A Survey of Routing Protocols and Simulations in

Delay-Tolerant Networks

Mengjuan Liu, Yan Yang, and Zhiguang Qin

Department of Computer Science and Technology

University of Electronic Science and Technology of China
mjliu@uestc.edu.cn

Abstract. Delay-Tolerant Networks (DTNs) are a type of emerging networks

characterized by very long delay paths and frequent network partitions. For the
distinct characteristics of DTNs, routing becomes one of the most challenging
open problems. Recent years numerous approaches have been presented for ad-
dressing routing issues in DTNs. This paper surveys main DTN routing strate-
gies and gives a comparison of them with respect to the performance metrics.
Specially, we summarize the cardinal mobility models and DTN simulators
which are significantly important to evaluate the performance of DTN routing
protocols.

Keywords: Delay-Tolerant Networks, Routing, Simulation, Mobility Model.

1 Introduction
Delay-Tolerant Networks enable transfer data in challenging environments where
networks are assumed to experience frequent, long-duration partitioning and may
have no end-to-end connectivity between source and destination. Currently, applica-
tions of DTNs include: sensor networks for monitoring ecological environments,
Peoplenet, oceans sensor networks, vehicle networks, military Ad-Hoc networks,
disaster recovery networks, rural communication networks and so on. However, the
features of DTNs distinguish essentially with TCP/IP-based networks. With the cha-
racteristics of intermittent connection, frequent movement, limited storage and ener-
gy, DTNs could not be well served by traditional routing protocols. Therefore DTN
routing becomes a hot topic during the last few years.
The primary focus of many existing DTN routing protocols is to increase the like-
lihood of finding a path with extremely limited information. For this purpose a variety
of mechanisms are proposed, including placement of stationary waypoint stores,
message replication, estimating node meeting probabilities, network coding and leve-
raging prior knowledge of mobility patterns. Recently social network has been intro-
duced to resolve the routing issues, and good performance can be achieved by using
the properties of real-world human connectivity.
In this paper, we survey the existing routing protocols and give a comparison of
them with respect to the important challenging issues and performance metrics.
Furthermore, most proposed DTN routing protocols rely on simulations to validate
the performance since real-world deployments are often either very expensive or

Y. Cheng et al. (Eds.): WASA 2011, LNCS 6843, pp. 243–253, 2011.
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011
244 M. Liu, Y. Yang, and Z. Qin

impossible. However, the DTN routing performance is highly dependent on the un-
derlying mobility models and the level of realism in the simulators. So we summarize
the cardinal mobility models and simulators which are very important to evaluate the
performance of DTN routing protocols precisely.

2 Classfication and Routing Protocols

In this paper, the DTN routing protocols are classified into two categories: forwarding
schemes and flooding schemes. Furthermore, forwarding schemes are divided into
infrastructure-based, prediction-based and social-based strategies, while flooding
schemes could be classified as spray-series, social-based, intentional-oriented, coding-
based, and hybrid-based strategies. A graphic illustration of classification is given in
Figure 1.

Fig. 1. Classification of DTN routing protocols

2.1 Forwarding Schemes

In forwarding protocols, each message only keep one copy during its transmission in
the network like traditional routing strategies. Since contact opportunities are affected
by many factors in practice including weather, radio interference, and system failure,
researchers have presented hop-by-hop DTN routings to improve message delivery
rate. Thus every relay node should decide the next hop of each message. According to
movement patterns, we divide these forwarding protocols into three directions as
followings.

