BASIC MINE

VENTILATION INTRODUCTION
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© AMC Consultants Pty Ltd 2005
INTRODUCTION
Safe, sustainable underground mining of any scale is not possible without an effective
ventilation system. Ventilation is required in the underground workings to:
􀁸􀁸 Dilute gaseous and particulate pollutants to concentrations which are not injurious to the
health and safety of the workforce
􀁸􀁸 Maintain thermal comfort through the provision of adequate air velocity
􀁸􀁸 Assist with maintaining workforce morale and productivity through the provision of high
quality underground environmental conditions
An efficient and effective mine ventilation system is not achieved by accident. It requires
incorporation of a solid understanding of scientific ventilation principles into the very core
of the
mine planning and management process.
Important lessons can be learnt from history which has emphasised time and time again is
that
the knowledge required to implement effective mine ventilation has often been significantly
more advanced than the practices adopted in the mines at the time. The terrible loss of life
in
the British coal industry in the 19th Century (which did not abate until the belated
introduction of
legislation early in the 20th Century) is a sobering example. More recent examples of the
same
phenomena in Australia include the many cases of mesothelioma contracted by
underground
miners in Wittenoom in the 1950.’s and .‘60.’s as well as the Moura mine disasters of the
1980.’s
and 1990.’s. In all of these examples, the health and safety risks were well known, as were
the
engineering requirements necessary in order to minimise these risks. The costs of
installing and
managing effective ventilation systems must have been minuscule compared with the
subsequent outlays for compensation. One inference which could be drawn from all of this
is
that ignorance and indifference have been (and perhaps still are) important factors.
Brief History of Mine Ventilation
Pre Middle Ages
There is evidence to suggest that the need to establish ventilation circuits
with intake and return airways was understood and practiced by the Greeks.
For example there was twin access development and divided shafts in the
Laurium silver mines of Greece (600 BC). In the Roman times, slaves
waving palm fronds were used to promote air circulation. (Pliney AD 23-79).
More generally, air movement was created by up-draughts of warm air from
fires lit for this purpose underground.
Middle Ages
Industrial Revolution
Mine ventilation practices of the day are illustrated and described in .“De Re
Metallica.”, by Georgius Agricola, 1556. This was amongst the first books
ever printed and remained a standard mining text for the next 200 years. The
book describes horse and human powered centrifugal fans; bellows
connected to wooden conduits, ventilation doors and shaft collar deflectors,
which divert winds into the mine workings. Agricola also described the
dangers of .“blackdamp.” (oxygen reduced air) and the explosible .“firedamp.”
(an air and methane mixture .“likened to the fiery blast of a dragon.’s breath.”).
BASIC MINE VENTILATION OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY
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© AMC Consultants Pty Ltd 2005
Industrial Revolution .– Information Age
This period saw an unprecedented increase in demand for mineral
commodities including coal, metalliferous ores and industrial minerals.
Substantial growth in mining activity, (much of it underground) was required
to satisfy this new demand. Larger scale mining led to increasing numbers of
miners suffering from health problems contributed to by poor ventilation,
including .“black lung.”, mine explosions and fires. Hot working conditions at
depth due to ventilation limitations also restricted the extent of mining
activities. The increasing slaughter of men, women and children in British
coal mines as a result of explosions and fires eventually served as a major
impetus to drive the development of the science of underground ventilation in
the 19th Century. John Atkinson, a British mining agent presented his famous
paper .“On the Theory of the Ventilation of Mines.” in 1854 and Atkinson.’s
Equation still forms the basis for all mine ventilation engineering.
Interestingly, whilst the importance of Atkinson.’s paper and theories were
recognised at the time they were published, they received little interest and
were considered too much for the engineers of the day. It wasn.’t until some
60 years after Atkinson.’s death that his theories were .“rediscovered.”. In the
1920.’s and 1930.’s large axial fans based originally on aeroplane propeller
designs began to become popular. Analogue computer models were used in
the 1950.’s to analyse ventilation networks. The introduction of diesel
equipment underground in the 1960.’s and 1970.’s required substantial
increases in mine ventilation capacity. Many mines of the day embarked on
massive upgrades to ventilation shafts and main surface fans. Great
advances in large fan design were made in the 1960.’s and 1970.’s. At about
the same time, improvements in large scale refrigeration technology began to
allow very deep orebodies to be accessed, particularly in South Africa.
Information Age
The most notable feature has been the development of computerised mine
ventilation network analysis. This has made prediction of fan requirements
and airflow distributions in complex mine ventilation circuits feasible using
desktop computers.
BASIC MINE VENTILATION INTRODUCTION
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© AMC Consultants Pty Ltd 2005
Table Of Contents
1 CONTAMINANTS AND EXPOSURE STANDARDS............................................... 1
1.1 Peak Limitation .........................................................................................................2
1.2 Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL)...........................................................................2
1.3 Time-Weighted Average (TWA)...............................................................................3
1.4 Guidance on General Excursion...............................................................................3
1.5 Adjusting the Eight-hour Exposure Standard for Longer Periods.............................3
2 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY............................................................. 5
2.1 The Respiration System............................................................................................5
2.2 Dust...........................................................................................................................7
2.2.1 The Hazard of Dust ......................................................................................7
2.2.2 Effects of Dust ............................................................................................11
2.2.3 Dust Exposure Standards...........................................................................12
2.2.4 Explosive Dusts ..........................................................................................12
2.3 Heat.........................................................................................................................13
2.3.1 Air Temperature..........................................................................................16
2.3.2 Body Heat Balance.....................................................................................17
2.3.3 Thermoregulation .......................................................................................18
2.3.4 Heat Related Illness ...................................................................................20
2.3.5 Heat Stress Indices ....................................................................................21
2.3.6 Air Cooling Power.......................................................................................24
2.3.7 Management of Hot Working Conditions....................................................26
2.4 Mine Gases.............................................................................................................31
2.4.1 Constituent Gases of the Atmosphere .......................................................31
2.4.2 Carbon Dioxide (CO2).................................................................................31
2.4.3 Oxygen (O2) ................................................................................................32
2.4.4 Carbon Monoxide (CO) ..............................................................................32
2.4.5 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)............................................................................33
2.4.6 Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)................................................................................34
2.4.7 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) ...........................................................................34
2.4.8 Methane (CH4)............................................................................................34
2.4.9 Coal Damps................................................................................................35
2.4.10 Ammonia (NH3)...........................................................................................37
2.4.11 Radon (Rn) and Radon Daughters.............................................................37
2.5 Diesel Engines ........................................................................................................41
2.5.1 Diesel Exhaust Emissions (DEE) ...............................................................41
2.5.2 Diesel Particulates......................................................................................42
2.5.3 Dilution of Diesel Exhaust Emissions (DEE) ..............................................44