Environmental Hazards

• Biological, Chemical, Nuclear

• Risk and evaluation of hazards
• Types of pollution: Air, Water and Land Pollution
• Pollution sources, effects and mitigation
• Water quality management
• Solid waste management
• Climate disruption and
• Ozone depletion.
Air Pollution
99.9% of air lies
below stratopause

Density of air is high

in Troposphere
 Air
• Air is the clear gaseous environment in which living organisms
live and breathe. It has an indefinite shape and volume. It has
no colour and smell. The weight of air creates atmospheric
pressure.
• Animals live by aerobic respiration and need to breathe the
oxygen in the air. In human body, lungs put oxygen into the
blood and send back carbon dioxide to the air.
• Density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m3 (calculated from
the temperature, pressure and humidity)
• According to the American National Centre for Atmospheric
Research, the total mean mass of atmosphere is 5.148 × 1018
kg
Composition of Dry Air
 Air Pollution
• Air pollutant is a substance (chemicals, particulate matter or
microorganism) in the air at concentrations high enough to
harm plants, animals, and materials such as buildings, or to alter
ecosystem. It includes solid particles, liquid droplets or gases.
• Even a small change in the air compositions can have a
significant adverse effect on the climate, ecosystem and living
organisms on the earth.
• Almost any chemical in the atmosphere can become a pollutant
if it occurs in a high enough concentration
• Air pollutants are found throughout the entire global system as
the atmosphere envelops the entire globe.
• Air pollution can occur naturally, from sources like volcanoes
and fires, or anthropogenic, from sources such as automobiles
and factories.
• Two types (or categories) of air pollutants
• Primary pollutants – Those emitted directly into the air from
the identifiable sources
• Secondary pollutants – Those that form as a result of a
chemical reaction between primary pollutants or of primary
pollutant with a natural component of the environment
Human inputs of air pollutants come from mobile sources (such as
cars) and stationary sources (such as industries).
Some primary air pollutants react with one another and with
other chemicals in the air to form secondary air pollutants
 Particulate matter can be natural or anthropogenic.
It ranges considerably in size and can absorb or scatter light.
Mount Saint Helens eruption
Washington, USA on 18th May
1980
 Indoor Air Pollution
• The biggest pollution threat to poor people is indoor air pollution,
caused by burning of wood, charcoal or dung in open fires or
poorly designed stoves to heat and cook their food.
• Cigarette smoking is another air pollution.
• Often people work in poorly ventilated and highly polluted areas
• Common sources for Indoor air pollutants includes, pests, air
fresheners, cooking, smoking, housekeeping, bathrooms, and pets.
Indoor Air Pollutants
 Air Pollutants
• The natural sources of air pollutants include dust particles,
forest fires, volcanic eruptions and sea spray.
• Pollutants from human activity such as burning oil, coal and
natural gas are the ones that cause more harm into the
troposphere.
• Major air pollutants include Oxides of sulphur, Oxides of
Nitrogen, Oxides of carbon, Ozone, Chlorofluoro carbons,
Hydrocarbons, Hydrogen fluoride, Hydrogen sulphide,
Particulate Materials like dust, smoke, fog, smog, Fly ash,
soot, fumes, natural particulates like pollens.
 Effect of Air Pollution
Human Health:

• Irritation of respiratory tract, eyes, nose, throat

• Cadmium particles cause cardio vascular diseases, kidney and
liver damage
• Nickel particles cause respiratory damage
• Mercury affects central nervous system, kidney and brain
• Radioactive substance affect future generations
• On Animals: Bronchitis, Lack of appetite in pet animals
• On Plants: Spraying pesticides, organic manure affect growth of
plants
• Destroy chlorophyll formation, disturb photosynthesis
• SO2 decreases chlorophyll content
• NO2 causes permanent leaf fall
• Ozone causes damages to the leaves (dead area on leaf)
• On Materials: Corrosion and abrasion of materials (Acid rain)
• On Climate: Global warming and Depletion of Ozone layer
 Major Air Pollutants

