ANTENNAS FOR MOBILE

COMMUNICATIONS

THE REPORT SUBMITTED TO:

JAMIL QADRI

MODULE TITLE:
IM3013 MOBILE COMMUNICATION

SUBMITED BY:
MOHAMED SHERIFF SHAJEETH MOHAMED
ID 37970

LEVEL 4 - BSC IN E-COMMERCE

AND TECHNOLOGY

SUBMITTED ON:
FRIDAY, DECEMBER 11, 2009

BRITISH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & E-COMMERCE

 ANTENNAS FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS 2

MOHAMED SHERIFF SHAJEETH MOHAMED ID: 37970

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Abstract
The report presents some basic types of mobile communication antennas, which are
Isotropic antenna, Dipole antennas, Parabolic Reflective Antenna and Yagi-Uda
Antenna. The report covers the usage and performance measures of antennas, various
performance specifications, an overview of several major families of antenna types,
the applicability of various types of antennas, the nature of wave propagation in
earth's atmosphere, identify the propagation characteristics in various modes of
propagation like polarization, Beamwidth, Bandwidth and gain and understanding the
the different parameters related to an antenna, like Resonant frequency, impedance,
gain, radiation pattern, polarization, efficiency and bandwidth. The paper also discuss
the related key subjects like Transmission, reception, direction patterns, antenna array,
director ,reflector, antenna coupling network, refractor, modulation and
propagation.The report provides an opportunity to experience and understand the role
of antennas in communication, and to serve as a case study in information search and
to serve as a learning resource on this subject.

Objective
The objective of this report is identifying the characteristics and Parameters of
antennas to find out the applicability and usage of various types of antennas and
giving the Reader an exposure to the report on antennas for mobile communication
and to understand and approach a new and unfamiliar subject of antennas.

Introduction
An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of conductors. Antenna radiates
electromagnetic energy into space and collects electromagnetic energy from space.
The same antenna can be used for transmission and reception. An antenna also
converts electromagnetic waves into vice versa and electrical currents. Antennas are
used in systems like television telecasting and radio broadcasting, radio point-to-point
communication, radar, wireless LAN and space Exploration.

An over view of antennas

An antenna is an arrangement of one or more conductors. Antenna is a transducer,
which is designed to transmit and receive electromagnetic waves. An antenna also
converts electromagnetic waves into vice versa and electrical currents. Antennas are
used in systems like television telecasting and radio broadcasting, radio point-to-point
communication, radar, wireless LAN and space Exploration.

Antennas are used in air and outer space, and also used under water and through
concrete and rock at certain frequencies. Radio frequency signals travel quickly in the

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air and with low transmission loss. The signals are absorbed when moving through
more conductive materials like concrete walls and rocks. When the signals moving
through an interface, the waves can be partially transmitted and partially reflected. In
1888, Antenna was practically used by Heinrich Hertz. He proved the existence of
electromagnetic waves predicted by James Clerk Maxwell.

Types of antennas
There are many variations of antennas. Below are a few basic models.
The isotropic radiator is a purely theoretical antenna that radiates equally in all
directions. This antenna cannot physically exist and it is a theoretical model for
comparison with all other types of antennas. It is considered to be a point in space
with no dimensions and no mass. Gains of Antennas are measured with reference to
an isotropic radiator, and are measured in dBi – decibels with respect to an isotropic
radiator.

The dipole antenna is simply two wires pointed in opposite directions arranged either
vertically or horizontally, one end of the wire connected to the radio and the other end
hanging free in space. Dipole antenna polarize linear way with beamwidth of 80 deg
*360 deg and bandwidth of 10% or 1.1:1. The typical gain is 2 dB. This is the simplest
practical antenna; it is also used as a reference model for other antennas. Gain with
respect to a dipole is labeled as dBd. Variations of the dipole include the folded
dipole, the half wave antenna, the ground plane antenna, the whip, and the j-pole.
Any circuit can radiate if driven with a signal of high enough frequency. Practical
antennas are specially designed to radiate efficiently at a particular frequency. An
inefficient antenna is the simple Hertzian dipole antenna, which radiates over wide
range of frequencies and is useful for its small size. A more efficient variation of this
is the half-wave dipole, it radiates with high efficiency when the signal wavelength is
twice the electrical length of the antenna.

The Yagi-Uda Antenna is a directional variation of the dipole with parasitic elements
added which are functionality similar to adding a reflector and lenses/directors to
focus a filament light bulb. This antenna polarize linear way with beamwidth of 50 deg
*50 deg and bandwidth of 5% or 1.05:1. The typical gain is (-5)-1.5 dB.

