PLAY MATERIALS IN THE CURRICULUM OF EARLY CHILDHOOD

Author(s): Evelyn Weber

Source: Children's Environments Quarterly, Vol. 1, No. 1, Toys: History, Theory and
Ethnography (Spring 1984), pp. 7-18
Published by: Board of Regents of the University of Colorado, a body corporate, for the
benefit of the Children, Youth and Environments Center at the University of Colorado
Boulder
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 nature of learning and about significant
PLAY MATERIALS IN THE CURRICULUM knowledge in the life of the child.
OF EARLY CHILDHOOD The views were in conflict on such questions
as directed play versus free play» logical
By Evelyn Weber versus psychological continuity» and
Brookline» Massachusetts the meaning of creative self-expression.
The types of play material to be used
Reprinted with permission from Karen and the manner of their use were a natural
Hewitt and Louise Roomet (Eds.) extension of the basic dissension.
Educational Toys in America! 1800 to
the Present. A museum catalog published The paper mats and sewing cards were
part of the logically organized program
by The Robert -Hull Fleming Museum® University
of Vermont» Burlington» Vermont. followed in a Froebelian kindergarten»
••
one which held to the curriculum precisely
Let him weave a little basket of vegetable designated by Froebel. They were some
fiber on a wire frame» or a rug of heavy of the "beauty forms»** which together
candle wicking for his playhouse rather with forms of life and forms of knowledge
than a small» easily torn and comparatively were expected to help the child understand
useless paper mat. Let him sew the seams his world. These activities were considered
of a doll's dress or a marble bag instead to provide the proper "occupations"
of a conventional design on a perforated used to accompany "gifts." These were
card." (Alice Temple» "Conference on the forms and materials familar to most
Gifts and Occupations» Proceedings of of the members of the kindergarten union
the Seventh Annual Convention of the at their meeting in 1900. They had been
International Kindergarten Union» 1900» trained to use the Froebelian material
p. 91.) with children daily and had been doing
so in the decades of rapid expansion
Thus at the turn of the century Alice of kindergarten in America» for the gen
Temple dared to suggest a modification idealistic philosophic outlook of many
of play materials for kindergarten children. Americans had embraced the Froebelian
It took courage for at the meeting of kindergarten and its original and distinct
the Twelfth Annual Convention of the materials in their entirety.
International Kindergarten Union in 1905
the majority of members held firmly to A vast revolution reshaping intellectual
the materials designed by Friedrich Froebel thought in America took place» however»
as ideal for play and learning. They between the Civil War and World War I.
Investigations in the physical and bi
believed "the materials for the kindergarten
sciences and above all» the theory of
technically known as Gifts and Occupations**
to be **the most valuable means that have evolution forced a reassessment of idealistic
been devised for very young children.** beliefs. Study of human growth began
The two statements epitomized the growing to take on an objective» empirical form.
divergence in points of view concerning A pragmatic philosophy emphasizing change
the curriculum of the kindergarten and and continual interactions with the
of the materials to be offered for learning. environment was modifying what was
ideal in thought and action. Child study
On the surface the difference between researchers» under the aegis of G. Stanley
having a child weave a paper mat from Hall at Clark University» began to collect
quarter inch strips of colored paper data on children by direct observation.
and having him weave a rug of heavy roping Soon John Dewey's pragmatic philosophy
for the doll house may seem simple and and social conception of education drew
insignificant. As we shall see» however» the attention of avant garde leaders
a number of fundamentally opposed premises in the kindergarten movement. These
separated these two practices. They new directions of thought formed the
represented different beliefs about the bases for Alice Temple's recommendations.

