QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is a generic term for investigative methodologies described as

ethnographic, naturalistic, anthropological, field, or participant observer research. It
emphasizes the importance of looking at variables in the natural setting in which they are
found. Interaction between variables is important. Detailed data is gathered through open
ended questions that provide direct quotations. The interviewer is an integral part of the
investigation (Jacob, 1988). This differs from quantitative research which attempts to gather
data by objective methods to provide information about relations, comparisons, and
predictions and attempts to remove the investigator from the investigation (Smith, 1983).

Characteristics

Purpose: Understanding - Seeks to understand people’s interpretations.

Reality: Dynamic - Reality changes with changes in people’s perceptions.

Viewpoint: Insider - Reality is what people perceive it to be.

Values: Value bound - Values will have an impact and should be understood and taken into
account when conducting and reporting research.

Focus: Holistic - A total or complete picture is sought.

Orientation: Discovery - Theories and hypotheses are evolved from data as collected.

Data: Subjective - Data are perceptions of the people in the environment.

Instrumentation: Human - The human person is the primary collection instrument.

Conditions: Naturalistic - Investigations are conducted under natural conditions.

Results: Valid - The focus is on design and procedures to gain "real," "rich," and "deep" data.
Advantages

Produces more in-depth, comprehensive information.

Uses subjective information and participant observation to describe the context, or natural
setting, of the variables under consideration, as well as the interactions of the different
variables in the context. It seeks a wide understanding of the entire situation.

Disadvantages

The very subjectivity of the inquiry leads to difficulties in establishing the reliability and
validity of the approaches and information.
It is very difficult to prevent or detect researcher induced bias.
Its scope is limited due to the in-depth, comprehensive data gathering approaches
required.

Holistic Description

When conducting qualitative research, the investigator seeks to gain a total or complete
picture. According to Stainback and Stainback (1988), a holistic description of events,
procedures, and philosophies occurring in natural settings is often needed to make accurate
situational decisions. This differs from quantitative research in which selected, pre-defined
variables are studied.

Corroboration

The purpose of corroboration is not to confirm whether people’s perceptions are accurate or
true reflections of a situation but rather to ensure that the research findings accurately reflect
people’s perceptions, whatever they may be. The purpose of corroboration is to help
researchers increase their understanding of the probability that their findings will be seen as
credible or worthy of consideration by others (Stainback & Stainback, 1988).
Triangulation

One process involved in corroboration is triangulation. Denzin (1978) has identified several
types of triangulation. One type involves the convergence of multiple data sources. Another
type is methodological triangulation, which involves the convergence of data from multiple
data collection sources. A third triangulation procedure is investigator triangulation, in which
multiple researchers are involved in an investigation. Related to investigator triangulation is
researcher-participant corroboration, which has also been referred to as cross-examination.

Other procedures can be used to improve understanding and/or the credibility of a study.
These include research or inquiry audit, peer debriefing, and the seeking of negative cases in
the field that might disconfirm interpretations.

Participant Observation

Systematically seeks out and organizes data concerning what is being studied based on a
social science theory and methodology rather than focusing on achieving a situationally
defined goal.
Keeps detailed records of what occurs, including those things characteristically taken for
granted.
Periodically detaches self from the situation to review records from the neutral position of
a social scientist.
Constantly monitors observations and records for evidence of personal bias or prejudice.

Five Types of Participant Observation

External Participation constitutes the lowest degree of involvement in observation. This

type of observation can be done by observing situations on television or videotape.
Passive Participation means the researcher is present at the scene of action but does not
interact or participate. The researcher finds an observation post and assumes the role of a
bystander or spectator.
Balanced Participation means that the researcher maintains a balance between being an
 insider and being an outsider. The researcher observes and participates in some activities,
but does not participate fully in all activities.
Active Participation means that the researcher generally does what others in the setting
do. While beginning with observation to learn the rules, as they are learned the researcher
becomes actively engaged in the activities of the setting.
Total Participation means the researcher is a natural participant. This is the highest level
of involvement and usually comes about when the researcher studies something in which
he or she is already a natural participant.

Interviewing

The researcher should control his reactions. The purpose of the interview is to find out
what views people hold; their views should be unbiased by evaluative responses on the
researcher’s part.
The researcher should choose an interview environment and conditions in which the
participants feel comfortable, secure, and at ease enough to speak openly about their point
of view.
The researcher should avoid presenting "yes" or "no" questions which tend to stifle detail.
The researcher should be flexible in his or her approach to the informants.
Group interviews can be useful, particularly in initial interviews.
The researcher should consider to what degree the interview questioning is "recursive."
As applied to interviewing, what has been said in an interview is used to determine or
define further questioning.

Case Study

Case studies are detailed investigations of individuals, groups, institutions or other social
units. The researcher conducting a case study attempts to analyze the variables relevant to the
subject under study (Polit and Hungler, 1983). The principle difference between case studies
and other research studies is that the focus of attention is the individual case and not the
whole population of cases. Most studies search for what is common and pervasive. However,
in the case study, the focus may not be on generalization but on understanding the particulars
of that case in its complexity. A case study focuses on a bounded system, usually under
natural conditions, so that the system can be understood in its own habitat (Stake, 1988).

