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Ahmad Al Malik
Cement is made by grinding together a mixture of limestone and clay, which is then heated at a
temperature of 1,450°C. What results is a granular substance called "clinker," a combination of
calcium, silicate, alumina and iron oxide.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND(2)
The term cement is commonly used to refer to powdered materials which develop strong
adhesive qualities when combined with water. These materials are more properly known as
hydraulic cements. Gypsum plaster, common lime, hydraulic lime, natural pozzolan, and
Portland cements are the more common hydraulic cements, with Portland cement being the most
important in construction.
Cement was first invented by the Egyptians. Cement was later reinvented by the Greeks and the
Babylonians who made their mortar out of lime. Later, the Romans produced cement from
pozzolan, an ash found in all of the volcanic areas of Italy, by mixing the ash with lime.
Cement is a fine grayish powder which, when mixed with water, forms a thick paste. When this
paste is mixed with sand and gravel and allowed to dry it is called concrete.
About ninety-nine percent of all cement used today is Portland cement. The name Portland
cement is not a brand name. This name was given to the cement by Joseph Aspdin of Leeds,
England who obtained a patent for his product in 1824. The concrete made from the cement
resembled the color of the natural limestone quarried on the Isle of Portland in the English
Channel. The balance of cement used today consists of masonry cement, which is fifty percent
Portland cement and fifty percent ground lime rock.
The first cement manufactured in the United States was produced in 1871 by David Saylor of
Coplay, Pennsylvania.
Type of cement(3)
I. Ordinary Portland cement (Type I)
II. Modified Portland cement
III. Rapid Hardening or High Early Strength Portland cement (Type III)
IV. Quick Setting Cement
V. Low Heat Portland cement (Type IV)
VI. Sulphate Resistant Portland cement (Type V)
VII. Water Repellent Portland cement
White Cement
o OPC with pure white color produced with white chalk or clay free from iron
oxide. .
o Much more costly than OPC.
Colored Cement
o Suitable pigments used to impart desired color.
o Pigments used should be chemically inert and durable under light, sun or weather.
o Lime or calcium oxide, CaO: from limestone, chalk, shells, shale or calcareous
rock
o Silica, SiO2: from sand, old bottles, clay or argillaceous rock
o Alumina, Al2O3: from bauxite, recycled aluminum, clay
o Iron, Fe2O3: from clay, iron ore, scrap iron and fly ash
o Gypsum, CaSO4.2H20: found together with limestone
The materials, without the gypsum, are proportioned to produce a mixture with the desired
chemical composition and then ground and blended by one of two processes - dry process or wet
process. The materials are then fed through a kiln at 1450°C to produce grayish-black pellets
known as clinker. The alumina and iron act as fluxing agents which lower the melting point of
silica from 1670 to 1405°C. After this stage, the clinker is cooled, pulverized and gypsum added
to regulate setting time. It is then ground extremely fine to produce cement.
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Chemical shorthand
Because of the complex chemical nature of cement, a shorthand form is used to denote the
chemical compounds.
Tricalciumaluminate, C3A:-
It liberates a lot of heat during the early stages of hydration, but has little strength
contribution. Gypsum slows down the hydration rate of C3A. Cement low in C3A is
sulfate resistant.
By mixing these compounds appropriately, manufacturers can produce different types of cement
to suit several construction environments.
Ingredients of cement
Clinker
Gypsum
Types of processes(6)
Wet process
Dry process
Wet process
The original rotary cement kilns were called 'wet process' kilns. In their basic form they were
relatively simple compared with modern developments. The raw meal was supplied at ambient
temperature in the form of slurry.
A wet process kiln may be up to 200m long and 6m in diameter. It has to be long because a lot of
water has to be evaporated and the process of heat transfer is not very efficient.
The wet process has survived for over a century because many raw materials are suited to
blending as slurry. Also, for many years, it was technically difficult to get dry powders to blend
adequately.
Quite a few wet process kilns are still in operation, usually now with higher-tech bits bolted on.
However, new cement kilns are of the 'dry process' type.
Dry process
In a modern works, the blended raw material enters the kiln via the pre-heater tower. Here, hot
gases from the kiln, and probably the cooled clinker at the far end of the kiln, are used to heat the
raw meal. As a result, the raw meal is already hot before it enters the kiln. The dry process is
much more thermally efficient than the wet process.
