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1 FOCUS
Objectives
4.2.1 Explain how biotic and abiotic
I f you ask an ecologist where a particular organism lives, that
person might say the organism lives on a Caribbean coral
reef, or in an Amazon rain forest, or in a desert in the American
factors influence an ecosystem. Key Concepts
• How do biotic and abiotic Southwest. Those answers provide a kind of ecological address
4.2.2 Identify the interactions that not unlike a street address in a city or town. An ecological
factors influence an
occur within communities. ecosystem? address, however, tells you more than where an organism lives.
4.2.3 Describe how ecosystems • What interactions occur within It tells you about the climate the organism experiences and
recover from a disturbance. communities? what neighbors it is likely to have. But what shapes the ecosys-
• What is ecological succession?
tem in which an organism lives?
Vocabulary
biotic factor
abiotic factor Biotic and Abiotic Factors
Vocabulary Preview habitat Ecosystems are influenced by a combination of biological and
The text provides pronunciations niche
resource physical factors. The biological influences on organisms within
for most of the new Vocabulary terms competitive exclusion principle an ecosystem are called biotic factors. These include the
in this section. Encourage students predation entire living cast of characters with which an organism might
to use a dictionary to look up the symbiosis interact, including birds, trees, mushrooms, and bacteria—in
phonetic spellings of the words for mutualism other words, the ecological community. Biotic factors that influ-
commensalism
which pronunciations are not given, ence a bullfrog, for example, might include the tiny plants and
parasitism
convert those spellings to the system ecological succession algae it eats as a tadpole, the herons that eat the adult frog, and
used in this text, and include the primary succession other species that compete with the bullfrog for food or space.
phonetic spellings when they list the pioneer species Physical, or nonliving, factors that shape ecosystems are
secondary succession called abiotic (ay-by-AHT-ik) factors. For example, the climate
highlighted, boldface terms.
Reading Strategy: of an area includes abiotic factors such as temperature, precipi-
Building Vocabulary Before tation, and humidity. Other abiotic factors are wind, nutrient
Reading Strategy you read, preview new vocabu- availability, soil type, and sunlight. For example, the bullfrog in
Students often confuse the terms sym- lary terms by skimming the Figure 4–4 is affected by abiotic factors such as the availability of
section and making a list of the water and the temperature of the air. Together, biotic and
biosis, mutualism, and commensalism.
highlighted, boldface terms.
To help them understand and remem- abiotic factors determine the survival and growth of an
Leave space to make notes as
ber the distinctions, have them look you read. organism and the productivity of the ecosystem in which
up the derivations of the words in a the organism lives. The area where an organism lives is called
dictionary and note the derivations its habitat. A habitat includes both biotic and abiotic factors.
when they list the highlighted, bold- Give an example of an abiotic factor.
face terms.
2 INSTRUCT
Biotic and
왗 Figure 4–4 Like all
Abiotic Factors ecosystems, this pond is shaped
by a combination of biotic and
Build Science Skills abiotic factors. The bullfrog,
Applying Concepts Point out to plants, and other organisms in the
pond are biotic factors. The water,
students that in any ecosystem, the air, and the rock on which the
removing biotic elements can dra- bullfrog sits are abiotic factors.
matically affect the ecosystem’s
abiotic conditions. For example, the
trees in a forest hold topsoil with
their roots, shade the soil, contribute SECTION RESOURCES
organic matter to the soil in the form
of dead leaves, and return water to Print: Technology:
the atmosphere through evaporation
• Laboratory Manual A, Chapter 4 Lab • iText, Section 4–2
and transpiration. Removing trees
• Laboratory Manual B, Chapter 4 Lab • Transparencies Plus, Section 4–2
from the forest ecosystem reduces Save4–2,
• Teaching Resources, Section Review
these benefits. Ask students to sug- e
r
Tim
90 Chapter 4
Objective Students will be able to
describe how abiotic factors affect
growth in different species of
How do abiotic factors affect
plants.
different plant species?
Skill Focus Drawing Conclusions
Materials rye and rice seeds, sand,
Materials presoaked rye and rice seeds, sand,
potting soil, 4 paper cups potting soil, 4 paper cups
Time 15 minutes for setup; brief
Procedure observation and recording each day
1. Use a pencil to punch three holes in the bottom of Analyze and Conclude for 2 weeks
each cup. Fill 2 cups with equal amounts of sand 1. Analyzing Data In which medium did the rice Advance Prep Soak the rice and
and 2 cups with the same amount of potting soil. grow best—sand or soil? Which was the better rye seeds in water overnight.