• Major Anthropogenic outdoor air pollutants include

• Carbon dioxide: One of the greenhouse gas pollutant. CO2 is a
natural component of the atmosphere, essential for plant life
and given off by the human respiratory system.
• Carbon Monoxide: A gas that comes from the burning of fossil
fuels, mostly in cars. Emissions are higher when engines are not
tuned properly, and when fuel is not completely burned.
• Carbon monoxide bonds to haemoglobin thereby interfering
with oxygen transport in the bloodstream.
• Causes headaches in humans at low concentrations and can
cause death with prolonged exposure at high concentration
 Major Air Pollutants

• Sulphur dioxide: Combustion of fuels that contain sulphur,

including coal, oil and gasoline is the source
It is respiratory irritant, It can aggravate asthma and other
respiratory ailments. Contributes to Acid rain
• Nitrogen oxides: All combustion in the atmosphere including
fossil fuel combustion, wood and other biomass burning is the
source
It is respiratory irritant. Increases the susceptibility to
respiratory infection. Precursor for ozone. Leads to the
formation of photochemical smog. Converts to nitric acid in
atmosphere that is harmful to aquatic life and vegetation
 Major Air Pollutants
• Particulate Matter: Combustion of coal, oil, diesel and biofuels.
Agriculture, road construction and other activities that mobilize
soil, soot and dust are the sources
Can aggravate the respiratory and cardiovascular disease and
reduce lung function. May lead to the premature death
• Lead: It is the Gasoline additive.
Impairs central nervous system. At low concentrations, can have
measurable effects on learning and ability to concentrate.
• Ozone: Secondary pollutant formed by the combination of
sunlight, water, oxygen, volatile organic compounds and NOx.
Reduces lung function and aggravates respiratory symptoms
 Control of Air Pollution
• Planting more trees
• Reducing vehicle exhausts by using modern automobiles
• Using less polluting fuels
• Removal of particulate matter using electrostatic precipitator,
cyclone filter etc.
• Suitable chemical methods applied to remove hydrocarbons
• Industrial area should be cited far away from residential area
• Use of tall chimneys reduces concentration of air pollutants at
ground level
• Activated carbon, charcoal, zeolite and pulverized lime stone can
be used to remove polluting gases by absorption method
 Control of Sulphur and Nitrogen Oxide Pollutants
• Sulphur dioxide can be removed from coal exhaust during
combustion by fluidized bed combustion
• The granulated coal is burned in close proximity to calcium carbonate
• The heated calcium carbonate absorbs SO2 and produces calcium
sulphate
• Nitrogen oxides are produced in all combustion processes
• Hotter burning conditions and the presence of oxygen allow more
nitrogen oxide to be generated per unit fuel burned.
• In order to reduce nitrogen oxide emission, burn temperatures must
be reduced and the amount of oxygen must be controlled
• Optimum temperature, air and oxygen are necessary for efficient
process and to minimize carbon monoxide production
Electrostatic Precipitator
 Electrostatic Precipitator (to filter Particulate Matter)

Particles of dirty air are given a negative charge. This cause them to
be attracted to a positively charged plate, where they are held.
Periodically, they are removed from the plate and disposed
Baghouse filter (to filter Particulate Matter)
Scrubber filter (to filter Particulate Matter)
Water Pollution
 Water
• Water (H2O) is a transparent , colourless, odourless and tasteless
chemical that is the main constituent of earth’s streams, lakes
and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms.
• Water covers 71% of earth’s surface.
• Water is vital for all known forms of life
• Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other living
organisms even though it provides no calories or organic
nutrients.
• Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of chemical
substances. It is widely used for drinking, cooking, bathing,
washing, agricultural purposes, industrial processes etc.
 Water Pollution
• Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (streams,
lakes, rivers, oceans and groundwater) with substances
produced through human activities and that negatively affect
living organisms.
• Any change or modification in the physical, chemical and
biological properties of water that will make it unsuitable for
designated use in its natural state is water pollution
 Sources of Water Pollution
• Water pollution sources are classified into two categories
• Point source: The specific sites near water, which directly
discharge effluents into them, like Industries, power plants,
underground coal mines, offshore oil wells. The pollution comes
from a single location
• Non-point source: The discharge from non-point source is not
at any particular site, rather these sources are scattered, which
individually or collectively pollute water. Surface run-off from
agricultural fields, overflowing drains, rain water sweeping
roads and fields, atmospheric deposition. Water pollution
occurs not from one single source but from many different
scattered sources
Point and Non-Point Sources of Water Pollution
Major Sources of Water Pollution

