W1 HO Networking Concepts PDF

IP Networking and Security(IP) Networking Concepts
1 NETWORKING CONCEPTS
STRUCTURE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 OBJECTIVES
1.3 TCP/IP MODEL
1.4 COMPARISON OF OSI AND TCP/IP MODEL
1.5 BASIC NETWORKING CONCEPTS
1.6 TYPES OF NETWORKS
1.7 CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS
1.8 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
1.9 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
1.10 NETWORKING PROTOCOLS
1.11 MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL
1.12 BASIC NETWORKING COMPONENTS
1.13 MPLS
1.14 MPLS-VPN
1.15 SUMMARY
1.16 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1.17 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Internet protocol suite is the set of communications protocols used for the
Internet and similar networks. Because of most popular protocol stack for wide area
networks, it is commonly known as TCP/IP. The most important protocols are:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). These protocols were
the first networking protocols defined in this standard.The TCP/IP model and related
protocols are maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
Without a network, you can access resources only on your own computer. These
resources may be devices in your computer, such as a folder or disk drive, or they may be
connected to your computer, such as a printer or CDROM drive. These devices,
EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 1 of 31

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accessible only to you, are local resources. Networking allows you to share resources
among a group of computer users.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to understand:
a) TCP/IP Model
b) Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Model
c) Networking concepts
d) Networking components
1.3 TCP/IP MODEL

The Internet protocol suite is the set of communications protocols used for the
Internet and similar networks, and generally the most popular protocol stack for wide
area networks. It is commonly known as TCP/IP, because of its most important
protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP), which were
the first networking protocols defined in this standard.
TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be
formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination. It has four
abstraction layers, each with its own protocols. Each layer is responsible for a set of
computer network related tasks. Every layer provides service to the layer above it.
Key architectural principles

An early architectural document, RFC 1122, emphasizes architectural principles
over layering.
End-to-end principle: This principle has evolved over time. Its original
expression put the maintenance of state and overall intelligence at the edges, and
assumed the Internet that connected the edges retained no state and concentrated on
speed and simplicity. Real-world needs for firewalls, network address translators, web
content caches and the like have forced changes in this principle.
Robustness Principle: In general, an implementation must be conservative in its
sending behaviour, and liberal in its receiving behaviour. That is, it must be careful to
send well-formed datagrams, but must accept any datagram that it can interpret (e.g., not
object to technical errors where the meaning is still clear). The second part of the
principle is means that software on other hosts may contain deficiencies that make it
unwise to exploit legal but obscure protocol features.

LAYERS OF TCP/IP MODEL

TCP/IP model has 4 layers, each with its own protocols. The layers are:
4: Applicaion
3: Transport
2: Network
1: Link / Physical
1. The link layer (commonly Ethernet) contains communication technologies for a local
network.
2. The internet layer (IP) connects local networks, thus establishing internetworking.
3. The transport layer (TCP) handles host-to-host communication.
4. The application layer (for example HTTP) contains all protocols for specific data
communications services on a process-to-process level (for example how a web
browser communicates with a web server).
Functions of Layers
1. Application Layer: This is the topmost layer of the TCP/IP suite. This is responsible
for coding of the packet data. It contains all protocols for specific data
communications services on a process-to-process level. For example, how a web
browser communicates with a web server.
2. Transport Layer: This layer monitors end-to-end path selections of the packets. It
also provides service to the application layer. It handles host-to-host communication
3. Internet Layer: This layer is responsible for sending packets through different
networks. It connects local networks, thus establishing internetworking.
4. Link Layer: It is the closest layer to the network hardware. It provides service to
Internet layer. The Link Layer (commonly Ethernet) contains communication
technologies for a local network.
Major TCP/IP Protocols

Following table illustrates all the major TCP/IP Internet protocols and associates
a layer of the architecture with each. Application-layer protocols are divided into two
groups; first, those use TCP second use UDP.
LAYER # LAYER PROTOCOLS
1. Data
Protocols defined by underlying networks
2. Physical
3. Network IP, ARP, RARP, ICMP, IGMP
TCP (Reliable & Connection Oriented)
4. Transport
UDP (Unreliable & Connectionless)
5. Application Protocols Using TCP at Layer 4:

FTP, SMTP, TELNET, HTTP
Protocols Using UDP at Layer 4:
TFTP, SNMP, NFS, DNS
User Service Application

User service applications include the following.
 TELENET – provides a remote logon capability
 File transfer protocol (FTP) – provides a reliable file transfer capability
 Trivial file transfer protocol (TFTP) – provides an unreliable, simple file transfer
capability.
 Network file system (NFS) – provides remote virtual storage capability.
 Simple message transfer protocol (SMTP) – provides electronic mail capability.
Utility Applications
Utility applications include the following.
 Simple network management protocol (SNMP) – provides network management
information.
 Boot protocol (BOOTP) – provides remote loading capability for diskless
workstations.
 Domain name service (DNS) – provides directory assistance for Internet addresses
using local names.
 Address resolution protocol (ARP) – provides a physical address from an IP address.
 Reverse address resolution protocol (RARP) – provides an IP address from a physical
device address.
In theory, all application protocols could use either the UDP or the TCP transport
protocol. The reliability requirements of the application dictates, which transport layer
protocol is used. For example, some applications, such as the domain name service
(DNS), may either UDP or TCP. The UDP provides an unreliable, connectionless
transport service, while the TCP provides a reliable, in-sequence, and connection-
oriented service. Because the UDP is unreliable, many of the application layer protocols
only use TCP, for example, FTP and TELNET. For the application layer protocols that
do not require a reliable service, they use only UDP, for example, TFTP, SNMP, VoIP
etc.
TCP/IP NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOL

The Internet protocol (IP) receives data directly from the Ethernet and functions
on an architectural level equivalent to the network layer of the OSI reference model. The
protocols ARP and RARP receive data directly from the Ethernet in the same manner as
the IP.
Internet Protocol (IP) Header

Version IHL DSCP ECN Total Length
Identification Flags Fragment Offset

Time To Live Protocol Header Checksum

Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if IHL > 5)
IPv4 Header Fields