2. Plant 5 rice seeds in one sand-filled cup and 5 rice medium for the growth of rye?
2. Inferring Soil retains more water than sand,
Strategies
seeds in one soil-filled cup. Plant 5 rye seeds in
each of the other 2 cups. Label each cup with the providing a moister environment. What can you • Have students place the cups in
type of seeds and soil it contains. infer from your observations about the kind of trays or other shallow containers
3. Place all the cups in a warm, sunny location. Each environment that favors the growth of rice? The to hold any water, sand, and soil
day for 2 weeks, water the cups equally and record growth of rye? that may leak from the holes.
your observations of any plant growth. CAUTION: 3. Drawing Conclusions Which would compete • Emphasize that except for the type
Wash your hands well with soap and warm water more successfully in a dry environment—rye or
of soil and type of seeds in each
after handling plants or soil. rice? In a moist environment?
cup, all variables must be kept the
same for all four cups.
Alternative Materials If rye is
The Niche not available, you may use wheat
seeds instead.
If an organism’s habitat is its address, its niche is its occupa-
tion. A niche (NITCH) is the full range of physical and biologi- Expected Outcome Rice seeds will
cal conditions in which an organism lives and the way in which not grow well in the sand-filled cup
the organism uses those conditions. For instance, part of the because the water drains out and
description of an organism’s niche includes its place in the food leaves the sand too dry. Rye seeds
web. Another part of the description might include the range of should grow well in soil or sand.
temperatures that the organism needs to survive. The combina- Analyze and Conclude
tion of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem often deter- 1. Both types of seeds will be more
mines the number of different niches in that ecosystem. successful in soil. However, the effect
A niche includes the type of food the organism eats, how it on rice will be more pronounced.
obtains this food, and which other species use the organism as
2. Rice requires a moister environ-
food. For example, a mature bullfrog catches insects, worms,
spiders, small fish, or even mice. Predators such as herons,
ment than rye does. Rye can
raccoons, and snakes prey on bullfrogs. tolerate dry conditions better than
The physical conditions that the bullfrog requires to survive rice can but also benefits from an
are part of its niche. Bullfrogs spend their lives in or near the ample supply of water.
water of ponds, lakes, and slow-moving streams. A bullfrog’s 3. Rye will be more successful than
body temperature varies with that of the surrounding water and rice in dry conditions. Rice will be
air. As winter approaches, bullfrogs burrow into the mud of pond more successful than rye in moist
or stream bottoms to hibernate. conditions.
The bullfrog’s niche also includes when and how it repro-
duces. Female bullfrogs lay their eggs in water during the
warmer months of the year. The young frogs, called tadpoles,
live in the water until their legs and lungs develop.
The Niche
Address Misconceptions
Students sometimes misunderstand
what a niche is, believing it to be a
part of an ecosystem. Use simple
analogies to clarify the meaning of
Less Proficient Readers Advanced Learners the term. For example, each player
Some students learn best when material is Encourage students who need an extra chal- on a baseball team has a specific
organized. Help these students better under- lenge to research the various types of defenses niche—a different role to play.
stand succession in a marine ecosystem by that have evolved in prey species as protection
having them create a flowchart of the process against predators. Such defenses include cam-
discussed on pages 96 and 97. You could have ouflage, mechanical defenses such as quills and
students work in small groups to make these thorns, chemical defenses such as toxins, warn-
Answer to . . .
graphic organizers. When groups finish, display ing coloration, and mimicry. Have students The example should be
the flowcharts so that groups can compare their share their findings with the class in oral reports, any nonliving factor, such as air, water,
approaches. posters, or displays. soil, or rocks.
The competitive exclusion principle carrying capacity. When he cultured the two
The competitive exclusion principle was first pos- species together, however, one species apparently
tulated by Russian ecologist G. F. Gause in 1934. had a competitive edge in obtaining food, and
In laboratory experiments, Gause studied the the other species was driven to extinction in the
effect of interspecific competition on two closely culture. Gause concluded that two species so
related species of protists. When he cultured the similar that they compete for the same limited
two species separately, both populations grew resources cannot coexist in the same place. His
rapidly and then leveled off at the culture’s conclusion was later confirmed by further studies.