• Agricultural activities
• Industrial facilities
• Housing/domestic activities
• Surface water pollution
• Groundwater pollution
• Marine pollution
 Groundwater Pollution
• A greater threat to humans than more visible surface water
pollution. Extremely difficult to clean the contaminated
groundwater. So, prevention is the more effective way.
• The sources of groundwater pollution include pesticides,
herbicides, chemical fertilizers and petroleum products on the
land surface that can percolate down into the earth and become
part of the groundwater system
• Leaking from underground storage tanks (of petroleum products)
are also another major source
• Septic tanks that leak or overflow, Unlined landfills that allows
precipitation to seep through, carrying pollutants with it into the
ground, Industrial wastewater lagoons that are not maintained.
Groundwater Pollution
Surface Water Pollution
Thermal Pollution
 Major Water Pollutants
• Pathogens: Disease causing virus, bacteria and other parasitic
organisms. Waste water, especially the domestic sewage
contain many pathogenic organisms. Water borne disease like
cholera, typhoid, jaundice etc., are spread by water
contaminated with sewage
• Oxygen-demanding wastes: Deplete the dissolved oxygen need
by aquatic species. The sewage, animal feedlots, food
processing facilities, paper mills are the sources
• Plant Nutrients: Different nitrates and phosphates originated
from sewage water, animal wastes and inorganic fertilizers
causes excessive growth of algae and other species.
 Major Water Pollutants

• Organic (and Inorganic) chemicals: Chemicals such as oil,

gasoline, plastics, pesticides, fertilizers and cleaning solvents (and
Acids, bases, salts, metallic compounds like lead arsenic and
selenium) produced by industries, farms, households, mining
sites add toxins to aquatic systems.
• Sediments: Excessive amounts of suspended soil particles like
sand, silt and clay originated from erosion of agricultural lands,
forests soils exposed by water logging, degraded stream banks
eventually settle out and accumulate in the bottom of the water
body.
• Thermal: Release of hot water from electric power and industrial
plants make some species like fishes vulnerable to diseases
 Marine Pollution
• Oil Spillages: Much quantity of oil is released from the smaller
day-to-day and less visible activities on land. These include
normal operation of offshore wells, washing oil tankers, loading
and unloading of oil tankers at ports, leaks from oil pipelines,
refineries and storage tanks.
• 80% of marine pollution comes from land.
• Air pollution is also contributing factor by carrying off pesticides
or dirt into the ocean.
• Direct discharges of urban sewage and industrial waste , Land
runoff and dumping of garbage into the water bodies are some
more examples
Oil Spill
 Effects of Water Pollution
• Eutrophication: Household waste containing excess nitrogen and
phosphorus which encourage the growth of algae on river
surfaces. The algae covered water surface will not allow sunlight
to penetrate and reach the aquatic plants beneath the water
surface, causing them to die as photosynthesis cannot occur. As
a result, aquatic and marine animals that depend on these
plants for food will be affected.
• Bioaccumulation: Increase in concentration of a pollutant from
the environment to the first organism in a food chain
• Biological magnification: The concentration of pollutants
increases at increase levels in the food chain
Severe eutrophication has covered this lake near the Chinese
city of Haozhou with algae
Biological magnification: The concentration of pollutants increases
at increase levels in the food chain
Soil Pollution
 Soil Pollution
• Soil is a thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that covers
the earth’s rocky surface. Soil is composed of particles of
broken rock that have been altered by chemical and mechanical
process including weathering and erosion.
• Soil pollution is the change in physical, chemical and biological
conditions of the soil through human’s intervention resulting in
degradation in quality
• Soil pollution is the build-up in soils of persistent toxic
compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive material, or disease
causing agents, which have adverse effect on plant growth and
animal health.
 Causes of Soil Pollution