Firstly, and most obviously, this is because the meal is a dry powder and there is little or no
water that has to be evaporated.
Secondly, and less obviously, the process of transferring heat is much more efficient in a dry
process kiln.
An integral part of the process is a heat exchanger called a 'suspension preheaters'. This is a
tower with a series of cyclones in which fast-moving hot gases keep the meal powder suspended
in air. All the time, the meal gets hotter and the gas gets cooler until the meal is at almost the
same temperature as the gas.
The basic dry process system consists of the kiln and suspension preheaters. The raw materials,
limestone and shale for example, are ground finely in ball or roller mills and blended in silos to
produce the raw meal. The raw meal is fed in at the top of the preheaters’ tower and passes
through the series of cyclones in the tower. Hot gas from the kiln and, often, hot air from the
clinker cooler are blown through the cyclones. Heat is transferred efficiently from the hot gases
to the raw meal.
The heating process is efficient because the meal particles have a very high surface area in
relation to their size and because of the large difference in temperature between the hot gas and
the cooler meal. Typically, 30%-40% of the meal is decarbonated before entering the kiln. A
development of this process is the 'precalciner' kiln. Most new cement plant is of this type. The
principle is similar to that of the dry process preheaters system but with the major addition of
another burner, or precalciner. With the additional heat, about 85%-95% of the meal is
decarbonated before it enters the kiln.
Process Description
Cement is manufactured by number of stepsfirst step among them is raw material
acquisition.There are normally four type of raw material used in manufacturing of ordinary
Portland cement other than gypsum which is used with clinker to produce finished product.
Limestone
Clay
Other element included in the raw mix is silicon (SiO2).it is also extracted from quarries with
limestone.
Laterite
This is an Iron ore. Its chemical composition is Fe2O3. It is also obtained in rock form.
Bauxite
This is an Aluminum ore. Its chemical composition is Al2O3
Gypsum
Gypsum a form of calcium sulfate (CaSO4) is introduced to the process during the finish
grinding operations. The raw material is obtained from quarries by blasting due which bigger
rocks are broken down in the form of lumps and then transported to the crusher areas by road
running machinery (loaders, dumpers)
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Figure 1 Dumper Figure 2 Loader(7)
In pioneer cement two separated lines are used for cement manufacturing Line1 is old
technology unit having planetary cooler tubes for clinker cooling while line 2 is of modern
Line 1
For line 1 three piles are made for limestone of 3000 tons capacity, two for clay of 1500 tons and
one for bauxite and laterite respectively of 1500 tons.
Line 2
For line 2 two piles are made of raw mix material having capacity of 13000tonsrax mix include
(limestone, clay and bauxite). While one pile is made for laterite of 1500tons and one for pure
high grate lime of capacity 1000 tons
Stacking methods
Longitudinal stores: The most commonly used stacking methods are Chevron, Windrow and
Cone Shell.
Basically these methods consist of stacking a large number of layers on top of each other in the
longitudinal direction of the pile.
According to the Chevron method material is deposited by the stacker moving to and fro over
the center line of the pile. The Chevron stacking method causes segregation of the material with
fine particles in the central part of the pile and coarse particles on the surface and at the bottom
of the pile. To ensure proper blending a Chevron pile must therefore be reclaimed from the face
of the pile, working across the entire cross section.
According to the Windrow method material is deposited from a number of positions across the
full width of the pile. The Windrow method prevents segregation and ensures more even
distribution of fine and coarse particles across the pile.
The Windrow method is preferred in cases where the reclaimer is only operating in one part of
the pile cross section at a time or in cases where segregation would make an open pile base
unacceptable – typically in coal stores.
The Cone Shell method is often used in cases where homogenization is not necessary. The pile
is formed by depositing material in a single cone from a fixed position. When this conical pile is
full, the depositing of material moves to a new position and a new cone is formed against the
shell of the first one. This process continues in the longitudinal direction of the store until the
stockpile is complete.
Circular stores:
Continuous Chevron stacking is the most commonly used method. The circular store has a round
base with a ring-shaped pile being continuously stacked at one end and reclaimed at the other.