Vol. 1, No. 1 (Spring), 1984 7

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Children gained most from materials through of the child1 s inner powers.
which they could express their own expanding
concepts and for which they could see His conviction concerning the importance
a direct use. Sewing a marble bag or of play in childhood is conveyed in his
weaving a rug for the doll house fulfilled book. The Education of Man:
these requirements in Alice Temple's
opinion. "Play is the purest, most spiritual activity
of man at this stage and, at the same
Gradually the new views of man and changed time, typical of human life as a whole-of
conceptions of the universe modified the inner hidden natural life of man
philosophic thought in early childhood and things... The plays of childhood are
education as well as in the larger society. the germinal leaves of all later life;
The voice of change was heard more widely for the whole man is developed and shown
as the controversy gained momentum. in these, in his tenderest dispositions,
It was found in articles in the Pedagogical in his innermost tendencies.** (1)
Seminary and The Elementary School Record»
at larger conventions and meetings, suchThe objects the child manipulated and
as those of the National Education Associa- handled Froebel considered to be the
tion. But for early childhood education 'awakeners of his inner world. There
was a relationship, in Froebelfs thinking,
the meetings of the International Kindergarten
Union served as the arena for testing between a child's inner strivings and
new ideas and clarifying basic issues. his or her expression of them. By doing
Involved in the practical aspects of and constructing the child was 'rendering
teaching» the members discussed materials the inner outers** expressing incipient
ideas. This Froebel considered to be
and their use» the sequential development
of experiences» the use of symbolism true even if the construction were built
with children and similar curriculum at the direction of the teacher. He
problems. Feelings ran high among members was not content only to find significance
as both positions on fundamental issues in the exuberance of play, but also he
were argued in detail. Some members expected play to give symbolic evidence
never modified their beliefs, but new of the awakening of thought. Therefore,
leaders gradually gained a stronger voice. he chose and designed play materials
By the mid 1920s new programs were presented that he believed haji symbolic importance
in written form, the curriculum was completely for children.
changed and entirely new materials were
made available for childrenfs use, evidencing In order to understand the play materials
a dramatic change. that Froebel created to be used in unique
ways, some of his basic philosophic ideas
The Play Materials of Froebel need to be presented. He was a representative
of German idealistic thought for whom
Friedrich Frebel» working in Germany all things live and have their being
in the early 19th century, perceived through the Absolute-God. Froebel wrote,
the educative nature of play and based "it is the destiny and life-work of all
his revolutionary method of teaching things to unfold their essences, hence,
on it . their divine being, and therefore, the
Divine Unity itself--to reveal God in
He broke age-old barriers, for formerly in their external transient being.** (2)
play had been thought of as unimportant All things in their essence Froebel
or even sinful. The romantic reverence accepted as symbols made for learning.
that idealism led Froebel to have for
the inner laws of the child's development According to Froebel, the key idea to
enabled him to give to play a serious be gained was unity. The child, he suggeste
philosophical justification. He saw would come to comprehend unity through
it as the perfect medium for the release diversity and the relationship of the

Children's Environments Quarterly

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part to the whole. No play materials Since play materials should lead the
existed in the early nineteenth century child to discovery of fundamental truths»
as symbols for these grand ideas» so their use was specified in order to aid
Froebel designed objects which he named in this endeavor. Not only did Froebel
"gifts" and thought to be "gifts of God." devise the gifts» but he detailed the
He also designed play activities which manner in which children were to play
he felt to be "divine occupations." with them. The manipulation of each
All were intended to lead the child to "gift" and the study of its meaning mig
a closer identification with the divine
require weeks for completion.^ An excer
spirit and to social unity» to develop from the use of the fifth gift will
his whole nature» attitude and feelings illustrate the thorough directions Froebel
as well as his intellect. Froebelfs provided for the teacher in his book»
play materials exemplify the idealistic Pedagogics of the Kindergarten:
beliefs he held to be significant and
indicate his tendency toward mysticism. "if the cubes are arranged in the box
The formal quality of his "gifts reflects
and covered with the lid» it is only
his interest in mathematics and crystallo- necessary to place the box on the table
graphy. with the cover downward» then to draw
out the cover and raise the box with
Not surprisingly» the first object to a steady hand. When the box is with
be manipulated by the child--the first the whole cube» with its parts well arranged,
"gift" that Froebel pr e s ent ed--was a stands before the child. ..It is good
ball» to symbolize the concept of divine» for a child to begin his play with the
all-inclusive unity. The diversity repre- perception of the whole» a simple self-
sented in the second "gift" which included
contained unit» and from this unity to
a sphere» a cube and a cylinder» was develop his representations...
destined to move the child toward the
reconciliation of opposites. The cylinder» The one permanent and indispensible condition
having characteristics of each of the in the production of forms of life is
other objects» linked them together; that in each total product all the materials
to Froebel it illustrated the law of of the gift shall be used. ..The object
opposites. The next four "gifts" were may be brought near to the life of the
made up of small wooden blocks whose child by the words: a table--a house.
base was one square inch. From these From this an armchair or a seat can be
blocks children were directed to build immediately made; it is necessary mer
"life forms" (a house or a church)» forms to place the row of halved cubes upon
of knowledge geometric shapes)» and the row of undivided cubes; this gives
"forms of beauty" (designs for aesthetic the back; the cubes divided into quarters
appreciat ion) . can then be easily separated» and each
two quarters placed together in a little
These "gifts»" intended to give insights four -sided column for arms on both sides»
into cosmic truths» had a distinct sequence. three columns to each side. (3)
They progressed from solid to surface
to line to point» or symbolically from Songs» games and movement plays» stories
unity to diversity. The final gift and poetry» nature walks and gardening
consisted of work with * points --softened
were the other elements of Froebelfs
peas or wax pellets. The occupations kindergarten program. Gardening was
followed the same sequence» from the deemed important so the child could watch
manipulation of clay to stringing beads the workings of the "unseen Power; it
(points). "Occupations" were to extend
also provided opportunities for the child
and fix the impressions made by the gifts» to work individually or in a group and
as well as to provide the opportunity thus experience himself or herself as
to control malleable materials. a whole or a part within the whole-
Kindergarten circle games» like the sphere»