The Horns are also used as Reference antennas and it is used where high gain is
needed, the wavelength is short and space is not an issue. A horn can be built for any
frequency, but horns for lower frequencies are typically impractical. Horns can be
narrow band or wide band, depending on their shape. This antenna polarize linear way
with beamwidth of 40 deg *40 deg and bandwidth, if ridged 120% or 4:1, if not ridged 67%
2:1. The typical gain is 5-20 dB.

The Parabolic antenna it is used for high gain like the horns, it consists of an active
element at the focus of a parabolic reflector to reflect the waves into a plane wave.
This antenna takes polarization of feed with beamwidth of 1 deg *10 deg and bandwidth
of 33% or 1.4:1. The typical gain is 20-30 dB.

The Random wire antenna is a very long wire. One end of the wire connected to the
radio and the other in free space. A random wire antenna will also require an antenna
tuner, as it might have random impedance that varies nonlinearly with frequency.

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(Refer Appendix 1, 3: Types of antennas and characteristics, images)

Parameters
There are several parameters affecting performance of an antenna, such as, resonant
frequency, impedance, gain, radiation pattern, polarization, efficiency and
bandwidth.

The Resonant frequency is related to the electrical length of an antenna. The

electrical length is the length of the wire divided by the velocity factor. An antenna is
tuned for a specific frequency. It is effective for a range of frequencies which are
usually centered on that resonant frequency. Some antenna designs have multiple
resonant frequencies, and some are relatively effective over a very broad range of
frequencies.

Gain measures the efficiency of an antenna. A high gain antenna will preferentially
radiate in particular directions and a low gain antenna emits radiation with about the
same power in all directions. The gain is measured by the following Equation
4πAe 4πf 2 Ae
G= 2 =
λ c2
G = antenna gain, Ae = effective area, f = carrier frequency, c = speed of light (» 3 ´
108 m/s) and λ = carrier wavelength

If an antenna has a gain greater than one in some directions, it must have a gain less
than one in other directions, Low-gain antennas have shorter range, but the orientation
of the antenna is relatively inconsequential. High-gain antennas have the advantage of
longer range and better signal quality, but must be aimed carefully in a particular
direction.

The Radiation pattern of an antenna is the geometric pattern of the relative field
strengths of the field emitted by the antenna. The radiation pattern of an antenna is
represented by dimensional graph, polar plots of the horizontal and vertical cross
sections. For the ideal isotropic antenna, this would be a sphere. For a typical dipole,
this would be a toroid.

The bandwidth of an antenna is the range of frequencies over which it is effective,

usually centered on the resonant frequency. The bandwidth of an antenna may be
increased by several techniques, including using thicker wires, replacing wires with
cages to simulate a thicker wire, tapering antenna components, and combining
multiple antennas into a single assembly and allowing the natural impedance to select
the correct antenna

Efficiency is the ratio of power a radiated to the power put into the antenna terminals.
Radiation in an antenna is caused by radiation resistance which can only be measured
as part of total resistance including loss resistance. Loss resistance usually results in
heat generation rather than radiation, and reduces efficiency. Mathematically,
efficiency is calculated as radiation resistance divided by total resistance.

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An electromagnetic wave travels through the parts of the antenna system it may
encounter differences in impedance. At each interface, depending on the impedance
match, some fraction of the wave's energy will reflect back to the source, forming a
standing wave in the feed line. Complex impedance of an antenna is related to the
electrical length of the antenna at the wavelength in use. The impedance of an antenna
can be matched to the feed line and radio by adjusting the impedance of the feed line,

The polarization of an antenna is the orientation of the electric field of the radio wave
with respect to the Earth's surface and is determined by the physical structure of the
antenna and by its orientation. It has nothing in common with antenna directionality
terms: "horizontal", "vertical" and "circular". A simple straight wire antenna will have
one polarization when mounted vertically, and a different polarization when mounted
horizontally.

Electromagnetic wave polarization filters are structures which can be employed to

act directly on the electromagnetic wave to filter out wave energy of an undesired
polarization and to pass wave energy of a desired polarization.All of the antenna
parameters are expressed in terms of a transmission antenna, but are identically
applicable to a receiving antenna. Impedance, however, is not applied in an obvious
way; for impedance, the impedance at the load is most critical.

Antennas used for transmission, antennas have a maximum power rating, beyond
which heating, arcing or sparking may occur in the components, which may cause
them to be damaged or destroyed. Raising this maximum power rating usually
requires larger and heavier components, which may require larger and heavier
supporting structures. This is a concern only for transmitting antennas, as the power
received by an antenna rarely exceeds the microwatt range. Antennas designed
specifically for reception might be optimized for noise rejection capabilities.