1. Version - The version is a binary number that is four bits long. It indicates which
version of IP is being used.
2. IHL (Internet Header Length) - The IHL simply measures the length of the IP header
in 32-bit words. The minimum header length is five 32-bit words.
3. Type of Service - This field is for specifying special routing information. This field in
particular relates to Quality of Service technologies quite well. Essentially, the
purpose of this 8-bit field is to prioritize datagrams that are waiting to pass through a
router.
4. Total Length - This 16-bit field includes the length of the IP datagram. This length
includes the IP header and also the data itself.
5. Identification - This is a 16-bit field that acts as a means of organizing chunks of data.
If a message is too large to fit in one data packet, it is split up and all of its child
packets are given the same identification number. This is handy to ensure data is
rebuilt on the receiving end properly.
6. Flags - This field signifies fragmentation options- such as whether or not fragments
are allowed. The Flags field also has capability to tell the receiving source that more
fragments are on the way, if enabled. This is done with the MF flag, also known as
the more fragments flag.
7. Fragment Offset - This is a 13-bit field that assigns a number value to each fragment.
The receiving computer will then use these numbers to reassemble the data correctly.
Obviously this is only applicable if fragments are allowed.
8. Time to Live - This is often known as TTL. It is a field that indicates how many hops
a data packet should go through before it is discarded. When it reaches zero, it is
discarded.
9. Protocol - This 8-bit field indicates which protocol should be used to receive the data.
Some of the more popular protocols such as TCP and UDP are identified by the
numbers 6 and 17 respectively.
10. Header Checksum - This 16-bit field holds a calculated value that is used to verify
that the header is still valid. Each time a packet travels through a router this value is
recalculated to ensure the header is still indeed valid.
11. Destination IP Address - This 32-bit field holds the IP address of the receiving
computer. It is used to route the packet and to make sure that only the computer with
the IP address in this field obtains the packets.

12. Source IP Address - This 32-bit field holds the IP address of the sending computer. It
is used to verify correct delivery, and will also be the return address in case an error
occurs.
13. IP Options - This field can hold a fair number of optional settings. These settings are
primarily used for testing and security purposes
14. Padding - Since the IP options field varies in length depending on the configuration,
we need to have this field set to occupy left over bits. This is because the header
needs to be ended after a 32-bit word: no more, no less.
15. Data - It is simply the data that is being sent.
TCP/IP TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOL
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Header

Source port Destination port
Sequence number
Acknowledgment number (if ACK set)
C E U A P R S F
Reserved N
Data offset W C R C S S Y I Window Size
0 0 0 S
R E G K H T N N
Checksum Urgent pointer (if URG set)
Options (if Data Offset > 5, padded at the end with "0" bytes if necessary)
...
TCP Header Field

1. Source port (16 bits) – identifies the sending port
2. Destination port (16 bits) – identifies the receiving port
3. Sequence number (32 bits) – has a dual role:If the SYN flag is set (1), then this is the
initial sequence number. If the SYN flag is clear (0), then this is the accumulated
sequence number of the first data byte of this segment for the current session.
4. Acknowledgment number (32 bits) – if the ACK flag is set then the value of this field
is the next sequence number that the receiver is expecting. This acknowledges receipt
of all prior bytes (if any). The first ACK sent by each end acknowledges the other
end's initial sequence number itself, but no data.
5. Data offset (4 bits) – specifies the size of the TCP header in 32-bit words. The
minimum size header is 5 words and the maximum is 15 words thus giving the
minimum size of 20 bytes and maximum of 60 bytes, allowing for up to 40 bytes of
options in the header.
6. Reserved (3 bits) – for future use and should be set to zero
7. Flags (9 bits) (aka Control bits) – contains 9 1-bit flags
 NS (1 bit) – ECN-nonce concealment protection (added to header by RFC 3540).

 CWR (1 bit) – Congestion Window Reduced (CWR) flag is set by the sending
host to indicate that it received a TCP segment with the ECE flag set and had
responded in congestion control mechanism (added to header by RFC 3168).
 ECE (1 bit) – ECN-Echo indicates
 If the SYN flag is set (1), that the TCP peer is ECN capable.
 If the SYN flag is clear (0), that a packet with Congestion Experienced flag in IP
header set is received during normal transmission (added to header by RFC
3168).
 URG (1 bit) – indicates that the Urgent pointer field is significant
 ACK (1 bit) – indicates that the Acknowledgment field is significant. All packets
after the initial SYN packet sent by the client should have this flag set.
 PSH (1 bit) – Push function. Asks to push the buffered data to the receiving
application.
 RST (1 bit) – Reset the connection
 SYN (1 bit) – Synchronize sequence numbers. Only the first packet sent from
each end should have this flag set. Some other flags change meaning based on
this flag, and some are only valid for when it is set, and others when it is clear.
 FIN (1 bit) – No more data from sender
8. Window size (16 bits) – the size of the receive window, which specifies the number
of bytes (beyond the sequence number in the acknowledgment field) that the sender
of this segment is currently willing to receive (see Flow control and Window Scaling)
9. Checksum (16 bits) – The 16-bit checksum field is used for error-checking of the
header and data
10. Urgent pointer (16 bits) – if the URG flag is set, then this 16-bit field is an offset
from the sequence number indicating the last urgent data byte
11. Options (Variable 0–320 bits, divisible by 32) – The length of this field is determined
by the data offset field. Options have up to three fields: Option-Kind (1 byte), Option-
Length (1 byte), Option-Data (variable).
12. Padding – The TCP header padding is used to ensure that the TCP header ends and
data begins on a 32 bit boundary. The padding is composed of zeros.[6]
USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)

Source port Destination port
Length Checksum
UDP Header Field

1. Source port number: This field identifies the sender's port when meaningful and
should be assumed to be the port to reply to if needed. If not used, then it should be
zero.
2. Destination port number: This field identifies the receiver's port and is required.
3. Length: A field that specifies the length in bytes of the entire datagram: header and
data. The minimum length is 8 bytes since that's the length of the header. The field
size sets a theoretical limit of 65,535 bytes (8 byte header + 65,527 bytes of data) for
a UDP datagram. The practical limit for the data length which is imposed by the
underlying IPv4 protocol is 65,507 bytes (65,535 − 8 byte UDP header − 20 byte IP
header).
4. Checksum: The checksum field is used for error-checking of the header and data. If
no checksum is generated by the transmitter, the field uses the value all-zeros.

1.4 Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP
OSI LAYER TCP/IP ENCAPSULATION TCP/IP
OSI # LAYER
NAME # UNITS PROTOCOLS
NAME
FTP, HTTP, POP3,
7 Application data IMAP, telnet, SMTP,
4 Application DNS, TFTP
6 Presentation data
5 Session data
4 Transport 3 Transport segments TCP, UDP
3 Network 2 Internet packets IP
2 Data Link Network frames
1
1 Physical Access bits
1.5 Basic Networking Concepts
Computer Network
A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one
another over a shared network medium. A computer network is a collection of two or
more connected computers. When these computers are joined in a network, people can
share files and peripherals such as modems, printers, tape backup drives, or CD-ROM
drives. When networks at multiple locations are connected using services available from
phone companies, people can send e-mail, share links to the global Internet, or conduct
video conferences in real time with other remote users.
When a network becomes open sourced it can be managed properly with online
collaboration software. As companies rely on applications like electronic mail and
database management for core business operations, computer networking becomes
increasingly more important.
EVERY NETWORK INCLUDES
 At least two computers Server or Client workstation.
 Networking Interface Card's (NIC)
 A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although wireless communication
between networked computers and peripherals is also possible.
 Network Operating system software, such as Microsoft Windows NT or 2000 or
Novell NetWare or Unix / Linux
Compatibility
1.6 Types of Networks