• Discharge of industrial wastes into soil

• Percolation of contaminated water into the soil
• Rupture of underground storage tanks
• Excess application of pesticides or fertilizers
• Solid waste and landfill seepage
• Deforestation and soil erosion
 Causes of Soil Pollution

• Industrial Waste: Discharge of large quantities of toxic,

flammable, non-biodegradable substances on land results in
soil pollution
• Agricultural Waste: Wastes chemical fertilizers, pesticides,
herbicides
• Domestic and Urban Waste: It includes wastes such as food
wastes, paper, glass, plastic materials, waste water.
• Radioactive Wastes: Nuclear power plants, Nuclear testing and
explosions add variable amount of radioactive materials
Most common chemicals in Soil Pollutants

• Hydrocarbons
• Heavy metals
• Pesticides
• Solvents
 Agricultural Soil Pollution
• Plants on which we depend for food are under attack from
insects, fungi, bacteria, viruses and other species and must
compete with weeds for nutrients.
• To kill unwanted population living in or on their crops, farmers
use pesticides and herbicides.

• The remnants of such

pesticides used on pests
may get absorbed by the
soil particles and
contaminate root crops
grown in that soil
Solid Waste!
 Industrial Soil Pollution
• Large quantity of solid wastes like unused and rejected chemicals
(including sludge, press mud, saw dust, bottles, plastic materials,
drugs) unwanted industrial wastes generated during
manufacturing processes are dumped over on the surface of soil
by almost all industries with different degree.
 Domestic and Urban Soil Pollution
• Urban activities generate large quantities of city wastes
including several biodegradable materials like vegetables, animal
wastes, papers, wooded materials etc., and many non-
biodegradable materials like plastic bags, plastic bottles, glass
bottles etc.
 Effect of Soil Pollution

• Reduction of soil fertility, nitrogen fixation, larger loss of soil and

imbalanced nutrients, reduced crop yield
• Dangerous chemical entering groundwater, release of pollutant
gases, increased salinity and reduced vegetation
• Clogging of drains, pollution of drinking water resources, foul
smell
• Pollution runoff into rivers affects the aquatic life
• Corrosion of foundation and pipelines
 Methods to minimize

• Reducing chemical fertilizer and

pesticide use
• Recycling is another way to reduce and
control soil pollution. Recycling paper,
plastics and other materials reduce the
volume of refuse in landfills.
• Reusing of materials
Ozone depletion
 Ozone
• Ozone is a form of oxygen, made up of 3 oxygen atoms (O3).
• Ozone is human made pollutant in troposphere
• Similar to some of the other pollutants in the troposphere, ozone
also can harm respiratory systems in animals and damage a
number of structures in plants.

• Stratospheric ozone
acts as a protective
shield against
radiation from the
sun
 Benefits of Stratospheric Ozone
• Ozone blocks Ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
• There are different forms of UV energy. The shorter the
wavelength, the more energetic the radiation and hence the
more damaging it can be if it reaches the earth
• UV-A , UV-B and UV-C Radiations
 Benefits of Stratospheric Ozone

• UV-A passes through the atmosphere without being absorbed

and contributes to skin cancer
• UV-B and UV-C have enough energy to cause potentially
significant damage to the tissues and DNA of living organisms.
• However, the protective layer
of ozone in the stratosphere
absorbs more than 95% of
incoming UV-B and UV-C,
allowing life to exist on land
 Formation and Breakdown of Stratospheric Ozone
• Stratospheric ozone forms and
breaks down naturally in a
closed-loop cycle
• UV-C radiation breaks the
bond, that holds the oxygen
molecule together, leaving
two free oxygen atoms
• The free oxygen atoms react
with oxygen molecule to form
ozone
• Ozone is broken down into oxygen molecule when it absorbs both
UV-C and UV-B light. This free oxygen again may react with O2 to
form ozone. Thus ozone is formed and broken down in a cycle.
 Anthropogenic Contribution to Ozone Destruction
• Certain chemical catalysts can break down ozone, the most
important one is chlorine.
• Major source of chlorine in stratosphere is a class of anthropogenic
compounds known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
• CFCs are the family of organic compounds whose properties make
them ideal for use in refrigeration and air conditioning, as
propellant in aerosol cans to deliver ingredients such as
deodorant and insect repellent, and as blowing agents to inject air
into foam products like Styrofoam cups and foam insulation.
• CFCs does not degrade, dissolve in water or undergo any significant
chemical change, but slowly circulates in the atmosphere.
• However, in presence of UV radiation in stratosphere, the chlorine
bond in CFC breaks
 Chemistry of Ozone Depletion

• UV radiation hits CFC

molecule and chlorine
atom breaks away.
• Chlorine atom hits the
ozone molecule and takes
one oxygen atom to
create chlorine
monoxide, leaves one
molecule of oxygen.

