ECW 567 - Water and Waste Water

Engineering

Sewer and Sewerage System

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At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

1. Describe the sources of wastewater.

2. Characterize Wastewater and its generation.
3. Differentiate between onsite treatment and offsite
treatment
4. Design sewer systems

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What is wastewater?
• Any water that has been used by some human
domestic, agricultural or industrial activity.
• All these water go into larger pipes called sewers.
• The sewers take all the wastewater to the treatment
plant.

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 Definitions
 Sewerage – collection, treatment and disposal of liquid
waste.

 Sewerage/sewage works – all physical structures

required for collection, treatment and disposal.

 Sewage – liquid waste; may include domestic and

industrial discharges as well as storm sewage, infiltration,
inflow.

 Sewer – pipe or conduits, generally closed, normally not

flowing full and carries sewage.

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 Storm sewer – carries storm sewage & other wastes
discharged into streets or onto surface of the ground.

 Sanitary sewer – carries sanitary sewage and exclude

storm sewage, infiltration and inflow.

 Combined sewer – carries both domestic and storm

sewage.

 Sewage treatment – any process used to favourably

modify the characteristics of the wastewater.

 Sewage disposal – discharge of liquid wastes to the

environment.

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 Types of Sewer Systems:
i) COMBINED - carries both domestic and storm sewage
Is favored when:
a) Combined sewage can be disposed-off
w/o treatment
b) Street are narrow and two separate
sewers cannot be laid
c) Both sanitary and stormwater need
treatment

ii) SEPARATE – segregates the storm water sewers &

sanitary sewers
Is favored when:
a) There is an immediate need for
collection of sanitary sewage but not
for stormwater
b) When sanitary sewage needs treatment
but not for stormwater

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 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Sewer Materials -
TYPE SIZE (mm)
Asbestos Cement 100 – 900
Ductile Iron 100 – 1350
Reinforced Concrete 300 – 3600
PVC 100 – 375
Vitrified Clay 100 - 900

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Municipal sewage system

REUSE

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 Sources of Wastewater
1. Domestic
All types of wastewater generated from every room in a
house (sinks, bathing, and laundry)
 Blackwater – wastewater from toilets
 Greywater – wastewater from all sources except
toilets.
2. Non Domestic
 Discharged by manufacturing processes, hospitals,
farms, restaurants and any other commercial
enterprises such as laundry
 Includes stormwater in a nonresidential source and
carries trash and other pollutants from streets, as well
as pesticides and fertilizers from yards and fields.

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 Pretreatment of Industrial Wastewaters

 Industrial wastewaters must be pretreated prior to being

discharged to municipal sewer systems e.g. screening,
grit chamber, oil& grease removal

 Approach is to remove materials that will not be treated

by municipal systems

 Local authority must monitor and regulate industrial

discharges

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 What is in the wastewater ?
1. Organisms
 An organism is a living thing (such as animal, plant,
fungus, or micro-organism).
 An organism may either be unicellular (single-celled)
or be composed of, as in humans, many billions of
cells grouped into specialized tissues and organs.
 a variety of bacteria, protozoa and works work to
breakdown certain carbon-based (organic) pollution
in wastewater by consuming them.

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2. Pathogens
 A pathogen is a biological agent that causes disease
or illness to its host.
 The term pathogen is derived from the Greek word
“that which produces suffering”.
 The body contains many natural defenses against
some of the common pathogens in the form of the
human immune system and by some "helpful"
bacteria.

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3. Organic Matter
 An organic matter is matter that has come from a
once-living organism; is capable of decay, or the
product of decay; or is composed of organic
compounds.
 An organic compound is any member of a large class
of chemical compounds whose molecules contain
carbon.

methane

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 Sewage Characteristics
• Sewage is characterized in terms of its physical, chemical and
biological composition.
1. Physical Properties :
Colour, Odour, Solids, Temperature.
fresh domestic sewage has a slightly soapy, or oily odor, is cloudy and
contains recognizable solids, often of considerable size. As the waste ages,
its character changes as a result of biological and chemical phenomena.
2. Chemical Constituents :
Organic - Carbohydrates, Fats, Oil, Grease, Proteins,
and Surfactants
Inorganic - pH, Chlorides, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur
Gases - Hydrogen Sulfide, Methane, Oxygen
3. Biological Constituents :
Animals, Plants, Bacteria, and Viruses
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 Characteristics of Wastewater
Table 8.1

Text Book - Chapter 8 - Page 458

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 EFFLUENT STANDARDS
• Effluent from all public sewage treatment plants is sampled
at regular intervals and tested in modern laboratories to
ensure that it meets the required standards. Tests are
carried out as part of a monitoring programme in keeping
with IWK's operational license conditions and to ensure the
efficient operation of treatment processes.
• This provides for a cleaner and safer environment that
improves the living conditions of Malaysians.
• The two most important parameters measured are
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Suspended
Solids (SS).