LANS (LOCAL AREA NETWORKS)
A network is any collection of
independent computers that communicate
with one another over a shared network
medium. LANs are networks usually

confined to a geographic area, such as a single building or a college campus. LANs can
be small, linking as few as three computers, but often link hundreds of computers used by
thousands of people. The development of standard networking protocols and media has
resulted in worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational
organizations.
WANS (WIDE AREA NETWORKS)
Wide area networking combines multiple LANs that are geographically separate.
This is accomplished by connecting the different LANs using services such as dedicated
leased phone lines, dial-up phone lines (both synchronous and asynchronous), satellite
links, and data packet carrier services. Wide area networking can be as simple as a
modem and remote access server for employees to dial into, or it can be as complex as
hundreds of branch offices globally linked using special routing protocols and filters to
minimize the expense of sending data sent over vast distances.
INTERNET
The Internet is a system of linked networks that are worldwide in scope and
facilitate data communication services such as remote login, file transfer, electronic mail,
the World Wide Web and newsgroups.
With the meteoric rise in demand for connectivity, the Internet has become a
communications highway for millions of users. The Internet was initially restricted to
military and academic institutions, but now it is a full-fledged conduit for any and all
forms of information and commerce. Internet websites now provide personal,
educational, political and economic resources to every corner of the planet.
INTRANET
With the advancements made in browser-based software for the Internet, many
private organizations are implementing intranets. An intranet is a private network
utilizing Internet-type tools, but available only within that organization. For large
organizations, an intranet provides an easy access mode to corporate information for
employees.
MAN (METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORKS)
The refers to a network of computers with in a City.
VPN (VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK)
VPN uses a technique known as tunneling to transfer data securely on the Internet
to a remote access server on your workplace network. Using a VPN helps you save
money by using the public Internet instead of making long–distance phone calls to
connect securely with your private network. There are two ways to create a VPN
connection, by dialing an Internet service provider (ISP), or connecting directly to
Internet.

1.7 Categories of Network

Network can be divided in to two main categories
PEER-TO-PEER MODEL
In peer-to-peer networking there are no dedicated
servers or hierarchy among the computers. All of the
computers are equal and therefore known as peers.
Normally each computer serves as Client/Server and there is
no one assigned to be an administrator responsible for the
entire network.
Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for needs of small

organizations where the users are allocated in the same
general area, security is not an issue and the organization
and the network will have limited growth within the
foreseeable future
SERVER – CLINET MODEL
The term Client/server refers to the concept of
sharing the work involved in processing data between the
client computer and the most powerful server computer.
The client/server network is the most efficient way
to provide:
 Databases and management of applications such as

Spreadsheets, Accounting, Communications and
Document management.
 Network management.
 Centralized file storage.

The client/server model is basically an implementation of distributed or

cooperative processing. At the heart of the model is the concept of splitting application
functions between a client and a server processor. The division of labor between the
different processors enables the application designer to place an application function on
the processor that is most appropriate for that function. This lets the software designer
optimize the use of processors--providing the greatest possible return on investment for
the hardware.
Client/server application design also lets the application provider mask the actual
location of application function. The user often does not know where a specific operation
is executing. The entire function may execute in either the PC or server, or the function
may be split between them. This masking of application function locations enables
system implementers to upgrade portions of a system over time with a minimum
disruption of application operations, while protecting the investment in existing hardware
and software.

Net work Cablings

In the network you will commonly find three types of cables used these are the,
coaxial cable, fiber optic and twisted pair.
THICK COAXIAL CABLE
This type cable is usually yellow in color and used in what is called thicknets, and
has two conductors. This coax can be used in 500-meter lengths. The cable itself is made
up of a solid center wire with a braided metal shield and plastic sheathing protecting the
rest of the wire.
THIN COAXIAL CABLE
As with the thick coaxial cable is used in thicknets the thin version is used in
thinnets. This type cable is also used called or referred to as RG-
58. The cable is really just a cheaper version of the thick cable.
FIBER OPTIC CABLE
As we all know fiber optics are pretty darn cool and not
cheap. This cable is smaller and can carry a vast amount of
information fast and over long distances.
TWISTED PAIR CABLES
These come in two flavors of unshielded and shielded.
SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (STP)
Is more common in high-speed networks. The biggest
difference you will see in the UTP and STP is that the STP use's
metallic shield wrapping to protect the wire from interference.
-Something else to note about these cables is that they are defined in numbers also. The
bigger the number the better the protection from interference. Most networks should go
with no less than a CAT 3 and CAT 5 is most recommended.
-Now you know about cables we need to know about connectors. This is pretty important
and you will most likely need the RJ-45 connector. This is the cousin of the phone jack
connector and looks real similar with the exception that the RJ-45 is bigger. Most
commonly your connector are in two flavors and this is BNC (Bayonet Naur Connector)
used in thicknets and the RJ-45 used in smaller networks using UTP/STP.
UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR (UTP)
This is the most popular form of cables in the network and the cheapest form that
you can go with. The UTP has four pairs of wires and all inside plastic sheathing. The
biggest reason that we call it Twisted Pair is to protect the wires from interference from
themselves. Each wire is only protected with a thin plastic sheath.

ETHERNET CABLING
Now to familiarize you with more on the Ethernet and it's cabling we need to look
at the 10's. 10Base2, is considered the thin Ethernet, thinnet, and thinwire which uses
light coaxial cable to create a 10 Mbps network. The cable segments in this network can't
be over 185 meters in length. These cables connect with the BNC connector. Also as a
note these unused connection must have a terminator, which will be a 50-ohm terminator.
10Base5, this is considered a thicknet and is used with coaxial cable arrangement such as
the BNC connector. The good side to the coaxial cable is the high-speed transfer and
cable segments can be up to 500 meters between nodes/workstations. You will typically
see the same speed as the 10Base2 but larger cable lengths for more versatility.
10BaseT, the “T” stands for twisted as in UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) and uses this
for 10Mbps of transfer. The down side to this is you can only have cable lengths of 100
meters between nodes/workstations. The good side to this network is they are easy to set
up and cheap! This is why they are so common an ideal for small offices or homes.
100BaseT, is considered Fast Ethernet uses STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) reaching data
transfer of 100Mbps. This system is a little more expensive but still remains popular as
the 10BaseT and cheaper than most other type networks.
10BaseF, this little guy has the advantage of fiber optics and the F stands for just that.
This arrangement is a little more complicated and uses special connectors and NIC's
along with hubs to create its network. Pretty darn neat and not to cheap on the wallet.
1.8 Network Architectures
ETHERNET
Ethernet is the most popular physical
layer LAN technology in use today. Other LAN
types include Token Ring, Fast Ethernet, Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI),
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and
LocalTalk.
Ethernet connection is popular because it
strikes a good balance between speed, cost and
ease of installation. These benefits, combined
with wide acceptance in the computer
marketplace and the ability to support virtually all popular network protocols, make
Ethernet an ideal networking technology for most computer users today. The Institute for
Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) defines the Ethernet standard as IEEE