Discussion
In following paragraphs discuss some important topics, which are related to an
antenna. They are Transmission, Reception, directional patterns, antenna array,
Director, Reflector, Antenna Coupling Network, Electromagnetic wave
Refractor, limitation, Antenna inherent reactance, Analog signals, analog
modulation and Antenna propagation

In a Transmission, by applying a voltage at the antenna terminals, an alternative

current is created in the elements, causing the elements to radiate an electromagnetic
field. In Reception, an electromagnetic field from another source induces an
alternating current in the elements and a corresponding voltage at the terminals of
antenna.

According to the specific Dimensional plane, there are 2 fundamental types of antenna
directional patterns

• Omni-directional, which radiates equally in all directions

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• Directional, which radiates more in one direction than in the other.

Omni-directional antenna usually refers to all horizontal directions with reception

above and below the antenna being reduced in favor of better reception near the
horizon. The Directional antenna usually refers to one focusing a narrow beam in a
single specific direction such as a telescope and satellite dish.

An antenna array is a combination of two or more simple antennas to produce a

certain directional radiation pattern. An array is composed of active elements, such as

• A linear array of parallel dipoles fed as a broadside array.

• A slightly different feed method could cause this same array of dipoles to
radiate as an End-fire array.

A Director is a parasitic element and a metallic conductive structure. It re-radiates

into free space impinging Electromagnetic radiation coming from and going to the
active antenna. A Reflector is also a parasitic element and a metallic conductive
structure. It re-radiates back into free space impinging electromagnetic radiation
coming from or going to the active antenna. The reflector modifies the radiation of the
active antenna.

An Antenna Coupling Network is a passive network for transmitting the signal

energy between the active antenna and a source or receiver. A coupling Network can
be any combination of a resistive and inductive circuit

An Electromagnetic wave Refractor is a structure, which is shaped to accelerate and

delay the electromagnetic waves that transmitted. Refractor brings the wave to a focus
and alters the wave front in other ways, like convert a spherical wave front to a planar
wave front/vice-versa.

A limitation of this antenna is that it does not radiate or receive in the direction in
which the rod points and these regions are called the antenna blind cone or null.
Generally an antenna can receive and transmit equally well and also the design criteria
for receiving and transmitting antennas differ slightly. Antennas are designed to
operate in a relatively narrow frequency range.

An "Antenna inherent reactance" includes not only the distributed reactance of the
active antenna but also the natural reactance due to its location and surroundings.
Reactance diverts energy into the reactive field, which causes unwanted currents that
heat the antenna and associated wiring, thereby wasting energy without contributing
to the radiated output. Reactance can be eliminated by operating the antenna at its
resonant frequency, when its capacitive and inductive reactance is equal and opposite,
resulting in a net zero reactive current. If this is not possible, compensating inductors
or capacitors can instead be added to the antenna to cancel its reactance as far as the
source is concerned.

Once the reactance has been eliminated, what remains is a pure resistance, which is
the sum of two parts: the ohmic resistance of the conductors, and the radiation
resistance.Power absorbed by the ohmic resistance becomes waste heat, and that
absorbed by the radiation resistance becomes radiated electromagnetic energy. The

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greater the ratio of Radiation resistance to ohmic resistance, the more efficient the
antenna.

Analog signals are used in antenna transmission and reception because their higher
frequency can give more efficient transmission and they permits frequency division
multiplexing. There are three types of analog modulation; they are Amplitude
Modulation, Frequency Modulation
And Phase Modulation (Refer appendix 2)

Antenna propagation can be discussed in three type propagation they are Ground-
wave propagation, Sky-wave propagation and Line-modes; of-sight propagation.
Ground-wave propagation Follows contour of the earth and it can propagate
considerable distances. The level of the Frequencies is up to 2 MHz. the AM radio
frequencies is an ideal example. (Refer appendix 4)

In Sky-wave propagation, the reflected signals from ionized layer of atmosphere

back down to earth. The Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between
ionosphere and surface of earth. In this propagation mode, the reflection effect causes
by refraction. Amateur radio and CB radio can be taken for example for sky-wave
propagation. (Refer appendix 4)

In Line-of-sight propagation, Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within

line of sight. This propagation is used to Satellite communication and Ground
communication Refraction happens because of bending of microwaves by the
atmosphere. Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the density of the
medium and when wave changes medium, speed changes. (Refer appendix 3)
The distance between antenna and horizon can be measured by the following
equations,
Optical line of sight,
d =3.57 h

Effective line of sight,

d =3.57 Κh

d = distance between antenna and horizon (km), h = antenna height (m) and K =
adjustment factor to account for refraction, rule of thumb K = 4/3
Maximum distance between two antennas,

3.57 ( Κh1 + Κh2 )

h1 = height of antenna one and h2 = height of antenna two
(Refer appendix 4)

MOHAMED SHERIFF SHAJEETH MOHAMED ID: 37970

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Conclusion
In my conclusion, a true assessment of the value of antenna diversity can only be
attained by a feasibility experiment with target system parameters in an operating
environment. The report is well designed to provide an opportunity to experience and
understand the role of antennas in communication, and to serve as a case study in
information search and to serve as a learning resource on this subject.