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 BOD is a measure of the amount of oxygen that
sewage consumes over a given time. High BOD is
significant because it means that sewage will rapidly
consume all the naturally-dissolved oxygen in streams,
rivers and lakes, thus killing off all aquatic life, and
rendering the water septic and foul-smelling.

 SS is a measure of the undissolved material in

sewage. High SS leads to sludge deposits in the
waterways, thus causing significant environmental
deterioration.

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Effluent that is discharged upstream of a water supply
intake should meet Standard A, while effluent that is
discharged downstream has to meet Standard B.
These standards are set by the Environmental Quality
Act 1974.

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 Effluent Standards 2009

Standard A = Effluent
that is discharged
upstream of a water
supply intake

Standard B = Effluent
that is discharged
downstream

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Effluent Standards 2009

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Parameter Limits of Effluent For Standards A and B
Parameter Unit Standard A Standard B
(i) Temperature °C 40 40
(ii) pH Value 6.0 - 9.0 5.5 - 9.0
(iii) BOD5 at 20°C mg/l 20 50
(iv) COD mg/l 50 100
(v) Suspended Solids mg/l 50 100
(vi) Mercury mg/l 0.005 0.05
(vii) Cadmium mg/l 0.01 0.02
(viii) Chromium, Hexavalent mg/l 0.05 0.05
(ix) Arsenic mg/l 0.05 0.10
(x) Cyanide mg/l 0.05 0.10
(xi) Lead mg/l 0.10 0.5
(xii) Chormium, Trivalent mg/l 0.20 1.0
(xiii) Copper mg/l 0.20 1.0
(xiv) Manganese mg/l 0.20 1.0
(xv) Nickel mg/l 0.20 1.0
(xvi) Tin mg/l 0.20 1.0
(xvii) Zinc mg/l 1.0 1.0
(xviii) Boron mg/l 1.0 4.0
(xix) Iron (Fe) mg/l 1.0 5.0
(xx) Phenol mg/l 0.001 1.0
(xxi) Free Chlorine mg/l 1.0 2.0
(xxii) Sulphide mg/l 0.50 0.50
(xxiii) Oil and Grease mg/l Not detectable 10

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New Proposed Standards for Category 1 Effluent Plants
Connected To Stagnant Water Bodies

Parameter, mg/L Maximum Permitted Value

Standard A Standard B
Temperature ( °C) 40 40
pH (units) 6.0 – 9.0 5.5 – 9.0
BOD5 AT 20°C 20 50
COD 50 100
Suspended Soilds 50 100
Ammoniacal-Nitrogen 5 5
Nitrate-Nitrogen 10 10
Phosphorus 5 10
Oil & Grease 5 10

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 Theoretical Oxygen Demand

 The amount of oxygen required to oxidise a substance

to carbon dioxide and water and water may be
calculated by stoichiometry if the chemical composition
of the substance is known.
 This amount of oxygen is known as the Theoretical
Oxygen demand (ThOD)

Refer to Example 7-2 (page 398)

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 Chemical Oxygen Demand, COD

 A measured quantity that does not depend on

knowledge of the chemical composition of the
substances in the water
 In this test, a strong chemical oxidizing agent is mixed
with the water sample and then boiled
 The difference between the amount of oxidising agent at
the beginning and that remaining at the end is used to
calculate COD

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 Biological Oxidation Demand BOD
If the oxidation of an organic compound is carried out by
microorganisms using the organic matter as a food source,
the oxygen consumed is known as biological oxidation
demand.

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 dLt
 rA
dt

Where Lt = oxygen equivalent of organics remaining

-rA = -kLt
k = reaction rate constant, d-1
dLt
 k dt
Lt
L
dLt
L Lt  k 0 dt
0

Lt
ln  kt
L0
Lt  L0 e  kt (7  3)
Where L0 = oxygen equivalent of organics at time t =0
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Our interest is in the amount of oxygen used in the
consumption of the organic (BODt). From the previous
figure, the BODt is the difference between Lo and Lt.
Therefore,
BODt  Lo  Lt
 Lo  Lo e  kt

 Lo 1  e  kt  or 
Lo 1  10  Kt 
k = 2.303 K

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Refer to example 7-3 (page 401) on how to determine ultimate
BOD.
If the BOD3 of a waste is 75mg/l and the K is 0.15d-1, what is
the ultimate BOD?
Refer to example 7-4 (page 403) on temperature correction for
BOD.  = 1.135 T k  k 20  T  20

A waste is being discharged into a river that has a temperature

of 10oC. What fraction of the maximum oxygen consumption
has occurred in four days if the BOD rate constant determined
in the laboratory under standard condition is 0.115d-1?