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were to symbolize unity. Nature walks
were expected to strengthen, elevate
and enable the child to feel the oneness
of life. In all these experiences the
child was to be respected, his or her
active nature encouraged and own ideas
unfolded. All activities were to be
carried out in an atmosphere of harmony
in which the child could gain an evolving
sense of unity with his or her fellow
creatures. The ideal of human behavior
was to be continuously made evident,
for this was considered the basis of
moral training.
Froebel1 s kindergarten curriculum was
impressively original. He selected educa-
tional experiences for children on an
original basis and developed a precise
sequence of activities; these led him
to design unique materials for the children's
use. His interpretation of the nature
of the child and of learning stemmed
from his philosophical beliefs and his
continued observation of children. His
perceptions of child nature were sensitive
before any scientific study of the young
child had been made. He intuitively
discerned the child's need to be actively
engaged with materials, which led to
his appreciation of the values of play.
This conviction has been upheld by subsequent
child study.
This sense of unity, elevated to such
a level of importance in Froebel's kinder-
garten curriculum, fostered its expansion
as a totality. In Germany, unfortunately,
the introduction of Froebel's educational
ideas into state schools met official
opposition. However, Froebelian principles
and practices were in accord with the
philosophy of a number of educational
leaders in America-William T. Harris,
Elizabeth Peabody and Susan Blow. Important
also were the many German students trained
directly in Froebel's educational methods
who came to America and were able to
explain and demonstrate the precise pro-
cedures. As the methods of this new
education** drew interest, the materials
were made available commercially by
the Milton Bradley Company in 1869.
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A Revised Curriculum and New Materials
Into the fervent acceptance of Froebel's
materials and methods Anna Bryan cast
a dessenting voice. To the assembled
leaders of the kindergarten movement
at the meeting of the National Education
Association in 1890 she attacked the
slavish following of Froebelian procedures
in kindergartens, suggesting that the
ball might symbolize motion to the child
rather than unity, and deploring the
lack of self-determination in the child's
play. She critized the formal sequential
use of gifts: The child is not creatively
active, only mechanically so. He has
played with his spinal column, not with
his heart. It therefore may be called
a barren, uneducative play.*" In her
single protest she exposed the symbolism,
the logical sequence, and the lack of
self-determined purpose in the child's
play.
Anna Bryan was reflecting momentous changes
in educational thought bringing about
a ferment which began to lead toward
a more scientific view. The new field
of psychology dedicated to objective
study of growth was expanding. G. Stanley
Hall made Clark University the center
for child study in the 1890s and offered
summer conferences which focused on child
development. He proposed new techniques
of data collection, and had kindergarten
teachers make reports on previously unstudied
characteristics of children. Hall argued
directly that all curricula should rest
upon the results of child study, and
wrote that **in the nature of childhood
itself and its different stages of development
must be found the norm for all the method
and matter of teaching.**
Careful observation of the child revealed
that development proceeded from fund
to accessory muscles; the young child
needed large, bold movements. Sure enough,
researchers found that the devotion to
**gifts** and **occupat ions ,** whi
sedentary activities and the use of the
late-developed accessory muscles, resulted
in fatigue and nervousness on the part
of the child. One response to this
Children's Environments Quarterly
recognition was the enlargement of the
"building gifts." The need for greater
freedom in play led Patty Smith to allow
children creative and unrestricted use
of "gifts." She reported that she gave
children paper dolls and asked them to
make a bed to fit the dolls using the
blocks of the enlarged fourth "gift."
John Dewey's pragmatic philosophy and
his social conception of education pointed
to other needed changes. Dewey disagreed
so radically with Froebel's principles
that he wouldn't even use the word "kinder-
garten"^ the laboratory school he established
it required ingenuity in planning; it
at the University of Chicago at the turn
of the century. He called the room for
the youngest children "the sub-primary
class." Children» Dewey proposed, needed
freedom in social interaction to encourage