Standard 802.3. This standard defines rules for configuring an Ethernet network as well
as specifying how elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another.
By adhering to the IEEE standard, network equipment and network protocols can
communicate efficiently.
FAST ETHERNET
For Ethernet networks that need higher transmission speeds, the Fast Ethernet
standard (IEEE 802.3u) has been established. This standard raises the Ethernet speed
limit from 10 Megabits per second (Mbps) to 100 Mbps with only m inimal changes to
the existing cable structure. There are three types of Fast Ethernet: 100BASE-TX for use
with level 5 UTP cable, 100BASE-FX for use with fiber-optic cable, and 100BASE-T4
which utilizes an extra two wires for use with level 3 UTP cable. The 100BASE-TX
standard has become the most popular due to its close compatibility with the 10BASE-T
Ethernet standard. For the network manager, the incorporation of Fast Ethernet into an
existing configuration presents a host of decisions. Managers must determine the number
of users in each site on the network that need the higher throughput, decide which
segments of the backbone need to be reconfigured specifically for 100BASE-T and then
choose the necessary hardware to connect the 100BASE-T segments with existing
10BASE-T segments. Gigabit Ethernet is a future technology that promises a migration
path beyond Fast Ethernet so the next generation of networks will support even higher
data transfer speeds.
TOKEN RING
Token Ring is another form of network configuration
which differs from Ethernet in that all messages are transferred
in a unidirectional manner along the ring at all times. Data is
transmitted in tokens, which are passed along the ring and
viewed by each device. When a device sees a message
addressed to it, that device copies the message and then marks
that message as being read. As the message makes its way
along the ring, it eventually gets back to the sender who now
notes that the message was received by the intended device.
The sender can then remove the message and free that token for
use by others.
Various PC vendors have been proponents of Token

Ring networks at different times and thus these types
of networks have been implemented in many
organizations.
FDDI
FDDI (Fiber-Distributed Data Interface) is a
standard for data transmission on fiber optic lines in a
local area network that can extend in range up to 200
km (124 miles). The FDDI protocol is based on the
token ring protocol. In addition to being large
geographically, an FDDI local area network can
support thousands of users.

1.9 Network Topologies

A network topology is the geometric arrangement of nodes and cable links in a
LAN,
There are topologies to think about when you get into networks. These are the bus , ring
,star , start bus and mesh.
BUS TOPOLOGY
In Bus bus topology, each node (computer, server,
peripheral etc.) attaches directly to a common cable. This
topology most often serves as the backbone for a network. In
some instances, such as in classrooms or labs, a bus will connect
small workgroups. Each node is daisy-chained (connected one
right after the other) along the same backbone, similar to C
hristmas lights. Information sent from a node travels along the
backbone until it reaches its destination node. Each end of a bus
network must be terminated with a resistor to keep the signal that
is sent by a node across the network from bouncing back when it
reaches the end of the cable.
RING TOPOLOGY
Ring, a ring topology features a logically closed loop.
Data packets travel in a single direction around the ring from one
network device to the next. Each network device acts as a
repeater, meaning it regenerates the signal. Like a bus network,
rings have the nodes daisy-chained. The difference is that the end
of the network comes back around to the first node, creating a
complete circuit. In a ring network, each node takes a turn
sending and receiving information through the use of a token.
The token, along with any data, is sent from the first node to the
second node, which extracts the data addressed to it and adds any
data it wishes to send. Then, the second node passes the token and data to the third node,
and so on until it comes back around to the first node again. Only the node with the token
is allowed to send data. All other nodes must wait for the token to come to them.
STAR TOPOLOGY
Star, in a star topology each node has a dedicated set
of wires connecting it to a central network hub. Since all
traffic passes through the hub, the hub becomes a central point
for isolating network problems and gathering network stati
stics. In a star network, each node is connected to a central
device called a hub. The hub takes a signal that comes from
any node and passes it along to all the other nodes in the
network. A hub does not perform any type of filtering or
routing of the data. It is simply a junction that joins all the
different nodes together.

STAR BUS TOPOLOGY
Probably the most common network topology in use today, star bus combines
elements of the star and bus topologies to create a versatile network environment. Nodes
in particular areas are connected to hubs (creating stars), and the hubs are connected
together along the network backbone (like a bus network). Quite often, stars are nested
within stars, as seen in the example below:
MESH TOPOLOGY
Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous
topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from
source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist,
messages can only travel in one direction.) Some WANs, most notably the Internet,
employ mesh routing.
A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full
mesh. As shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some
devices connect only indirectly to others.
Mesh topologies are important for large-peer-to-peer systems that use low-power
transceivers. The Quality of Service (QoS) in such systems is known to decrease as the
scale increases. This present a scalable approach for dissemination that exploits all the
shortest paths between a pair of nodes and improves the QoS. Despite the presence of
multiple shortest paths in a system, we show that these paths cannot be exploited by
spreading the messages over the paths in a simple round-robin manner; nodes along one
of these paths will always handle more messages than the nodes along the other paths
scale.
1.10 Networking Protocols
Networking protocols are standards that allow
computers to communicate. A protocol defines how
computers identify one another on a network, the form
that the data should take in transit, and how this
information is processed once it reaches its final
destination. Protocols also define procedures for handling
lost or damaged transmissions or "packets." TCP/IP (for
UNIX, Windows NT, Windows 95 and other platforms),
IPX (for Novell NetWare), DECnet (for networking
Digital Equipment Corp. computers), AppleTalk (for Macintosh computers), and
NetBIOS/NetBEUI (for LAN Manager and Windows NT networks) are the main types of
network protocols in use today.
Although each network protocol is different, they all share the same physical cabling.
This common method of accessing the physical network allows multiple protocols to
peacefully coexist over the network media, and allows the builder of a network to use
common hardware for a variety of protocols. This concept is known as "protocol
independence,"

Some Important Protocols and their job:
Protocol Acronym Its Job
Point-To-Point TCP/IP The backbone protocol of the internet. Popular
also for intranets using the internet
Transmission Control TCP/IP The backbone protocol of the internet. Popular
Protocol/internet Protocol also for intranets using the internet
Internetwork Package IPX/SPX This is a standard protocol for Novell Network
Exchange/Sequenced Packet Operating System
Exchange
NetBIOS Extended User NetBEUI This is a Microsoft protocol that doesn't support
Interface routing to other networks
File Transfer Protocol FTP Used to send and receive files from a remote host
Hyper Text Transfer HTTP Used for the web to send documents that are
Protocol encoded in HTML.
Network File Services NFS Allows network nodes or workstations to
access files and drives as if they were their own.
Simple Mail Transfer SMTP Used to send Email over a network
Protocol
Telnet Used to connect to a host and emulate a terminal
that the remote server can recognize
LAN Architecture
The layered protocol concept can be employed to describe the architecture of a