92 Chapter 4
Build Science Skills
Predation An interaction in which one organism Problem Solving Explain that
captures and feeds on another organism is called
under normal conditions, prey popu-
predation (pree-DAY-shun). The organism that does
lations seldom become extinct as a
the killing and eating is called the predator (PRED-
uh-tur), and the food organism is the prey. Cheetahs result of predation. Tell students to
are active predators with claws and sharp teeth. Their imagine an ecosystem in which a
powerful legs enable them to run after prey. Other predator species has killed off an
predators, such as anglerfishes, are more passive. An entire prey species. Ask: What would
anglerfish has a fleshy appendage that resembles a the possible consequences be for
fishing lure, which it uses to draw unsuspecting prey the predators? (They would run out
close to its mouth. of food and die, they would have to
change their eating habits and find
Symbiosis Any relationship in which two species other prey, or they would have to move
live closely together is called symbiosis (sim-by-OH- Mutualism The ant cares for the aphids and to another area where that prey
sis), which means “living together.” Biologists recog- protects them from predators. The aphids
produce a sweet liquid that the ant drinks. species still survives.)
nize three main classes of symbiotic relationships in
nature: mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
Examples of these three symbiotic relationships are Build Science Skills
shown in Figure 4–6. Applying Concepts Have each stu-
dent list examples of symbiotic
Mutualism In mutualism (MYOO-choo-ul-iz-um), relationships that he or she knows
both species benefit from the relationship. Many flow- from previous learning or has
ers, for example, depend on certain species of insects researched. In a class discussion, ask
to pollinate them. The flowers provide the insects with volunteers to describe examples
food in the form of nectar, pollen, or other substances,
without identifying the type of sym-
and the insects help the flowers reproduce.
biosis each example represents. After
Commensalism In commensalism (kuh-MEN- each description, challenge other stu-
sul-iz-um), one member of the association benefits dents to identify the relationship as
and the other is neither helped nor harmed. Small mutualism, commensalism, or para-
marine animals called barnacles, for example, often sitism.
attach themselves to a whale’s skin. The barnacles
perform no known service to the whale, nor do they Commensalism The orchid benefits from its
perch in the tree as it absorbs water and miner-
harm it. Yet, the barnacles benefit from the constant als from rainwater and runoff, but the tree is not
movement of water past the swimming whale, affected.
because the water carries food particles to them.
BACKGROUND Answers to . . .
The full range of physical
Predation and diversity deer and other herbivores increased dramatically. and biological conditions in which an
In nature, predator species rarely kill and eat all As these populations overgrazed the vegetation, organism lives and the way in which
their prey species, which would reduce commu- many plant species that could not tolerate such the organism uses those conditions
nity diversity. In fact, studies have shown that grazing pressure disappeared from the ecosys-
predation can actually help maintain diversity. tem. In turn, many insects and small animals that Figure 4–5 Most likely, one warbler
One example of this process involves the gray depended on the plants for food also disap- species would be more successful in
wolf, a top predator in its ecosystem. Where peared. The elimination of wolves thus produced that niche, and the other species would
wolves were hunted to extinction, such as in an ecosystem with considerably less species not survive.
many parts of North America, populations of diversity. Figure 4–6 Without the ants, the
aphids could be eaten by predators.
BIOLOGY UPDATE
94 Chapter 4
Secondary Succession Components of an ecosys- Use Community Resources
tem can be changed by natural events, such as fires, Invite students to cite examples of
or by human activities, such as farming. These natural or human disturbances they
changes may affect the ecosystem in predictable or have seen in their area. Emphasize
unpredictable ways. When the disturbance is over, that the disturbance need not be a
community interactions tend to restore the ecosys- large-scale event, such as cutting
tem to its original condition through secondary down all the trees in an area of
succession. For example, secondary succession woodland, but could be on a small
occurs after wildfires burn woodlands and when land scale—for example, homeowners
cleared for farming is abandoned. Figure 4–8 shows
removing thorny bushes from a nar-
trees regrowing after a wildfire. In fact, fires set by
row strip of land between their
lightning occur in many ecosystems, and some plants
houses. Ask students to describe any
are so adapted to periodic fires that their seeds won’t
sprout unless exposed to fire!
