CHAPTER-1

Historical Background of Central Asia

Central Asia has been introduced by different names in history.
Greeks and Romans named the region Transoxinia, the region
beyond Amudary. Arab called this region "the area between
Amudary and Syrdarya". Ibn Batuta called it Turkestan, the
land controlled by Turks. 1

The people of this region have inherited a long glorious

history. This region has been the birth place of great poets,
Sufis, Muhaddisines, Mufassirins, Mathematicians, Physicians
and the Warrior tribes, whose contributions are unforgettable. 2

Central Asian Region has played a prominent role in the

history of mankind. More than 100,000 years archaeological
finds have been excavated from this regions. 3

The region has once again become the focus point for
today's world. To understand the contemporary politics,

1 The Resurgence of Central Asia. "Islam or Nationalism, Karachi, Ahmad

Rashid, Oxford University Press, 1994, p. 8
2 Ibid., p. 8
3 Central Asia "A History Retrospective, Vol. II, 1993, p. 39 by Syed
Farahat.

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economics and historical importance of this region, it Is
necessary to know its past.

Ancient Period
Central Asia has been the home of different civilizations since
pre-historic times. This region has been the land of nomads
since ancient times. 1

Different tribes have roamed in this region in search of

food. Before the invasion of Muslims, this region has been ruled
by Achaemenids, Kushans, Greeks, Sassanids, Saythians,
Turks, Huns and Aryans. Including some of these tribes
Aryans left lasting impressions on Asian and European
culture. 2

This was followed by the Scythians. They established a

big empire between 7th and 6th B.C.

The Sakas, who settled around Arab and Caspian Sea and
established a dynasty in this region, they ruled the area of
Western Turkey, Central Asia and modern day Iran. After
sometimes the Persian forced to limit them up to Pamirs and
Tieshan Mountain, the region today known as Kyrgyzstan.

1 Ibid., p. 41
2 Ahmad Rashid, p. 8.

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They remained there till the Persians finally conquered them
in 200 B.C.

Between 700 to 800 B.C. the Saythians, who were settled

in the Northern region to the Syrdarya, conquered Central Asia
and India. 1 The Persian Empire founded by Cyrus the Great in
550 BC ruled Central Asia till the arrival of Greeks.
Selcucucos, the Alexander's successor founded the Seleucid
dynasty, which ruled Bacteria and large part of Sagdiana.
Another Greece - Bacteria kingdom was established which
ruled from Balk, Afghanistan. Bacteria were overthrown by the
nomadic invaders from the East in around 140 B.C. 2

Parthian dynasty, which was based on Saka tribes, ruled

Western Central Asia, the present day Turkmenistan. Persian
Sassanids defeated them in 224 BC. By the time Buddhism
arrived in this region and contacts were established between
Central Asia and India.

Scythians conquered the important towns and areas of

Greco-Bacterians kingdom in 159-139 B.C. Parthians and
Scythians controlled most of the Central Asian regions. Some

1 Ahmad Rashid, p. 10.

2 Ahmad Rashid, p. 11

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changes took place in first century A.D. when a group of
nomadic tribes, under the Kushan tribe was formed. Kushan
ruled Eastern Turkistan, Bactria, Sagdians, Mghanistan and
some parts of Northern India. During second century A.D.
Kushan began to. weaken and another nomad tribe called
Ephtalitles, whose origin lay in white Huns, Captured Bactria
and ended Kushan rule in Central Asia.

In 100 B.C. Chinese prince started their first raid into

Central Asia and captured Farghana Valley.

Around 200 B.C. Huns, the forefathers of Mongols, who

came out of the Gobi desert and occupied Kasghar in Xingiang,
Crossed Central Asia and reached the Volga river in Russia by
400 A.W. White Huns went to conquer Eastern Europe and
part of India. During fifth century Huns moved west ward and
the vacuum in the east was filled by Turkic tribes. The word
Turki was given by the Chinese to signify all those nomadic
tribes who occupied of the area from Mongolia to Black Sea
region. Around 200 AD some Turks tribe settled in Farghana
Valley.

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Islam in Central Asia
During seventh century Arabs succeeded in defeating the great
powers of Byzantine and of Sasanian Persia. In 646 A, they
occupied Merv and by 651 AD the whole of Khurasan. Finally
in the last quarter of the seventh century they marched
towards the heart of Central Asia. 1

Arabs advanced into Central Asia, crossed the Amudarya

and conquered Bukhara in 676 AD. And finally in the lOth
century AD, Islam became the religion of Central Asia. From
this time Central Asia became the most important cultural
centre.