LAN, wherein each layer represents the basic functions of a LAN. LAN protocols are
concerned primarily with the lower layers of the OSI model.
The lowest layer of the IEEE 802 reference model corresponds to the physical layer of
the OSI model, and includes the following functions :
 Encoding/ decoding of signals
 Preamble generation/ removal (for synchronisation)
 Bit transmission/ reception
The physical layer of the 802 model also includes a specification for the transmission
medium and the topology. Generally, this is considered below the lowest layer of the OSI
model. However, the choice of the transmission medium and topology is critical in LAN
design, and so a specification of the medium is included.
Above the physical layer are the functions associated with providing service to the LAN
users. These comprise :

 Assembling data into a frame with address and error-detection fields for onward
transmission.
 Disassemble frame, perform address recognition and error detection during reception.
 Supervise and control the access to the LAN transmission medium.
 Provide an interface to the higher layers and perform flow control and error control.
The above functions are typically associated with OSI layer 2. The last function noted
above is grouped in to a logical link control (LLC) layer. The functions in the first three
bullet items are treated as a separate layer, called medium access control (MAC). The
separation is done for the following reasons:
 The logic and mechanism required to manage access to a shared-access medium is
not found in the conventional layer-2 data link control.
 For the same LLC, different MAC options may be provided.
1.11 Medium Access Control

All LANs consist of a collection of devices that have to share the network’s transmission
capacity. Some means of controlling access to the transmission medium is needed to
provide for an orderly and efficient use of that capacity. This is the function of medium
access control (MAC) protocol.
The MAC layer receives a block of data from the LLC layer and is responsible for
performing functions related to medium access and for transmitting the data. MAC
implements these functions, by making use of protocol data unit at its layer; in this case,
the PDU is referred to as a MAC frame. In general, the fields of this frame are :
 MAC control : This field contains any protocol control information needed for the
functioning of the MAC protocol. For example, a priority level could be indicated
here.
 Destination MAC Address : The destination physical attachment point on the LAN
for this frame.
 Source MAC address : The source physical attachment point on the LAN for this
frame.
 LLC : The LLC Data from the next higher layer.
 CRC : The cyclic redundancy check field ( also known as the frame check sequence,
FCS, field). This is an error-detecting code, as we have seen in HDLC and other data
link control protocols
MAC Frame MAC Destination MAC Source LLC PDU CRC

control Address MAC Address
Generic MAC Frame format.

In most of the data link control protocols, the data link protocol entity is responsible not
only for detecting errors using the CRC, but for recovering from those errors by re-
transmitting damaged frames. In the LAN protocol architecture, these two functions are
split between the MAC and LLC layers. The MAC layer is responsible for detecting
errors and discarding any frames that are in error. The LLC layer optionally keeps track
of which frames have been successfully received and retransmits unsuccessful frames.
Logical Link Control

LLC is concerned with the transmission of a link-level protocol data unit (PDU) between
two stations, without the necessity of an intermediate switching node. LLC has two
characteristics not shared by most other link control protocols :
 It must support the multi-access, shared-medium nature of the link.
 It is relieved of some details of link access by the MAC layer.
1.12 BASIC NETWORK COMPONENTS

There are a number of components which are used to build networks. An understanding
of these is essential in order to support networks.
Network Adapter Cards

A network adapter card plugs into the workstation, providing the connection to the
network. Adapter cards come from many different manufacturers, and support a wide
variety of cable media and bus types such as - ISA, MCA, EISA, PCI, PCMCIA.
New cards are software configurable, using a software programs to configure the
resources used by the card. Other cards are PNP (plug and Play), which automatically
configure their resources when installed in the computer, simplifying the installation.
With an operating system like Windows 95, auto-detection of new hardware makes
network connections simple and quick.
Cabling
Cables are used to interconnect computers and network components together. There are 3
main cable types used today :
 twisted pair
 coaxial
 fibre optic
The choice of cable depends upon a number of factors like :
 cost
 distance
 number of computers involved
 speed
 bandwidth i.e. how fast data is to be transferred

REPEATERS
Repeaters extend the network segments. They amplify the incoming signal received from
one segment and send it on to all other attached segments. This allows the distance
limitations of network cabling to be extended. It does not give any more bandwidth or
allow to transmit data faster.
Repeaters also allow isolation of segments in the event of failures or fault conditions. A
repeater works at the Physical Layer by simply repeating all data from one segment to
another.
Summary of Repeater features :
 increases traffic on segments
 have distance limitations
 limitations on the number of repeaters that can be used
 propagate errors in the network
 cannot be administered or controlled via remote access
 cannot loop back to itself (must be unique single paths)
 no traffic isolation or filtering is possible
BRIDGES
Bridges interconnect Ethernet segments. Most bridges today support filtering and
forwarding, as well as Spanning Tree Algorithm. The IEEE 802.1D specification is the
standard for bridges.
During initialisation, the bridge learns about the network and the routes. Packets are
passed onto other network segments based on the MAC layer. Each time the bridge is
presented with a frame, the source address is stored. The bridge builds up a table which
identifies the segment to which the device is located on. This internal table is then used to
determine which segment incoming frames should be forwarded to.
The diagram above shows two separate network segments connected via a bridge. Note
that each segment must have a unique network address number in order for the bridge to
be able to forward packets from one segment to the other.
Bridges work at the Media Access Control sub-layer of the Data Link layer of the
OSI model.
Summary of Bridge features :
 operate at the MAC layer (layer 2 of the OSI model)
 can reduce traffic on other segments
 broadcasts are forwarded to every segment
 most allow remote access and configuration
 often SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) enabled
 loops can be used (redundant paths) if using spanning tree algorithm
 small delays may be introduced
 fault tolerant by isolating fault segments and reconfiguring paths in the event of
failure

 not efficient with complex networks
 redundant paths to other networks are not used (would be useful if the major path
being used
 was overloaded)
 shortest path is not always chosen by the spanning tree algorithm
ROUTERS
In an environment consisting of several network segments with differing protocols and
architectures, a bridge may not be adequate for ensuring fast communication among all of
the segments. A network this complex needs a device which not only knows the address
of each segment, but also determine the best path for sending data and filtering broadcast
traffic to the local segment. Such a device is called a router.
Routers work at the Network layer of the OSI model. This means they can switch and
route packets across multiple networks. They do this by exchanging protocol-specific
information between separate networks. Routers read complex network addressing
information in the packet and, because they function at a higher layer in the OSI model
than bridges, they have access to additional information.
Routers can provide the following functions of a bridge :

 Filtering and isolating traffic
 Connecting network segments
Routers have access to more information in the packet than bridges, and use this
information to improve packet deliveries. Routers are used in complex network situation
because they provide better traffic management than bridges and do not pass broadcast
traffic. Routers can share status and routing information with one another and use this
information to bypass slow or malfunctioning connections.
How Routers Work
The routing table found in routes contain network addresses. However, host
addresses may be kept depending on the protocol the network is running. A router uses a
table to determine the destination address for incoming data. The table lists the following
information :
 All known network addresses
 How to connect to other networks
 The possible path between those routers
 The cost of sending data over those paths
The router selects the best route for the data based on cost and available paths.