• Infrastructure-based strategies
For the knowledge of movement pattern is known in some DTN scenarios, infrastruc-
ture-based routings can mitigate and compensate the rugged environment by deploy-
ing fixed mobile infrastructure. In [1] [2] [3], systems utilize a set of special mobile
nodes (Data Mules or Mobile Agents) as message ferries for providing connectivity
through disconnected parts of the network. These ferries can directly pick up messag-
es from normal nodes, then move towards the next hop and deliver messages, through
which protocols implement end-to-end message delivery. Simulation results show that
these store-carry-forward paradigms help to improve the message delivery ratio and
reduce energy consumption. However, it is difficult to implement those special nodes
in many DTN scenarios.
 A Survey of Routing Protocols and Simulations in Delay-Tolerant Networks 245

• Prediction-based strategies
To improve routing performance in opportunistic scenarios, prediction-based strate-
gies have been deployed in DTN routings. These strategies calculate and predict
knowledge of future network (i.e., message delivery probability, nodes’ next meeting
time etc.) based on history information. The typical protocol is PER [5].
PER predicts messages’ delivery on the ground of probability distribution of future
contact times and choose a proper next hop in order to improve the end-to-end deli-
very probability. In PER, a model based on a time-homogeneous semi-markov
process is designed to predict the probability distribution of the time of contact and
the probability that two nodes encounters in the future. During transfer-decision, there
are three metric functions for nodes in PER, which means nodes could select one of
them to decide relay nodes. Three Functions are defined as follows:
D D
f1 = max Cnc d (k ),1 ≤ k ≤ D f 2 = ∑ Cnc d (k ) f 3 = ∑ Rnc d (k )
k
k =1 k =1

Where k is discrete time slot, D is the maximum message acceptable delivery de-
lay; Cn c d denotes the probability of nc (the chosen neighbor of node c ) and desti-
nation d connecting at t , while Rnc d presents the probability of the first connec-
tion of nc and d at t . The simulation studies show that the three algorithms improve
the delivery ratio and also reduce the delivery latency compared to traditional DTN
routing schemes.

• Social-based forwarding strategies

Researchers have been analyzing mobility which has similar features with social net-
work recently and focus on investigating common social relationships and people’s
daily life communication. In the result of that, social mobility characteristics are used
to assist routing decisions and protocols based on social model have been presented.
SimBet [6] and SSAR [7] are mainly forwarding protocols applying social model.
In SimBet, social network model is defined as follows: everyone is divided into
several online communities based on the different interests or occupations; everyone
has his own community social frequency, measured as social degree. Hence, social
model involves two key problems: division of community and computation of social
degree. Community division is completed by the community detection algorithm and
social degree is calculated as the sum of nodes which is direct or indirect linked with
the node. In addition, SimBet introduce similarity between two nodes as a metric for
the consideration of that the probability of two nodes meeting in the future is higher,
if the two nodes have more common neighbors. And similarity between two nodes is
calculated as the number of the same neighbors of the nodes. Then, social degree and
similarity are synthesized into SimBet utility with appropriate weight. During message
forwarding, relay nodes for messages are selected based on the highest SimBet utility.
It is demonstrated that SimBet clearly outperforms Prophet [4] specifically in its abili-
ty to send messages among nodes with the lowest betweenness values which are the
least central nodes in the network.
246 M. Liu, Y. Yang, and Z. Qin

SSAR algorithm is introduced based on people’s selfish phenomenon of selectively

forward in true life. It models the socially selfish network as a fully-connected
weighted directed graph, where the vertex set V consists of all the nodes and the edge
set E consists of the social links between nodes. The weight of edge AB is A’s wil-
lingness to forward packets for B. The value of willingness is a real number within [0,
1] (0 means unwilling to forward and 1 means the most willing to forward), which is
initiated randomly when the node joins into the network and updated as social tie
changes. SSAR allocates resources such as buffers and bandwidth based on packet
priority which is related to the social relationship among nodes. Furthermore, SSAR
formulates the forwarding process as a Multiple Knapsack Problem with Assignment
Restrictions (MKPAR) and forwards the most effective packets for social selfishness
and routing performance as follows. When the willingness of encountered node is
greater than 0, they first interchange their message list information and recalculate
message’s priority according to the prediction of transmission probability by itself,
then calculate the storage size it can provide to the other and interchange these infor-
mation, last transfer the corresponding size of the messages based on priority. Simula-
tions show that SSAR allows users to maintain selfishness and achieves better routing
performance with low transmission cost.