changes they observed after the dis-
turbance or, if the disturbance is very
Ecologists used to think that succession in a Figure 4 –8 Ten years after wildfires burned
given area always proceeded through predictable regions of Yellowstone National Park, small evergreen recent, to predict changes they think
stages to produce the same stable “climax commu- trees have begun to regenerate the forest. Predicting will occur over time. Take the class to
nity.” Old-growth forests in the Pacific Northwest, for How do you think this region will look 20 years after the a disturbed site, if feasible, or ask stu-
fires? dents to visit a site on their own
example, were considered climax communities. But
natural disasters, climate change, and human activ- periodically to observe changes that
ity such as introduction of nonnative species pro- occur during the school year.
foundly affect these communities today. Healthy
ecosystems usually recover from natural distur- Careers in Biology
bances because of the way components of the system
interact. Ecosystems may or may not recover from Encourage students to use library
long-term, human-caused disturbances. resources to find out how to get
started in a forestry career. Suggest
that they present their findings in
posters that include information such
Careers in Biology as the geographic locations where
forestry professionals work, specific
Forestry Technician courses that are necessary, areas of
research, and issues in the industry.
Job Description: work outdoors to help
maintain, protect, and develop forests (by
planting trees, fighting insects and diseases Resources Society of American
that attack trees, and controlling soil erosion) Foresters; International Union of
Forestry Research Organizations; U.S.
Education: two- or four-year college degree in
Department of Agriculture Forest
forestry, wildlife, or conservation; summer
work in parks, state and national forests; and Service
private industry provides on-the-job training
Skills: knowledge of the outdoors and basic
safety precautions; communication skills for
working with the public; keen observational
skills; physical fitness for jobs that require You can have students write a
walking long distances through forests more extensive job description as
Highlights: help to manage and conserve For: Career links
well as list the educational require-
forest biomes by analyzing data, planting trees, Visit: PHSchool.com
ments for a career in this field.
and managing fires when necessary; contribute Web Code: cbb-2042
to people’s enjoyment of outdoor recreation
Answers to . . .
The first species to popu-
late an area at the beginning of the
process of primary succession
TEACHER TO TEACHER
Figure 4–7 Stage 2: insects and spi-
To help students understand ecological succes- (2) Have any farms, parks, or lots returned to ders are carried in by the wind; stage
sion, have them interview an older family their wild state? Ask students to write a summary 3: rodents that feed on these arthro-
member or neighbor who has lived in their of their interview and then share it with the class. pods and new grasses; stage 4: larger
neighborhood for a long time. Ask the person to —Deidre Galvin mammals and birds that feed on
describe how the neighborhood has changed Biology Teacher rodents
over time. Make sure that students ask the fol- Ridgewood High School Figure 4–8 Answers may vary. Most
lowing questions. (1) Have areas that were Ridgewood, NJ students will suggest that succession will
formerly grassy been paved or developed?
have proceeded in specific and pre-
dictable stages and the community in
20 years might be mature and stable.
96 Chapter 4
3 3 ASSESS
Evaluate Understanding
Have each student select an example
of succession—either one described
in the student text or one of his or
her own choice—and write a brief
description of the sequence of
changes that the ecosystem could
undergo. As an alternative, students
could draw sketches to show the
changes.
Reteach
Using photographs of ecosystems
that you have selected from other
chapters in this textbook or from
other sources, have students list the
biotic and abiotic factors in each
ecosystem.
4 –2 Section Assessment
1. A biotic factor is a living organism. An abiotic 5. In mutualism, both species benefit. In com-
factor is nonliving. mensalism, only one species benefits; the other
2. Competition, predation, and symbiosis is neither helped nor harmed. In parasitism,
3. Primary succession occurs on surfaces where one species benefits; the other is harmed. In
no soil exists. Secondary succession occurs all three, two species live closely together.
when a disturbance of some kind changes an 6. Students should describe how scavengers and
existing community without removing the soil. decomposers eat the decaying meat, how the
4. An organism’s niche is determined by the decomposition of the whale’s body forms an
physical and biological conditions in its envi- oasis for sediment dwellers, and how bacteria
ronment and how it uses those conditions. decompose the oils inside the whale’s bones.