Summary of Router features :

 use dynamic routing
 operate at the protocol level
 remote administration and configuration via SNMP
 support complex networks
 the more filtering done, the lower the performance
 provides security
 segment the networks logically
 broadcast storms can be isolated
 often provide bridge functions also
 more complex routing protocols used (such as RIP, IGRP, OSPF)
HUBS & Switches

There are many types of hubs. Passive hubs are simple splitters or combiners that group
workstations into a single segment, whereas active hubs include a repeater function and
are thus capable of supporting many more connections.
Nowadays, with the advent of 10BaseT, hub concentrators are being very popular. These
are very sophisticated and offer significant features which make them radically different
from the older hubs which were available during the 1980's. These 10BaseT hubs provide
each client with exclusive access to the full bandwidth, unlike bus networks where the
bandwidth is shared. Each workstation plugs into a separate port, which runs at 10 Mbps
and is for the exclusive use of that workstation, thus there is no contention to worry about
like in Ethernet.
In standard Ethernet, all stations are connected to the same network segment in bus
configuration. Traffic on the bus is controlled using CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access) protocol, and all stations share the available bandwidth.
10BaseT Hubs dedicate the entire bandwidth to each port (workstation). The W/S attach
to the Hub using UTP. The Hub provides a number of ports, which are logically
combined using a single backplane, which often runs at a much higher data rate than that
of the ports.
Ports can also be buffered, to allow packets to be held in case the hub or port is busy.
And, because each workstation has its own port, it does not contend with other
workstations for access, having the entire bandwidth available for its exclusive use.
The ports on a hub all appear as one Ethernet segment. In addition, hubs can be stacked
or cascaded (using master/ slave configurations) together, to add more ports per segment.
As hubs do not count as repeaters, this is a better solution for adding more workstations
than the use of a repeater.
Hub options also include an SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) agent. This
allows the use of network management software to remotely administer and configure the
hub.
The advantages of the newer 10 BaseT hubs are :

 Each port has exclusive access to its bandwidth (no CSMA/ CD)
 Hubs may be cascaded to add additional ports
 SNMP managed hubs offer good management tools and statistics
 Utilise existing cabling and other network components
 Becoming a low cost solution
Wireless LAN
A wireless local area network (LAN) utilizes radio frequency (RF) as an
alternative for a wired LAN. Wireless LANs transmit and receive data over the air,
without the use of any cable, combining the benefits of data connectivity and user
mobility.
Need for Wireless LAN
The widespread reliance on networking in business and the explosive growth of

the Internet reveal the benefits of shared data and shared resources. With wireless LANs,
users can access shared information and resources without looking for a place to plug in,
and network managers can set up networks without installing or moving wires. Wireless
LANs provide all the functionality of wired LANs with the following benefits:
Mobility: Wireless LANs can provide users with access to real-time information
and resources anywhere in their organization through designated access points. This
freedom to "roam" increases employee productivity as they move throughout the
building.
Installation Speed and Simplicity: Installing a wireless LAN system can be fast
and easy and eliminates the need to pull cable through walls and ceilings.
Installation flexibility: Wireless technology allows the network to go where

wires cannot go.
Scalability: Configurations for wireless LANs are easily changed and range from
peer-to-peer networks suitable for a small number of users to full infrastructure networks
of thousands of users that enable roaming over a broad area. Adding a user to the
network is as simple as equipping a PC or laptop with a wireless LAN adapter card or
USB device.

How do Wireless LANs Work?
Wireless LANs use radio airwaves to communicate information from one point to
another without relying on any physical connection. Radio waves are often referred to as
radio carriers because they simply perform the function of delivering energy to a remote
receiver. The data being transmitted is superimposed (modulated) on the radio carrier so
that it can be accurately extracted at the receiving end.
In a typical wireless LAN configuration, a transmitter/receiver device, called an

access point (AP), connects to the wired network from a fixed location using standard
cabling. The access point serves as a communications "hub" that receives, buffers, and
transmits data between the wireless clients and the wired LAN. A single access point can
support a small group of users and can function within a range of less than one hundred
to several hundred feet. The access point (or antenna attached to the access point) is
usually mounted high but may be mounted essentially anywhere that is practical as long
as the desired radio coverage is obtained.
End users access the wireless LAN through wireless LAN adapters. These are
mostly implemented as PC cards in notebook computers, PCI cards in desktop computers
or as USB devices. Wireless LAN adapters provide an interface between the client
network operating system (NOS) and the airwaves via an antenna.
1.13 Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS)
Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) is a data-carrying mechanism in packet-

switched networks and it operates at a TCP/IP layer that is generally considered to lie
between traditional definitions of Layer 2 (data link layer) and Layer 3 (network layer or
IP Layer), and thus is often referred to as a "Layer 2.5" protocol. It was designed to
provide a unified data-carrying service for both circuit-based clients and packet-
switching clients, which provide a datagram service model. It can be used to carry many
different kinds of traffic, including IP packets, as well as native ATM, SONET, and
Ethernet frames. The Internet has emerged as the network for providing converged,
differentiated classed of services to user with optimal use of resources and also to address
the issues related to Class of service (CoS) and Quality of Service (QoS). MPLS is the
technology that addresses all the issues in the most efficient manner.
MPLS is a packet-forwarding technology that uses labels to make data forwarding
decisions. With MPLS, the Layer 3 header analysis (IP header) is done just once (when
the packet enters the MPLS domain).
MPLS header
MPLS works by prefixing packets with an MPLS header, containing one or more
'labels'. This is called a label stack. Each label stack entry contains four fields:
- 20-bit label value (This is MPLS Label)
- 3-bit Experimental field used normally for providing for QoS (Quality of Service)