2.2 Flooding Schemes

Flooding is a mechanism which needs relay nodes to store-and-forward message cop-

ies independently through creating multiple duplications of a message in the network.
This method could dramatic enhance delivery rate and reduce average network delays
at the cost of huge network resource consumption. Numerous optimization approach-
es have been presented based on flooding striving for reasonable resource consump-
tion. Vahdat takes the lead in proposing opportunistic routing, Epidemic routing [8],
where each node floods messages to all the nodes that it encounters. Simulation result
presents delivery rate of Epidemic could almost be 100% if buffer storage is unli-
mited. Yet since the overhead of Epidemic is huge, it performs poorly in resource
limited scenarios especially where storage is insufficient.

• Spray-series strategies
In order to reduce resource consumption of Epidemic, Spyropoulos et al. presents a
new series of routing strategies that “spray” a few message copies into the network,
and then route each copy independently towards the destination. Spray strategies gen-
erate only a small, carefully chosen number of copies to ensure that the total number
of transmissions is small and controlled.
One of the most famous routing designed by Spyropoulos is Spray-and-Wait [9],
which consists of the following two phases. Spray phase: for every message originat-
ing at a source node, L message copies are initially spread by the source and possibly
other nodes receiving copies, to L distinct relay nodes. Wait phase: if the destination
is not found in the spraying phase, each of the L nodes carrying a message copy per-
forms “Direct Transmission” (i.e. will forward the message only when encounters its
destination). Afterwards, the author proposed improved version called Spray-and-
Focus [10], which takes the wait phrase exchange with focus phrase. In focus phrase,
message carriers would select appropriate relay node based on utility and then
 A Survey of Routing Protocols and Simulations in Delay-Tolerant Networks 247

forward it. Spray and Wait/Focus are demonstrated to achieving both good latency
and low bandwidth overhead, thereby significantly reducing resource consumption in
flooding routing.
Further more, Eyuphan et al. ameliorates spray routing into a multi-period spraying
algorithm [11]. The algorithm partitions the time from message creation to the prede-
fined deadline into several, variable-length periods. In each period, some number of
additional copies is sprayed into the network, followed by the wait for message deli-
very. At any time instance, the total number of message copies distributed to the net-
work depends on the urgency of achieving the delivery rate by the given deadline for
that message. The results of this routing prove that multi-period spraying algorithm
outperforms the algorithms with a single spraying period. Those spray routings can be
viewed as a tradeoff between single and multiple copy techniques.

• Social-based flooding strategies

In social-based flooding routings, protocols models social network as the same as the
social-based forwarding routings, while it take advantage of flooding strategy to in-
crease message delivery rate. The current delegation of this kind protocols are
BUBBLE [12] and SocialCast [13].
BUBBLE use the similar network model as SimBet, while calculate social degree
in another way. BUBBLE calculates inter-community and global social ranking to
represent social degree of nodes. Computational scheme of ranking is as follow: First
carry out a large number of emulations of unlimited flooding with different uniformly
distributed traffic patterns, then count the number of times a node acts as a relay for
other nodes on all the shortest delay deliveries (Here the shortest delay delivery refers
to the case when the same message is delivered to the destination through different
paths). The forwarding process of each message can be divided into global forward
and inter-community forward and select relay nodes with the highest corresponding
ranking. BUBBLE is shown empirically to improve the forwarding efficiency and
resource consumption significantly.
SocialCast protocol is a routing framework for publish-subscribe that exploits pre-
dictions based on metrics of social interaction to identify the best information carriers.
In SocialCast, every node has its own interests set which indicates its subscription for
the messages with corresponding characteristic; every message is identified with sev-
eral interest tags initially. Each node has a contribution utility for each message,
which is measured as how good it is to be a relay of the message. Utility is related to
the node’s mobility and whether it subscribes the message, and is predicted by
Kalman Filter and updates periodically. After the publication of a message in Social-
Cast, algorithm forwards it to encountered nodes which subscribe the same interest of
the message and choose a highest contribution utility node to store it as relay. The
evaluation shows that SocialCast allows for maintaining a very high and steady event
delivery with low overhead and latency.