Thanking
I would like to thank our Teacher JAMIL QADRI, who makes it possible for me to finish
my Report in a best way and like to thank my colleagues and the people, whoever
helped me to complete this report successfully.

References

• Wireless Communication, William Stallings PHI. (Updated March 2008).

Available at: http://sci.tech-archive.net/pdf/Archive/sci.math.num-
analysis/msg00272.pdf [Accessed 16 October 2009]

• Safecomprograms, Antenna parameters. (Updated 2008). Available at

http://www.safecomprogram.gov/NR/rdonlyres/304D0E65-438B-9547-
E337CF1572F1/0/Antenna_Systems_Guide.pdf [Accessed 25 October 2009]

• Educypedia, Antenna characteristics. (Updated 2007). Available at

http://www.educypedia.be/electronics/antennatypeslist.htm [Accessed 25
October 2009]

• Keys, Antenna types. (Updated 2007). Available at

http://www.kyes.com/antenna/antennatypes/antennatypes.html [Accessed 26
October 2009]

• Collin R. E., 1988. Antennas and Radio wave Propagation. McGraw-Hill.

New York.

• Balanis. C., 2005, Antenna Theory .3rd edition. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-66782-X.

• Stutzman.w & Thiele. G, 1997. Antenna Theory and Design .2nd

edition.Wiley. ISBN 0-471-02590-9.

MOHAMED SHERIFF SHAJEETH MOHAMED ID: 37970

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Appendix
Reference: 1.

Table 1: Types of antennas and characteristics

Types of antenna Characteristics
Polarization Beamwidth Typical Bandwidth
Gain
1.Monopole Linear 45 *360 deg 2-6 dB 10% or 1.1:1

2. Dipole Linear 80 *360 deg 2 dB 10% or 1.1:1

3.VEE Linear 60 deg*60 deg 2-7 dB Broadband
4.RH OMBIC Linear 60 deg*60 deg 3 dB Broadband
5.Circular loop Linear 80 deg*360 deg (-1)-2 dB 10% or 1.1:1
6.Square loop Linear 100 *360 deg 1-3 dB 10% or 1.1:1
7. Discone Linear 20-80deg*360 0-4 dB 100% or 3:1
8.Alford Loop Linear 80 *360 deg -1 dB 67% or 2:1
9.Axial mode helix Circular 50 deg*50deg 10 dB 52% or 1.7:1
10.Normal mode Circular 60 *360 deg 0 dB 5% or 1.05:1
helix
11. Cavity spiral Circular 60 deg*90 deg 2-4 dB 160% or 6:1
12.conical Spiral Circular 60 deg*60 deg 5-8 dB 120% or 4:1
13.ARM conical Circular 50 *360 deg 0 dB 120% or 4:1
spiral
14.dual polarized Vertical/horizont 75 deg*75deg 2 dB 163% or 10:1
sinuous al/ Circular
15.Biconical Linear 100*360 deg 0-4 dB 120% or 4:1
16.Biconical circular 100*360 deg (-3)-1 dB 100% 3:1
w/polarizer
17.Horn linear 40deg*40deg 5-20 dB Ridged 120% 4:1
Not ridged 67% 2:1
18.Parabolic Takes 1 – 10 deg 20-30 dB 33% 1.4:1
polarization of
feed
19.YAGI linear 50 deg*50deg (-5)-1.5 dB 5% 1.05:1
20. Linear Dipole 45 deg*360 deg Depend on Narrow
array elements
Available at: “http://www.qsl.net/va3iul/Antenna”

Reference: 2.
1. Carrier
2. Modulating sine-wave signal
3. Amplitude modulated wave

4. Phase modulated wave

5. Frequency modulated wave

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Reference: 3.
Table 2: Antenna types and Radiation pattern
Antenna Images Radiation Pattern
Type
1.Dipole

2.Horn

3.Parabolic

4.YAHI

Available at: “http://www.qsl.net/va3iul/Antenna”

Reference 4
Table: 3. Types of Propagation
Propagation Images
1. Ground-wave
propagation

2. In Sky-wave
propagation

3. In Line-of-sight
propagation

MOHAMED SHERIFF SHAJEETH MOHAMED ID: 37970

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MOHAMED SHERIFF SHAJEETH MOHAMED ID: 37970