- 1-bit bottom of stack flag. If this is 1, signifies that the current label is the last in
the stack.
- 8-bit TTL (time to live) field.
Various functions & Routers in MPLS
Label A label identifies the path a packet should traverse and is carried or
encapsulated in a Layer-2 header along with the packet. The receiving router examines
the packet for its label content to determine the next hop. Once a packet has been
labelled, the rest of the journey of the packet through the backbone is based on label
switching.
Label Creation Every entry in routing table (build by the IGP) is assigned a
unique 20-bit label either per platform basis or per interface basis.
SWAP: The Incoming label is replaced by a new Outgoing label and the packet is
forwarded along the path associated with the new label.
PUSH : A new label is pushed on top of the packet, effectively "encapsulating"
the packet in a layer of MPLS.
POP :The label is removed from the packet effectively "de-encapsulating". If the
popped label was the last on the label stack, the packet "leaves" the MPLS tunnel.
LER : A router that operates at the edge of the access network and MPLS
network LER performs the PUSH and POP functions and is also the interface between
access and MPLS network, commonly know as Edge router.
LSR : An LSR is a high-speed router device in the core of an MPLS network,
normally called Core routers. These routers perform swapping functions and participate
in the establishment of LSP.
Ingress / Egress Routers: The routers receiving the incoming traffic or
performing the first PUSH function are ingress routers and routers receiving the
terminating traffic or performing the POP function are Egress routers. The same router
performs both functionality i.e. Ingress and Egress. The routers performing these
functions are LER.
FEC The forward equivalence class (FEC) is a representation of a group of
packets that share the same requirements for their transport. All packets in such a group
are provided the same treatment en route to the destination. As opposed to conventional
IP forwarding, in MPLS, the assignment of a particular packet to a particular FEC is done
just once, as the packet enters the network at the edge router.
MPLS performs the following functions:
1. Specifies mechanisms to manage traffic flow of various granularities, such as

flows between different hardware, machines, or even flows between different
applications.
2. Remains independent of the Layer-2 & layer-3 protocols.

3. Provides a means to map IP addresses to simple, fixed-length labels used by
different packet-forwarding and packet-switching technologies
4. Interfaces to existing routing protocols such as resource reservation protocol
(RSVP) and open shortest path first (OSPF).
5. Supports the IP, ATM, and frame- relay Layer-2 protocols.
Label Distribution Protocol (LDP): The LDP is a protocol for the distribution
of label information to LSRs in a MPLS networks. It is used to map FECs to
labels, which, in turn, create LSP. LDP sessions are established between LDP
peers in the MPLS network (not necessarily adjacent).
MPLS Operation : The following steps must be taken for a data packet to travel
through an MPLS domain. Label creation and distribution, Table creation at each router,
Label-switched path creation, Label insertion/table lookup and Packet forwarding. The
source sends its data to the destination. In an MPLS domain, not all of the source traffic
is necessarily transported through the same path. Depending on the traffic characteristics,
different LSPs could be created for packets with different CoS requirements.
In Figure 1, LER1 is the ingress and LER4 is the egress router.
Figure 1 LSP Creation and Packet Forwarding though an MPLS Domain
MPLS Applications:
MPLS addresses today’s network backbone requirements effectively by providing
a standards-based solution that accomplishes the following:
1. Improves packet-forwarding performance in the network
2. MPLS enhances and simplifies packet forwarding through routers using Layer-2
switching paradigms.
3. MPLS is simple which allows for easy implementation.
4. MPLS increases network performance because it enables routing by switching at wireline
speeds.
5. Supports QoS and CoS for service differentiation
6. MPLS uses traffic-engineered path setup and helps achieve service-level guarantees.
7. MPLS incorporates provisions for constraint-based and explicit path setup.
8. Supports network scalability

9. MPLS can be used to avoid the N2 overlay problem associated with meshed IP – ATM
networks.
10. Integrates IP and ATM in the network
11. MPLS provides a bridge between access IP and core ATM.
12. MPLS can reuse existing router/ATM switch hardware, effectively joining the two
disparate networks.
13. Builds interoperable networks
14. MPLS is a standards-based solution that achieves synergy between IP and ATM
networks.
15. MPLS facilitates IP – over –synchronous optical network (SONET) integration in optical
switching.
16. MPLS helps build scalable VPNs with traffic-engineering capability.
1.14 MPLS VPN

MPLS technology is being widely adopted by service providers worldwide to
implement VPNs to connect geographically separated customer sites. VPNs were
originally introduced to enable service providers to use common physical infrastructure
to implement emulated point-to-point links between customer sites. A customer network
implemented with any VPN technology would contain distinct regions under the
customer's control called the customer sites connected to each other via the service
provider (SP) network. In traditional router-based networks, different sites belonging to
the same customer were connected to each other using dedicated point-to-point links. The
cost of implementation depended on the number of customer sites to be connected with
these dedicated links. A full mesh of connected sites would consequently imply an
exponential increase in the cost associated.
Frame Relay and ATM were the first technologies widely adopted to implement
VPNs. These networks consisted of various devices, belonging to either the customer or
the service provider, that were components of the VPN solution. Generically, the VPN
realm would consist of the following regions:
Customer network - Consisted of the routers at the various customer sites. The
routers connecting individual customers' sites to the service provider network were called
customer edge (CE) routers.
Provider network - Used by the service provider to offer dedicated point-to-

point links over infrastructure owned by the service provider. Service provider devices to
which the CE routers were directly attached were called provider edge (PE) routers. In
addition, the service provider network might consist of devices used for forwarding data
in the SP backbone called provider (P) routers.
MPLS VPN Architecture and Terminology
In the MPLS VPN architecture, the edge routers carry customer routing
information, providing optimal routing for traffic belonging to the customer for inter-site
traffic. The MPLS-based VPN model also accommodates customers using overlapping

address spaces, unlike the traditional peer-to-peer model in which optimal routing of
customer traffic required the provider to assign IP addresses to each of its customers (or
the customer to implement NAT) to avoid overlapping address spaces. MPLS VPN is an
implementation of the peer-to-peer model; the MPLS VPN backbone and customer sites
exchange Layer 3 customer routing information, and data is forwarded between customer
sites using the MPLS-enabled SP IP backbone.
The MPLS VPN domain, like the traditional VPN, consists of the customer
network and the provider network. The MPLS VPN model is very similar to the
dedicated PE router model in a peer-to-peer VPN implementation. However, instead of
deploying a dedicated PE router per customer, customer traffic is isolated on the same PE
router that provides connectivity into the service provider's network for multiple
customers. The components of an MPLS VPN shown in Figure are highlighted next.
Figure MPLS VPN Network Architecture
The main components of MPLS VPN architecture are:
Customer network, which is usually a customer-controlled domain consisting of

devices or routers spanning multiple sites belonging to the customer. In Figure, the
customer network for Customer A consists of the routers CE1-A and CE2-A along with
devices in the Customer A sites 1 and 2.
CE routers, which are routers in the customer network that interface with the
service provider network. In Figure , the CE routers for Customer A are CE1-A and CE2-
A, and the CE routers for Customer B are CE1-B and CE2-B.
Provider network, which is the provider-controlled domain consisting of

provider edge and provider core routers that connect sites belonging to the customer on a
shared infrastructure. The provider network controls the traffic routing between sites

belonging to a customer along with customer traffic isolation. In Figure, the provider
network consists of the routers PE1, PE2, P1, P2, P3, and P4.
PE routers, which are routers in the provider network that interface or connect to
the customer edge routers in the customer network. PE1 and PE2 are the provider edge
routers in the MPLS VPN domain for customers A and B.
P routers, which are routers in the core of the provider network that interface
with either other provider core routers or provider edge routers. Routers P1, P2, P3, and
P4 are the provider routers.
VPN
Depending on the service provider's participation in customer routing, the VPN
implementations can be classified broadly into one of the following:
Overlay model
Peer-to-peer model
Dial VPN
Overlay model
1. Service provider doesn’t participate in customers routing, only provides transport

to customer data using virtual point-to-point links. As a result, the service
provider would only provide customers with virtual circuit connectivity at Layer
2.
2. If the virtual circuit was permanent or available for use by the customer at all
times, it was called a permanent virtual circuit (PVC).
3. If the circuit was established by the provider on-demand, it was called a switched
virtual circuit (SVC).
4. The primary drawback of an Overlay model was the full mesh of virtual circuits
between all customer sites for optimal connectivity.
Overlay VPNs were initially implemented by the SP by providing either Layer 1