Refer to example 7-5 (page 405) on graphical determination of

BOD constants
Determine the BOD rate constant and ultimate BOD for an
untreated wastewater
Day 0 1 2 4 6 8
BOD (mg/L) 0 32
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 Extra Notes on BOD
Determination of BOD constants

Extracted from McGhee (Water supply & Sewerage)

Page 376 - 379

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 ONSITE & OFFSITE TREATMENT

ON-SITE/Individual System
- Connected directly to individual septic tanks.

OFF-SITE/Connected Services
- Collected and conveyed by sewer systems to a sewage
treatment plant (STP).

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INDIVIDUAL SEPTIC TANKS (IST)

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INDIVIDUAL SYSTEM

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 Sewerage Fact 1:
Over 1.0 mil premises in
Peninsular Malaysia with septic
tanks but only 30% are
regularly de-sludged.

Sewerage Fact 2:
Requirements and design of
septic tanks are provided under
the Malaysian Standard
1228:1991.

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HOW DOES AN IST TREAT SEWAGE??

A. Wastewater in
B. Scum layer
C. Water – fairly clear water which contains bacteria
and chemicals like nitrogen and phosphorous
D. Sludge layer
E. To drain field
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Typical Performance of Individual Septic Tanks

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 For population 6PE – 30PE
 Prefabricated by Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FRP)
provide complete water tightness, corrosion
resistance, good temperature insulation, high
strength and tenacity.
 Usage of light glass fibre composite material
helps in easy handling, transportation and fast
installation.
 Easy maintenance and repair at site.
 Compact in size.
 Material allows flexibility in the type of installation
(fully, half buried) depending on the site condition.
 Suitable for single (individual) household, shop
lots, public toilets, etc.

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CONNECTED SERVICES

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SEWER SYSTEMS

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 GENERAL
CONSIDERATIONS

SEWERS CORROSION OF
MATERIALS SEWERS

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Sewer Materials (McGhee (1991), pp.297)

 Clay pipe (commonly used due to hard, dense and

resistant to Biological & Chemical attacks)
 Concrete pipe (prevent corrosion)
 Asbestos cement pipe

 Other Fabricated sewers (McGhee (1991), pp.310)

 Plastic truss pipe
 Solid-wall plastic /polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
 Corrugated metal pipe
 Iron pipe

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 Sewer Materials

Available Sewer Diameter Sizes

TYPE SIZE
(DIAMETER) (mm)
Asbestos Cement 100 – 900

Ductile Iron 100 – 1350

Reinforced 300 – 3600

Concrete
PVC 100 – 375

Vitrified Clay 100 - 900

*Valid pipe sizes are 225mm, 300mm, 375mm, 450mm and 600mm
(Depends on the availability in the market)
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 Corrosion of Sewers
(McGhee (1991), pp. 314)

 Due to slow degradation of accumulated material by

bacteria in sewage and biological reduction of sulfates.

 Since sewer tends to have anaerobic condition, short-

chain volatile organic acids are produced.

 These acids are water-soluble and may depress the pH

in sewer.

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 The combination of sulfate reduction and low pH can cause
the release of (hydrogen sulfide, H2S) into sewer
atmosphere, where it may re-dissolve in condensed
moisture accumulated at the crown.

 The H2S is oxidized to sulfuric acid whenever O2 is

available (used by bacterium Thiobacillus).This acid will
cause the corrosion in sewers.

 Sewers made of acid-soluble materials (concrete, iron,

steel) lead to destruction of the crown and sewer failure.

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Different Phase in Sewers

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Sewer Corrosion

(Source: McGhee, 1991)

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Sewer corrosion can be combatted by;

i) Chlorination: reduces biological activity

ii) Forced ventilation: reduces crown condensation,
strips H2S from the atmosphere of the sewer, provide
sufficient O2 to prevent sulfate reduction and
production of organic acids.
iii) Lining with inert materials.