Stacking takes place in a fan shaped arc – typically120°. With each sweeping movement,
corresponding to two layers of material, the whole sector advances approximately 1/2° ahead.
On/Off mode:
The reclaimer is usually equipped with constant speed motors. The reclaimed material is carried
by belt conveyors driven by constant speed motors and discharged into a feed bin of a relatively
large volume. Reclaiming capacity is higher than the mill requirement and the reclaimer
therefore operates in an On/Off mode controlled by maximum/minimum level indicators in the
feed bin. On leaving the bin, the material is proportioned and fed to the mill by weigh feeders.
Direct mode:
If the materials are difficult to handle, it may be an advantage to avoid the intermediate bin
between the reclaimer and the mill. This is possible in cases where material from one (or more)
store(s) is to be fed to a single mill. In principle, the reclaimer must be equipped with speed
regulated motor sand an integrated belt scale. The transport and subsequent proportioning of the
reclaimed material and additional raw material is affected by speed regulated conveyors
.Reclaiming capacity will always match the mill requirement and the reclaimer will operate
continuously. The reclaimer in combination with the transporting belt conveyors acts as a weigh
feeder for the reclaimed material.
In next step material is reclaimed and transported in first step is material is reclaimed by different
methods for line 1 and 2
Line 1
For line1 two reclaimers are used for material reclaiming one from lime stone and one for clay
laterite and bauxite.
Line 2
For line 2 raw mix material is reclaimed by bridge reclaimer and side scraper used for laterite
and high lime reclaiming. After reclaiming material is transported through belt conveyors to raw
material storage hoppers where afterward it is transported to mill areas for fine grinding.
Separator
Bucket
Elevator
Ball Mill
Hot Gases from Kiln Hot gas
out to
Stack
System Fan
Line 2
For line 2 two vertical roller mills R2 and R3 of capacities 120 and 165 tons/hr respectively are
used. Material from hoppers is fed to mills by passing through weigh feeder with the help of
conveyor belts where it is grinded to ultra-fine size less than 90µm. The Raw material fed to
mills should be of size range between 75-90mmØ. In vertical roller mills materials is grinded
with impact of rollers and moveable horizontal table and hot gases from kiln lift up the material,
after passing through separator (where coarse and fine particle are separated) coarse return back
to mill and fine are transported to cyclones for gas cleaning and further transported to C.F.Silo
for material homogenization. In mill inlet feed is controlled by hydraulic driven valves.
Screw Conveyor
Belt conveyor
Bucket
Elevator
Storage Silo
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Control Flow Silo
Precalciner
When material is reached in the precalciner here material is heated up to 900°C temperature and
95% calcinations take place in line 2 preheaters. While in line 1 unit preheaters 65% calcinations
takes place.
Kiln
Line 1kiln is of capacity 150 tons/hr. while line 2 kiln capacity is 250 tons /hr. The rotary kiln
consists of a tube made from steel plate, approximately diameter range from 4.5~6.0 meters and
lined with refractory to prevent the shell from high temperature effect. The kiln slopes slightly
(1–4°) and slowly rotates on its axis between30 to250 revolutions per hour. Material from
precalciner is arrived in calcining zone of kiln
When temperature is reached to 1000°C then calcining is completed. Now material moved to
transition zone where fluxes Al2O3 and Fe2O3 are melt down to form liquid phase and
temperature approx. reached to 1250°C.
After transition zone material enters into burning zone which is high temperature zone and
temperature inside this zone is approx. 1450°C here Alite formation take place and clinkerization
process almost completed. After burning zone material enter into cooling zone where material is
cooled down .Inside kiln heating is produced by burning coal with help of burner. While air is
supplied by fan
Alite is the characteristic constituent of Portland cement. Typically, a peak temperature of 1400–
1450°C is required to complete the reaction
Cement silos
In pioneer cement limited there are three silos for storage of cement each of capacity 6500 tons.
From where material is transported to packing unit for bagging or bulk loading
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Packing Machine
Clinker Cement
18. www.intechopen.com
19. www.flsmidth.com
20. Cement Kilns: Grate Coolerswww.cementkilns.co.uk
22. CementClinkerGrindingwww.pwiuae.com