(physical layer) connectivity or a Layer 2 transport circuit between customer sites. In the
Layer 1 implementation, the SP would provide physical layer connectivity between
customer sites, and the customer was responsible for all other layers. In the Layer 2
implementation, the SP was responsible for transportation of Layer 2 frames (or cells)
between customer sites, which was traditionally implemented using either Frame Relay
or ATM switches as PE devices. Therefore, the service provider was not aware of
customer routing or routes. Later, overlay VPNs were also implemented using VPN
services over IP (Layer 3) with tunneling protocols like L2TP, GRE, and IPSec to
interconnect customer sites. In all cases, the SP network was transparent to the customer,
and the routing protocols were run directly between customer routers.

Peer-to-peer model
The peer-to-peer model was developed to overcome the drawbacks of the Overlay
model and provide customers with optimal data transport via the SP backbone. Hence,
the service provider would actively participate in customer routing. In the peer-to-peer
model, routing information is exchanged between the customer routers and the service
provider routers, and customer data is transported across the service provider's core,
optimally. Customer routing information is carried between routers in the provider
network (P and PE routers) and customer network (CE routers). The peer-to-peer model,
consequently, does not require the creation of virtual circuits. The CE routers exchange
routes with the connected PE routers in the SP domain. Customer routing information is
propagated across the SP backbone between PE and P routers and identifies the optimal
path from one customer site to another.
Dial VPN Service
Mobile users of a corporate customer need to access their Corporate Network

from remote sites. Dial VPN service enables to provide secure remote access to the
mobile users of the Corporate. Dial VPN service, eliminates the burden of owning and
maintaining remote access servers, modems, and phone lines at the Corporate Customer
side.
Advantages of MPLS over other technologies
BSNL's primary objectives in setting up the BGP/MPLS VPN network are:

1. Provide a diversified range of services (Layer 2, Layer 3 and Dial up VPNs) to meet
the requirements of the entire spectrum of customers from Small and Medium to
Large business enterprises and f inancial institutions.
2. Make the service very simple for customers to use even if they lack experience in IP
routing.
3. Make the service very scalable and flexible to facilitate large-scale deployment.
4. Provide a reliable and amenable service, offering SLA to customers.
5. Capable of meeting a wide range of customer requirements, including security,
quality of Service (QOS) and any-to-any connectivity.
6. Capable of offering fully managed services to customers.
7. Allow BSNL to introduce additional services such as bandwidth on demand etc over
the same network.

1.15 SUMMARY
TCP/IP suite has become the industry-standard method of interconnecting hosts,
networks, and the Internet. As such, it is seen as the engine behind the Internet and
networks. Therefore, understanding the concept of TCP/IP is important from the
perspective of understanding the working of Internet. Without a network, you can access
resources only on your own computer.
These resources may be devices in your computer, such as a folder or disk drive,
or they may be connected to your computer, such as a printer or CDROM drive. These
devices, accessible only to you, are local resources. Networking allows you to share
resources among a group of computer users.
1.16 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

a) What are the different layers in TCP/IP Model?
b) Explain TCP Header
c) Explain UDP Header
d) Explain IP Header
e) What are the protocols used in Application layer of TCP/IP model
f) Two or more computers connected together forms a ……………………….

g) A ……………………. is any collection of independent computers that
communicate with one another over a shared network medium.
h) In …………………….. networking there are no dedicated servers.
i) ……………………. networking combines multiple LANs that are
geographically separate.
j) ………………….refers to a network of computers with in a City.
k) …………………………… reference model has become an International
standard and serves as a guide for networking.
l) Expand OSI ………………………………………………………………….....
m) ………………….. Layer is just that the physical parts of the network such as
wires, cables, and there media along with the length.
n) What do you mean by LAN topologies?
o) Why media access control is required in LANs?
p) How LAN components are useful in developing networks?
1.17 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

 Andrew S. Tanenbaum, D. J. (2010). Computer Networks (5th Edition).
 Stallings, W. (2010). Data and Computer Communications (9th Edition).
 http://compnetworking.about.com
 http://www.techiwarehouse.com


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IP Networking and Security(IP) Networking Concepts

1.3 TCP/IP MODEL

1.4 COMPARISON OF OSI AND TCP/IP MODEL

1.5 BASIC NETWORKING CONCEPTS

1.6 TYPES OF NETWORKS

1.7 CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS

1.8 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

1.9 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

1.10 NETWORKING PROTOCOLS

1.11 MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL

1.12 BASIC NETWORKING COMPONENTS

1.16 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1.17 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 1 of 31

1.3 TCP/IP MODEL

Key architectural principles

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 2 of 31

LAYERS OF TCP/IP MODEL

Major TCP/IP Protocols

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 3 of 31

User Service Application

TCP/IP NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOL

Internet Protocol (IP) Header

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 4 of 31

Time To Live Protocol Header Checksum

Options (if IHL > 5)

IPv4 Header Fields

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 5 of 31

TCP/IP TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOL

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Header

TCP Header Field

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 6 of 31

USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)

UDP Header Field

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 8 of 31

1.4 Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Model

1.5 Basic Networking Concepts

1.6 Types of Networks

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 9 of 31

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 10 of 31

1.7 Categories of Network

Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for needs of small

 Databases and management of applications such as

The client/server model is basically an implementation of distributed or

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 11 of 31

Net work Cablings

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 12 of 31

1.8 Network Architectures

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 13 of 31

Various PC vendors have been proponents of Token

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 14 of 31

1.9 Network Topologies

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 15 of 31

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 16 of 31

The layered protocol concept can be employed to describe the architecture of a

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 17 of 31

1.11 Medium Access Control

MAC Frame MAC Destination MAC Source LLC PDU CRC

Generic MAC Frame format.

EETP/BSNL Platinum Certification Course Version 1.0 June 2014 Page 18 of 31

Logical Link Control

1.12 BASIC NETWORK COMPONENTS

Network Adapter Cards