• Oxygen atom hits chlorine monoxide molecule and forms oxygen

molecule and chlorine atom and this chlorine atom repeats the
depletion process.
 Depletion of Ozone Layer
• The stratospheric ozone in Antarctica had been decreasing
each year, from 1979.
• It had also been observed that, in the Antarctica, ozone
depletion was seasonal: each year depletion occurred from
August through November.
• The depletion caused an area of severely reduced ozone
concentrations over most of Antarctica, called as “Ozone hole”
• Decreased stratospheric ozone has increased the amount of
UV-B radiation that reaches the earth’s surface
Ozone “Hole” over Antarctica

• Ozone “hole” is not a hole at all.

• Ozone is spread thinly

throughout stratosphere
in low quantities.

• Ozone “hole” actually means

the region where the ozone is
much diluted.
 Total Ozone from July to December

July August September

October November December

 Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSC)
• During Antarctic winter, strong circular winds form that blow around
the whole continent (Polar vortex), and special clouds form which
concentrates the pollutants that break down the ozone
 Health Consequences of Ozone Depletion
• Skin cancers, Sunburn, eye disorders, cataracts
• Premature aging of the skin
• Immune system damage
• DNA mutation of existing disease bacteria and virus
• Phytoplanktons are sensitive to ozone depletion. Ozone
depletion will result in decrease in their population thereby
affecting the population of zooplankton, fish, marine animals.
• Yield of vital crops like corn, rice, soybean, wheat will decrease.
• Degradation of paints, plastics and other polymer materials
will result in economic loss due to the effects of ozone
depletion.
An International agreement designed to protect the ozone layer by
phasing out the production of numerous substances that are
responsible for ozone
 Ozone layer depletion
• Montreal Protocol
• Perhaps the single most successful international agreement to
date has been the Montreal Protocol – Kofi Annan
• Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
• Hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC)
• Hydrofluorocarbon (HFC)

• Hydrofluorocarbon (HFC): A
greenhouse gas; way more than
CO2
• Hydrofluoroolefin (HFO) has a
very low global warming potential
(GWP)
• To get back the ozone
concentration as it was in 1980,
15th Dec, 2018; by NASA will take up to end of this century
Global Warming
 Global Climate Change

• Weather and Climate are not the same.

• Weather consists of short-term changes in atmospheric
variables such as temperature, precipitation, wind and pressure
in a given area over a period of hours or days.
• Climate is determined by the average weather conditions of the
earth or of a particular area especially temperature and
precipitation, over a long period of time ranging from decades
and centuries to thousands of years.
• World Meteorological Organization, considers minimum 3
decades to measure and understand the climate
 Global Climate Change
• There is a growing controversy over atmospheric warming and its
projected effect on the earth’s climate, largely because not
everyone understands the difference between weather and
climate.
• During any period of 30 or more years, in a given area of planet,
there will often be hot years, cooler years, wet years and drier
years, as weather fluctuates from day too day and year to year.
• For example, A large volcanic eruption can lead to warmer or
cooler average global weather for 1 to 3 years.
• Before we make any meaningful statements about climate
change, we need to see at least for 30 years or ideally 60 or
more.
Temperature change & Average temperature
 Climate Change is Not New
• Climate change is not unusual, but very complex.
• Various factors, such as sun’s output of energy, impacts by
meteorites, even the slight change in the earth’s orbit around
the sun, alters the earth’s climate.
• Earth’s climate is also affected by global air circulation patterns,
global ice cover that reflects incoming solar energy that keeps
atmosphere cool, varying concentrations of different gases that
make up the atmosphere.
• Average temperature and precipitation are the two main factors
affect global, regional and local climates, but temperature is the
key variable the climate scientists watch.
 Solar Radiation & Greenhouse Gases
make our Planet Warm
• The Physical and Biogeochemical systems that regulate
temperature at the surface of earth (such as concentration of
gases, distribution of clouds, atmospheric currents and ocean
currents) are essential to life on planet
• The solar radiation emitted by sun will be absorbed by the earth
and becomes warm. Then the earth emits the radiation back
toward the atmosphere.
• The radiation emitted by sun and by earth are different
• Sun emits high energy, mostly ultraviolet and visible radiation.
• Earth emits the energy as infrared radiation, which we can feel it
being emitted from warm surfaces.
 Greenhouse Effect