Maintaining The Validity Of Qualitative Research

Be a listener. The subject(s) of qualitative research should provide the majority of the
research input. It is the researcher’s task to properly interpret the responses of the
subject(s).
Record accurately. All records should be maintained in the form of detailed notes or
electronic recordings. These records should also be developed during rather than after the
data gathering session.
Initiate writing early. It is suggested that the researcher make a rough draft of the study
before ever going into the field to collect data. This allows a record to be made when
needed. The researcher is more prepared now to focus the data gathering phase on that
information that will meet the specific identified needs of the project.
Include the primary data in the final report. The inclusion of primary data in the final
report allows the reader to see exactly the basis upon which the researcher’s conclusions
were made. In short, it is better to include too much detail than too little.
Include all data in the final report. The researcher should not leave out pieces of
information from the final report because she/he cannot interpret that data. In these cases,
the reader should be allowed to develop his/her conclusions.
Be candid. The researcher should not spend too much time attempting to keep her/his
own feelings and personal reactions out of the study. If there is relevance in the
researcher’s feelings to the matter at hand, these feelings should be revealed.
Seek feedback. The researcher should allow others to critique the research manuscript
following the developmental process. Professional colleagues and research subjects
should be included in this process to ensure that information is reported accurately and
completely.
Attempt to achieve balance. The researcher should attempt to achieve a balance between
perceived importance and actual importance. Often, the information reveals a difference
 in anticipated and real areas of study significance.
Write accurately. Incorrect grammar, misspelled words, statement inconsistency, etc.
jeopardize the validity of an otherwise good study.

Wolcott, H.R. (1990). Qualitative inquiry in education: The continuing debate.

Types of Qualitative research

Phenomenological Study

Aims to find the essence or structure of an experience by explaining how complex meanings
are built out of simple units of inner experience, for example, the essence of being a
participant in a particular program or the essence of understanding a subject. The method
involves temporarily putting aside or “bracketing” personal attitudes and beliefs regarding the
phenomenon, thereby heightening consciousness and allowing the researcher to intuit or see
the phenomenon from the perspective of those who have experienced it. All collected data is
laid out and treated as equal, clustered into themes, examined from multiple perspectives, and
descriptions of the phenomena (how and what) are constructed.

Example: Eight clinical psychology practicum-level trainees were interviewed to obtain

experience of good supervision. Meaning units were identified from these and a meaning
structure was identified and refined into the essence or essential elements of good supervisory
experiences shared by a majority in this context.
Worthen, V. E. & McNeill, B. W. (1996). A phenomenological investigation of good
supervision events. Journal of Counseling Pscyhology, 43, 25-34.

Grounded Theory Study

Derives from collected data a theory that is “grounded” in the data, but therefore localized,
dealing with a specific situation like how students handle multiple responsibilities or what
constitutes an effective lesson plan. The method involves comparing collected units of data
against one another until categories, properties, and hypotheses that state relations between
these categories and properties emerge. These hypotheses are tentative and suggestive, not
tested in the study.
Example: Ten school counselors were given structured interviews to help determine how
their professional identity is formed. This data was coded first to form concepts and then to
form connections between concepts. A core concept emerged and its process and implications
were discussed. School counselors’ professional interactions were identified as defining
experiences in their identity formation.
Brott, P. E. & Myers, J. E. (1999). Development of professional school counselor identity: A
grounded theory. Professional School Counseling, 2, 339-348.

Example: Student perceptions of the residential environment educational program from a

conservation school were collected from 2779 students at 31 schools. A grounded theory
approach was used to discover which areas were most interesting, most confusing, and most
meaningful.
Smith-Sebasto, N. J. & Walker, L. M. (2005). Toward a grounded theory for residential
environmental education: A case study of the New Jersey School for Conservation. Journal of
Environmental Education 37(1), 37-42.

Case Studies

A descriptive intensive analysis of an individual, unit, or phenomena selected for its

typicality or uniqueness. Different methods could be used to conduct this analysis (like
ethnography) but the focus is on the unit of analysis, like an individual student’s experiences.

Example: The faculty of a small Southern Historically Black College was examined in order
to examine concerns of a digital divide between predominantly White colleges and
Historically Black Colleges and Universities. The study reports on technology familiarity and
use scores of these faculties and what was done by college administrators in the three years
following the collection of these scores. Recommendations on how to close this divide are
shared.
Snipes, V. T, Ellis, W. & Joy, T. (2006). Are HBTU’s up to speed to speed technologically:
A case study. Journal of Black Studies 36(3), 382-295.

Ethnographic Study

Traditional in anthropology for studying human society and culture. It is less a method of
data collection and more the use of a socio-cultural lens through which the data are
interpreted. Extensive fieldwork is usually required in order to give a cultural interpretation
of the data and immersion in the culture is common, but a description of the culture (the
beliefs, traditions, practices, and behaviors of a group of individuals) and an interpretation of
the culture through the point of view of an insider to that culture are necessary components of
ethnographies.

Example: Native American students training to be teachers were followed through

interviews over a five year period to chart the progress towards a goal of facilitating the
development of Native American teachers and to better understand and address their unique
problems. Their beliefs, views about self, and concerns were presented.
Whitfield, P. T. & Klug, B. J. (2000). From aspirant to professional: The transformation of
American Indians who would be teachers. Results of a five-year ethnographic study. Paper
presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. New
Orleans, LA, April 24-28.