Arabs, within a span of ten years established their

authority over Turkistan, Transoxania, Farghana, Tashkent,
Khwarzam and Kashghar. 2

Samanid Dynasty
Ismail-Ibn-Ahmad laid the foundation of Samanid dynasty in
the last decade of gth century. Samanids established a powerful
state and successfully tried to push back the nomad tribes, who

1 Syed Fasahat, p. 44.

2 The Muslim conquest of Central Asia, AEP, 1981, p. 69

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used to attack Central Asian towns. 1 Bukhara was their
capital, trade links were built up and thus Silk Route was
regulated. 2

Samanid rulers started losing their towns and by the mid

lQth century Samanid state was _destroyed by Turk tribe

Alaptigin, an officer of a Turkish slave origin, who was formally

belonged to the Samanid Army, brought the end of Samanid
dynasty.

Turkish tribe established Ghaznavid dynasty at Ghazni in

Mghanistan. Subuktagin, a slave founded Ghaznavid empire. 3
Mahmud Ghaznavi came to power in 997 AD. A dynasty
founded by Alaptagin reached its Zenith during the period of
Mahmud Ghaznavi, who added a lot to the culture of Central
Asia. 4

Turkish Dynasty
Ghaznavids were succeeded by Seljuks, who originally belonged
to Turkmenian steppe. In 11th and 12th centuries they ruled

1 Syed Fasahat, p. 45.

2 Ahmad Rashid, p. 13.
3 Kashmir and Central Asia, Book Traders, Lahore, 1995, p. 47 by P.N.K.
Bamzai.
4 Bamazai, p. 77

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over a large part of Asia and founded the Turkish dynasty.
Their capital was Merv, which had palaces, a water supply
system and big libraries.

Mongol's Period
Central Asia faced a bloodiest chapter in the form of the
. .
Mongol's 1nvaswn. In 1220 AD, Changes Khan entered
Bukhara. Bukhara was ransacked and burnt. Latter they
captured cities like Merv, Samarqand, Termez, Bulkh and
Kabul. And a reign of terror was established. Thirty thousand
people including women and children were massacred only in ·
Bukhara. Within the period of twelve months the whole of
Central Asia fell to the Mongols. Mongol's ended the
intellectual life of Central Asia. 1 The role of the Mongols lasted
in Central Asia for several centuries and climaxed in person of
Timur.

Timur
Timur devastated and destroyed the main cities of this region
and carried out mass slaughter in 14th century. He captured
most of the Central Asia and moved Persia and India. He
established Timurid dynasty. He captured the creams of his

1 The Modern U zbeks from the fourteenth century to the present. A

cultured history, New York, 1990, p. 25 by E. Allworty.

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subjugated regions like artisans, craftsmen and intelligentsia
and carried them to his capital at Samarqand where he build
the grandest capital city of Asia and beautified it with
magnificent buildings and gardens. He also encouraged science
and art. He is known in history as a military genius and a
ruthless conqueror. Mter his death his empire gradually
disintegrated into smaller units, ruled over by local warlords.
Samarqand was governed by his scholarly grandson Ulughbek,
popularly known as Ulug Beg. He built a large observatory
which attracted scientists. Ulug Beg also united Farghana and
Khoarza to Samarqand. He tried to extend his domain but
upns1ng was started against him which ended in his
assassination. Mter his death, Uzbeks under the leadership of
Shibani Khan united other tribes and defeated Timurid heir
Zahiruddin Mohammad Babur. In a very short span of time,
the Uzbeks defeated the Turkmen and the Persians. Uzbeks
extended their empire to most part of Central Asia and
Northern Persia.

Socio-Cultural Development in Central Asia

Bukhara became an important Islamic learning Centre during
Samanid dynasty. Madrasahs were established. During 14th
and 15th centuries Samarqand was considered as its Centre.

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Mter the end of Timurid dynasty, at the beginning of 16th
century, this academic culture started declining.

Literature
Central Asia became cultural and literary centre in 15th
century. Ali Sher Navai and Abdul Rahman Jami were the
leading poets. Central Asian literature was influenced by the
Persian literature. In 14th century Samarqand became a
cultural centre. Another cultural centre was Heart. The art of
history writing also developed in Central Asia. Alberuni and
Minhaj-ul Siraj are the famous historians.

Arts and Architecture

Central Asian's artistic culture was very much related to each
other. Miniatures and decorative arts and great architectural
works of Samarqand and Bukhara can be regarded as a joint
legacy of Central Asians.

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