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 DEPRESSED SEWERS

• Storm water and wastewater sewers often

encounter obstructions such as rivers, other
pipes, subways, tunnels, or valleys.

• To pass these obstructions, a common method is

for the sewer pipe to drop sharply, then run
horizontal under the obstruction, and finally rise
to the desired elevation.

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 DEPRESSED SEWERS
Manhole

River

Diagram of a depressed sewer

The piping going under the obstruction is traditionally called an

“inverted siphon”(McGhee (1991), pp.327), but since the pipe is
not actually acting as a siphon, a better term is "depressed
sewer“ (Metcalf and Eddy, 1981).
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Plan view of inlet chamber (3 siphons)

Section A-A (exploded scale)

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Diagram of a depressed sewer (McGhee, 1991)

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 Inverted siphon (depressed sewer) is a section of sewer
which is dropped below the hydraulic gradient line to
avoid obstacle.

 Unlike the main sewer pipe, the siphon pipe(s) flow under
pressure. Special care must be taken in inverted siphon
design since losses are greater for pressurized flow and
the velocity in each siphon pipe must be at least 3 ft/s
(0.9 m/s) for sewage or 4 ft/s (1.2 m/s) for storm water
(Metcalf and Eddy, 1981).

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 Therefore, even if there is only one main sewer pipe, several
siphons may be required and entrance structure designed to
divide the flow so the velocity will be adequate to prevent
deposition of solids.

 Inlet and outlet structures should be installed in manholes.

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SEWER DESIGN

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 DESIGN OF SEWER SYSTEMS

 Preliminary investigations
 Detailed design requirements

Refer to McGhee (1991), pp. 337 - 340

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 Preliminary Investigations

Data needed: detailed maps or aerial strip photography.

Consists of:
 Estimated flows
 Approximate ground contours
 Location of the streets or sewer easements
 Locations to which the sewerage is to be taken.
 Quantity of pipes(various sizes), quantity of excavation,
quantity of pavement, various appurtenances.

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 Detailed Design Requirements

Data needed: Underground survey.

Preparation of construction drawings requires knowledge

on:
 Location of all underground structures,
 Profiles of all streets,
 Max. water surface & invert of all streams, culverts and
ditches.
 Etc (refer to McGhee (1991), pp 339&340)

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 Present some special problems since they are normally
closed conduits and seldom designed to full flow.

 Manning’s equation can be used to determine the required

size of an individual conduits but cannot be applied directly
since the hydraulic radius and area of flow are not easily
determined.

 Velocities in sewers are selected to keep solids in sewage

in suspension or at least in traction; if not, the flow will
become stagnant thus promote H2S.

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 Sanitary sewers should be sized to provide velocity at
least 0.6 m/s, which is adequate to keep grit in traction.

 Some regulators specify minimum slopes for sewers of

various diameter, in which are calculated to give a velocity
of 0.6 m/s

 Minimum slope is also preferred to minimize the

excavation as it will reduce cost of sewer construction.

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Velocities flowing full are kept between 0.75 –2.5 m/s.

The maximum velocity is limited to reduce the potential for

abrasive damage to the sewers.

Self cleansing velocity - a flow in sewer which aids in

scouring out accumulated debris.

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 Full flow capacity of circular pipes may be calculated
directly from Manning’s equation; but tedious.
 By using nomograms (McGhee, (1991); pp.342-344),
calculation is sometimes faster than computational
techniques if few conduits are involved.
 By having any 2 known parameters, the other two can be
found by placing a straight edge across the diagram and
connecting the known values.

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 Nomograms can ONLY be used for full flow.
 The ratio of partially full velocity (Vp) to full velocity (Vf)
is,

 To design a partial flow sewer, use McGhee (1991)

partial flow diagram [Figure 16-5 (pp.345) &Figure 16-6
(pp.346)]

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 Check that one particular nomogram is meant for one
roughness value (n = 0.013)

 Always remember that roughness (n) is always inversely

proportional to flow, Q and velocity, V (refer to Manning’s
equation);

1 2
Q  VA  AR 3 S
n

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 Practice Examples
1. If a 225 mm sewer is placed on a slope of 0.010m/m,
determine the full quantity of flow and full velocity.
2. A 600 mm sewer is laid on a slope of 0.003. What will the
depth of flow and velocity be when the flow is 8.5
m3/min?
3. A 450 mm sewer pipe is laid on a slope of 0.0025m/m. At
what depth of flow does the velocity equal to 0.6m/s?

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Sewer Design Example
(McGhee, 1991 (pp 348 – 352)

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Thank You

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