fluid can't go

anywhere the pump will stall, and damage to the pump and motor can result. All
hydraulic systems must have a pressure relief valve in line with the pump. The
pressure relief will drain into the tank. The dashed line indicates a pilot line, this is a
small line that only flows enough fluid to control other valves. The pressure of this
pilot line acts against the spring on the other side of this valve. When the pilot
pressure exceeds the spring force then the valve spool shifts over and opens the
valve, this allows flow to the tank. This causes a drop in the pressure on the pump
side, which also reduces the pilot pressure. When the pilot pressure is less than the
spring force the spring closes the valve. The relief valve in the position described
above will control the maximum pressure in the hydraulic system.

Directional Valves

A directional valve will control which device the fluid will flow to. These valves are the
primary devices used to sequence the motion of equipment. There are many
different types of directional control valves. The valve is generally specified by
number of positions and number of ways (ports). The valve is made up of two parts,
the body and the spool. When valves shift the spool is moved in relation to the body,
this opens and closes passages that the fluid flows through. Remember that the
valve actuator always pushes the spool, this will help you read the drawings. You
read the operation of a valve in a circuit in the following manner. The box(s) with
arrows in it show the flow of fluid when the valve is shifted. The box without arrows
and/or away from the actuator shows the flow, if any, in the neutral position. This is
also the box you use to count the number of ports the valve has.
 Two(2) Position, Two(2) way

This valve has two positions (2 boxes) and 2 ways (ports); thus 2 positions, 2 ways.
It is shown with a manual actuator (on the right) and has a spring return to neutral.
This valve is called normally closed because both ports are blocked when in neutral.
It could be used on a safety device like a safety gate, if the gate isn't closed,
actuating the valve, then the flow will be stopped, preventing movement of the
connected device.

Three(3) Position, Four(4) way

This valve has three positions (3 boxes) and 4 ways (ports); thus 3 positions, 4 ways.
It is shown with a closed centre, when the valve is neutral all ports are blocked. The
small boxes on each end with diagonal lines through them, C1 and C2, are electrical
coils; this is an electrically actuated valve. The port marked P is Pressure and the
port marked T drains to tank. The ports marked A and B connect to an external
device, like a cylinder. When C1 is energized the valve will shift, putting pressure to
the B port and draining the A port to the tank. Likewise when C2 is energized the
pressure port connects to the A port and the B port drains to the tank.

Three(3) Position, Four(4) Way

This valve has three positions (3 boxes) and 4 ways (ports); thus 3 positions, 4 ways.
It also is electrically actuated. The jagged line next to the coil indicates springs, when
the coil is de-energized the opposite spring will force the spool back to the centre
position. This valve also drains to tank when in neutral; this is a standard valve on
moulding machines. They drain to tank when de-energized for safety.

Cylinder

A cylinder is one of the devices that create movement. When pressure is applied to a
port it causes that side of the cylinder to fill with fluid. If the fluid pressure and area of
the cylinder are greater than the load that is attached then the load will move.
Cylinders are generally specified by bore and stroke; they can also have options like
cushions installed. Cushions slow down the cylinder at the end of the stroke to
prevent slamming. If the pressure remains constant a larger diameter cylinder will
provide more force because it has more surface area for the pressure to act on.

Check Valve

Allows fluid flow in one direction only, the arrowed end indicates the direction of flow.
They are also known as non-return valves. Check valves prevent fluid from draining
from the system when not in operation
PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

Pneumatic systems are very similar in operation to a hydraulic system except the
fluid has been replaced with compressed air. Many of the components as a result
have the same name and standard symbol, the system designer depicts whether the
circuit is hydraulic or pneumatic by filling the arrowhead indicting the direction of
flow. If the circuit is hydraulic the arrowhead is filled/shaded, if it is pneumatic the
arrowhead is open/unshaded. There are however a number of pneumatic
components that are individual to compressed air systems, these are usually the
components required to condition or prepare the air for use. These include air tanks,
filters, water traps, lubricators, coolers and air dryers/dehumidifiers. Below is shown
a typical compressed air circuit and the components required to make it operate
successfully.

Below is the same circuit depicted by pneumatic circuit symbols.

Air Power Symbols

Air Cooler

As air is compressed it get hot and when heated it expands, the air is cooled to
prevent the air from contracting within the operating system causing pressure
fluctuations and inconsistent system operation.

Drain Separator

When the air is compressed the drawn in air can contain water and oil particles from
the compressor. The drain separator allows these particles to be collected and
drained by the operator or in some cases this component can be automated and
automatically drained.

Air Dryer

Water vapour is a major problem in sophisticated pneumatic systems as the water

vapour can condense within components causing corrosion and component failure.
The solution is to use a chemical air dryer to remove any water vapour prior to
entering the operating system.

Air Conditioning Unit

The air conditioning unit consists of three components a filter, pressure regulator and
lubricator. The filter is used to remove and fine particles of dust/dirt as these can act
as an abrasive compound if introduced causing premature rapid wear. The pressure
regulator allows the operator to set the pressure the system will operate at, if a
gauge is included in this device the pressure can also be monitored whilst the
system is operating. As the air has now been cleaned and is going to be utilised to
move system components a lubricator is introduced into the system. The purpose of
the lubricator is to introduce a small measured amount of oil; as the moving parts will
need a small amount of lubricant to operate efficiently.
HYDRAULIC VS PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

Advantages of Hydraulic Systems

1. Much higher pressures can be developed, therefore producing much higher

actuation forces.
2. More responsive and smooth in operation
3. Hydraulic movement can be stopped in multiple positions, whereas pneumatic
systems are only accurate for positioning at start and end stop positions.
4. No requirement for large storage tanks, water filters and air dryers, although a
reservoir is still required
5. As hydraulic systems are operated using oils, there is less problem with
lubrication of moving parts.

Disadvantages of Hydraulic Systems

1. Leakages can harm environment, and pose a safety risk

2. Requires a return system as used fluid has to be returned to reservoir to be
used again. This makes the system more expensive due to the extra pipe
work.
3. Hydraulic systems usually operate at higher pressures than pneumatic
systems, this makes all operating system components more expensive to
manufacture.
4. Hydraulic systems cannot be used with food or medical machinery as there is
danger of contamination from the hydraulic fluid.

Advantages of Pneumatic Systems

1. A clean system any air leaks are not dangerous, once utilises waste air can
be expelled to the open air, there is no need to return air to a reservoir,
therefore less pipe work is required.
2. As pneumatic systems work on lower pressures the components required
within the system are generally cheaper to manufacture and therefore the
system is cheaper to produce.
3. Pneumatic systems are generally quieter in operation than hydraulic systems

Disadvantages of Pneumatic Systems

1. Generating compressed air is more expensive than the power requirements of

pumping fluid around a hydraulic system.
2. Pneumatic actuation systems cannot hold a load rigidly in place like a
hydraulic system.