• Intention-oriented strategies
In order to achieve good performance objectives of DTN routing besides message
delivery rate, e.g., average delivery delay, energy and bandwidth consumption etc.,
RAPID [14][15], Energy-optimal routing and other intentional-oriented routings have
248 M. Liu, Y. Yang, and Z. Qin

been presented. Aruna et al. first presents RAPID [14] to treat DTN route-decision as
a resource allocation problem, which translates the routing metric into per-packet
utility which determines how packets should be replicated in the system. Utility could
use different calculation methods according to different routing metrics, thus RAPID
is called intentional routing. For instance, to minimize the average delay of packets in
the network, the utility of packet i could be defined as U i = − D (i ) , where D(i )
represents the current delay of packet i . Let δ U i denotes the increment in U i by
replicating i and forwarding it to the encountered node, and si denote the size of i .
Then, RAPID replicates the packet with the highest value of δ U i among packets in
its buffer. The results of RAPID on a vehicular DTN testbed suggest that RAPID
significantly outperforms Spray and Wait, Prophet for several metrics, such as net-
work average delay, max delay and delivery rate.
Yurong et al. proposes an energy efficient forwarding algorithm based on epidemic
[15]. The protocol clearly establishes model of energy constraints: Every message i
have its own energy constraint Ψ , which is proportional to the number of expected
transmissions during its life span. Denote X i (T ) to present the number of replica-
tions of i at time t , and then energy constraint for message transmission is formulis-
tic as E ( X i (T )) ≤ ψ . Thus, route decision is transformed into an optimization
problem which means to maximize the delivery probability at the premise of the ener-
gy constraint. After calculation and deduction, the author concludes that algorithm
should transfers messages at a optimal dynamic probability p (i ) :

⎧ p(i ) = 1 t < θ M ψ (N − M )
⎨ θ= ln( )
⎩ p(i ) = 0 t > θ Nλ N − Mψ
Among which M denotes the total number of messages in the buffer, N is the
number of nodes in the network and λ is exponential distribution parameter. Simu-
lations show that the optimal dynamic policy achieves better performance than other
routings in networks with energy constraint.

• Coding-based strategies
In coding-based strategies [16] [17], fragmentation and network coding taken used to
reduce resource consumption. During these strategies, each message is partitioned
into K fragment packets at the time it is created. Then those fragments are flooded in
the network, and relay nodes no longer simply forward data packets, but combining
the fragments and encoding them into a new packet then forwarding. At last, when the
destination obtains coded packets which collect all the K fragments, it attempts to
decode the K source packets and the message is delivered. Through this method, the
buffer and transmission consumption at relays are allowed to be low. Despite with the
price of long time waiting for the destination to receive a sufficient number of coded
packets, the superiority of network coding in opportunistic networks are strongly
proved when bandwidth and node buffers are limited.
 A Survey of Routing Protocols and Simulations in Delay-Tolerant Networks 249

• Hybrid-based strategies
Some researchers have proposed hybrid routings applying both forwarding and flood-
ing schemes in one protocol. This technology could be viewed as a balance between
increasing delivery rate and reducing resource consumption. The representatives of
hybrid routings are routings in [18] [19] [20].
Through analyzing the mobility of DTN scenarios, some researchers divide the
network into a series of node clusters/groups and present hybrid DTN-MANET
routing protocols on it. HYMAD [19] is one of the best representatives of these strat-
egies, which periodically scans for network topology changes and builds temporary
disjoint groups of connected nodes by diameter-constrained algorithm. HYMAD im-
plements DTN routing (amended Spray and Wait) between disjoint groups of nodes
while applying traditional MANET routing, a simple distance vector algorithm within
these groups. HYMAD exchanges the conception of “a node” in spray and wait into
“a node group” and then apply it into intra-group routing. The results show that
HYMAD outperforms the multi-copy Spray-and-Wait DTN routing protocol it ex-
tends, both in terms of delivery ratio and delay, for any number of message copies.