• Differences in the types of radiation emitted by the sun and earth,

in combination with the greenhouse effect causes the plant to
warm
• The greenhouse effect gets its name from the gardener’s
greenhouse
• Actual greenhouses warmed by the sun involves glass windows
holding in heat, whereas the processes by which earth is warmed
involves greenhouse gases radiating infrared energy back to earth
 Gardener’s
Greenhouse
Made up of Glass
windows

Earth’s
Greenhouse
Made up of
Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse Effect
 Greenhouse Gases
• Certain gases in the atmosphere can absorb infrared radiation
emitted by the surface of earth and radiate much of it back
toward the earth’s surface. These gases are known as
Greenhouse gases.
• The most common gases in the atmosphere, N2 and O2 (99% of
atmosphere) do not absorb IR radiation and are not greenhouse
gases.
• Water vapour in the atmosphere absorbs more IR radiation
than any other gas, but it do not persist as long as other
greenhouse gases.
• Other important greenhouse gases are Carbon dioxide (CO2),
Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O) and Ozone (O3).
 Greenhouse Gases
• All these gases are part of atmosphere for millions of years and
contributing in maintaining earth warm.
• CFCs are anthropogenic greenhouse gases.
• In absence of greenhouse gases, earth’s average temperature would
be -18oC, instead of current average temperature 14oC.
• The contribution of each gas to global warming depends on its
global warming potential.
• The global warming potential estimates how much a molecule of
any compound can contribute to global warming over a period of
100 years relative to a molecule of CO2.
• Global warming potential is estimated from the amount of infrared
energy absorption and how long a molecule of the gas can persist
in the atmosphere.
Global Warming Potential
 Sources of Greenhouse Gases
• Natural sources of greenhouse gases include volcanic eruptions,
decomposition, digestion, denitrification, evaporation and
evapotranspiration.
• Volcanic eruptions can add a significant amount of carbon dioxide.
Other gases and large quantity of ash are also play a significant role
in short-term climatic change. Large quantity of ash particles
reflect the incoming solar radiation and thereby cools the earth’s
surface.
• Methane is liberated during decomposition of dead organic matter
in absence of oxygen.
• Nitrification involves the conversion of nitrates into nitrous oxide, in
the low-oxygen environments of wet soils and bottom of wet-lands.
• Water vapour is produced when liquid water from land and water
bodies evaporates and by evapotraspiration process of plants.
 Sources of Greenhouse Gases
• Anthropogenic sources of greenhouse gases are burning of fossil
fuels, agriculture, deforestation, landfills and industrial production
of chemicals.
 Impact of Global Warming

• Rising Temperature
• Melting of poles
• Increased sea level
• Changes in water supply
• Damage to habitats
• Loss of biodiversity
• Floods and Droughts
 Kyoto Protocol

• International agreement adopted in Kyoto, Japan on 11th

December 1997, lined to the United Nations framework
convention that aims at reduction of greenhouse gases, to cut
the emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
hydrofluorocarbons, sulphur hexafluoride.
BP Disaster: Gulf of Mexico
 Rapa Nui

it is a striking example of the dependence of human societies on their

environment and of the consequences of irreversibly damaging that
environment.
Pacific Trash Vortex
Pacific Trash Vortex
Aral Sea: A Man-made Disaster
Aral Sea: A Man-Made Disaster
The Great Barrier Reef
The Great Barrier Reef
Chernobyl Disaster
Chernobyl Disaster