3 Simulations
Simulations play an important role in analyzing the behavior and the performance of
DTN routing and application protocols. In this section, we would like discuss two key
problems: DTN routing simulators and mobility models, which are significantly im-
portant to evaluate the performance of DTN routing protocols precisely.

3.1 Simulator
There are four mainstream simulators in most DTN routing scenarios, including NS2
[21], OMNET++ [22], DTNSim [23], and ONE [24]. NS2 and OMNET++ are both
mature general network simulators and provide sound generic open simulation plat-
forms for packet-based communications. Many simulations are developed based on
NS2, such as [8] [14]. NS2 has lots of toolsets for helping implement MANET simu-
lations, such as JANE. However, generic support for DTN simulation is overall fairly
limited. Petz et al. developed a suite of mobility models (e.g. Random waypoint mo-
bility, Zebra mobility [28], Village mobility [28], and Truncated Levy walk [28]) in
OMNET++ that specially target delay-tolerant networks. Additionally, they create a
statistical analysis package for OMNET++ that greatly extends the capabilities of the
simulator. DTNSim by University of Waterloo is an exclusive simulator for DTN
routing, yet concentrates solely on routing simulation, such as Earliest Delivery [29],
Minimum Expected Delay [29], MEED [30], etc. In DTNSim, two scenarios are im-
plemented routing to a remote village and a network of city bus.
The ONE simulator published recently is a simulator for opportunistic network en-
vironment in DTN. Except for Bundles architecture that the ONE contains, it imple-
ments some typical routing protocols and mobility models in DTN, and also is easier
to extend. Even though the ONE has filled up the deficiencies of other simulators in
some degree[24], it is still deficient as other network simulators, such as low-degree
accuracy of time slot causing inaccurate locating of time when events generate;
inadequate processing capability causing dramatic decreasing performance while
250 M. Liu, Y. Yang, and Z. Qin

simulating large-scale situations; lack of supports from low layers(i.e., physical layer
and MAC layer) causing assuming wireless devices never shut down during simula-
tion, which makes simulation result too idealism to accept.

3.2 Mobility Model

Mobility is defined as the nodes’ movement in DTN during simulation. There are
three principal methods to generate node mobility: Purely theoretical model, real-
world trace and real-mobility simulation.
The first way is generate mobility by mathematically random process. For instance,
draw contact durations and endpoints from a pseudo random number generator like
random walk (RW) movement and random way point (RWP) movement. It is simple
to implement, while the problem is that it is so theoretical that data from random dis-
tribution are hard to prove their validation in DTN scenarios. For example, even if
human interactions may seem somewhat random, humans usually do have some pur-
pose for their actions thereby visiting some places and meeting with certain people
more often than others. Capturing these characters in a random way would be almost
impossible.
Another way to build mobility is to extract data from real-world traces.
CRAWDAD [25] is a typical program, which creates a community platform for re-
searchers to share wireless network trace data. Most of social routings are simulated
with mobility of this type, and Dartmouth campus and “small world” of MIT are the
most frequently used data in DTN. Besides, other scholars have also been committed
to real data track collections such as Rollernet [26], Vehicular trace and so on. Unfor-
tunately, existing traces have low spatial and temporal granularity. To save battery
life of the mobile devices used to track people, the interval of devices scan for others
has been kept low, which results in missing possible contacts but also in that we don't
know how long the actual contacts lasted.
The third approach is to simulate the movement of the nodes and derive contact in-
formation from analyzing real-world traces. The delegations of this mobility are
movements based on maps [24] including simple map-based model (MBM), shortest
path map-based movement model (SPMBM) and route-based models (RBMs);
movements based on human activities including work day movement (WDM) [24]
and event driven and role-based movement [27]. With this approach, the temporal and
spatial granularity could be set as high as simulation needs. Also, the number of nodes
and their behaviors are easily modified for different scenarios and sensitivity analysis.
Nevertheless, finding a good and realistic mobility model is a real challenging and
tough task.

4 Routing Evaluation and Comparison

Routing evaluation is to abstract and calculate the results from routing simulations,
and give specific routing related assessment and analyze in detailed. Due to large
diversities of DTN network features, different DTN routings have their own optimiza-
tions. In this section, we would evaluate and analyze routing protocols mentioned
above according to routing metrics outlined in the following, and finally summarize
currently unsolved issues on DTN routing algorithms.
 A Survey of Routing Protocols and Simulations in Delay-Tolerant Networks 251

4.1 Routing Metrics

According to attributes of performance mentioned in most of all DTN routing simula-

tions, the routing metrics are listed below.

• Delivery rate. It is calculated as the percentage of the successfully delivered mes-

sages among all traffic through network. Maximization delivery rate is one of the
most important goals for DTN routing.
• Delivery latency. It is calculated as the average time for messages in network from
creating at the source to delivering at the destination. Minimizing the delivery la-
tency is another main target for routing in DTN.
• Overhead (e.g., bandwidth, energy and storage). It could be rough estimated as
total number of message transmissions.
• Algorithm complexity. It is analyzed in the view of the complexity of strategies
used in routings, such as community/cluster detection, forward decision, and prior
knowledge and so on.

4.2 Comparison of Routing Protocols

This section initially listed the performance evaluation table comparing typical
routing protocols in DTN according to the routing metrics. For different protocols
possess different application backgrounds and various motilities would extremely
influence the simulation results, we remark and attach the mobility used to protocol
evaluation to be fair enough. The comparison result is as table 1.

Table 1. Comparison of routing performance

Delivery
Protocol Latency Bandwidth Energy Storage Complexity Mobility
Rate
Agent Normal Normal Low Normal Normal Low RW ; RWP
SimBet High Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal MIT
SocialCast Normal Normal Normal High Low High Self-defined
SSAR Normal Normal Normal High Normal High MIT
Epidemic High Normal High High High Low RW
Spray-Wait Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal RW ; RWP
Ref.[9] High Low Normal Normal Normal High RW ; RWP
Ref.[15] Normal Normal Normal Low Normal Normal RWP
NECTAR High Low Normal High Normal High Dartmouth
RAPID High Low High Normal Normal Normal Vehicular trace
PER High Normal High High Low High Dartmouth
Ref.[16] High Normal Normal High Low High RW ; RWP
HYMAD High Normal Normal High Normal High Rollernet

5 Conclusion
The last few years have seen an explosion in DTN routing research. In this paper, we
have surveyed the newly DTN routings and gave a comparison of them with respect
to the important performance metrics. Additionally, we summarized the main mobili-
ty models and simulators.
252 M. Liu, Y. Yang, and Z. Qin

From our survey, we have found though DTN routing has been ameliorated large-
ly, there are still some deficiencies and problems. Such as inadequate definition
towards ACK mechanism needs to improve, tough problems in routing protocol dep-
loyment, application are unsolved, and the settings of main parameters in protocols
need an intensive study. Besides that, researchers recently have found DTN applica-
tion cannot catch up with the development of theory research and only with large
scale routing applications could we find further issues with routings.
Therefore, while devising a DTN routing, we should pay more attention to its dep-
loyment and applications in the future. And the target of research would be increasing
the efficiency of routing while decreasing the difficulties of deployment. Moreover,
besides routing developing study, choosing appropriate parameters for protocols,
quantifying the current DTN application environment features and increasing scale of
simulation are also needed in DTN research. By means of these, we can discover
further problems and promote DTN routing research.

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