cooperation and a sense of responsibility.
The child's own interests and purposes
should also govern hie play. Dewey wrote»
"Play is not to be identified with anything
which the child externally does. It "in the first place» I believe that all
rather designates his mental attitude
in its entirety and in its unity. It
is the free play» the interplay of all
the child's powers» thoughts» and physical
movements* in embodying» in a satisfying
form his own images and interests. (5)
The child should be freed from dictation
by the teacher and allowed to express
his or her own mental images. These
would be the symbols meaningful to the
child» in Dewey' view; they would use
the child's natural impulses and lead
to increased perception. Education as
the reconstruction and reorganization
of experience must be close to the out-of-
echool experiences of the child» as the
constant reconstruction of experience
came about through dynamic interaction
with the environment. Purpose arises
from experience» and learning comes from
doing something purposeful. The child's
own purpose gave him or her other tools
for planning and evaluating his work
and the impetus to carry it out.
Both Hall and Dewey believed Froebel's
symbolism and sequence from solid to
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point to be meaningless. Dewey reconmended
play materials that were as straightforward
as possible. He would not have children
sweep a make-be live room with a make-belive
broom» but would involve them in the
actual duties of taking care of their
classroom» sweeping the room when needed.
Dewey felt any kind of work which fulfilled
a specific purpose for the child was
particularly suitable. He described
the accomplishment of a constructive
task as follows: it called for acuteness
of observation; it demanded clear-cut
imagery of the ends to be accomplished;
made necessary a personal responsibility
in execution; it resulted in a tangible
form which enabled the child to judge
his own work. For the young child» weaving
a rug for the doll house or sewing a
marble bag might fulfill all of these
requirements. Alice Temple articulated
the Deweyan view of materials at the
International Kindergarten Union in 1905:
materials are valuable chiefly as a means
of self-expression» and should therefore
be selected and used with reference to
supplying the very best means to the
child of enlarging and clarifying his
ideas» of developing to the fullest his
power - physical» intellectual» and spiritual
through expression. To this end he should
have freedom in the use of his play material -
not freedom in the sense of always being
left to follow every fancy and caprice»
but freedom in the sense that his activity
is stimulated by his own motive and directed
by his own imagery." (6)
These new ideas* brought forth both by
child study and pragmatic theory* demande
curricular revision. Many practical
problems* however* stood in the way of
reform. One major one was the lack of
appropriate materials to meet the new
demands. Another was the need to reorganize
the classroom to permit freedom for social
interaction* for carrying out the plans
of individuals in small groups* and for
the continual reconstruction of experiences.
Changing from a curriculum where all
activity stenmed from the teacher's directions
11
to one in which the childrenfs purposes
and interests prevailed was not only
difficult but somewhat terrifying. Would
this not lead to chaos? The question
of free versus structured play was discussed
vehemently by members of the International
Kindergarten Union in 1900. According
to Patty Smith Hill of Louisville»
"Free play is the opportunity given to
the child to express his ideas» interests
and feelings under conditions of absolute
freedom» so long as the free expression
of self does not injure himself or his
comrades. In free play the self makes
its own choice» selections and decisions»
and thus absolute freedom is given to
the play of the child's images and his
volition in expressing them." (7)
All discussants argued that they were
not favoring classroom disorder but self-
directed» engrossing activity on the
part of the child.
In 1905 Patty Smith Hill was appointed
to the faculty of Teachers College»
Columbia University with the specific
charge of continuing to modify the kinder-
garten materials and methods she had
already inaugurated in Louisville. She
immediately began to sponsor kindergarten
program revision» first in a classroom
in Speyer School» a public school in
New York City» and later at Horace Mann
School» the laboratory school of Teachers
College. The studies she undertook led
to patient overhauling of all procedures»
gradually incorporating free play with
new materials into all parts of the program.
As children were put into a kindergarten
classroom where greater freedom prevailed»
teachers began to become aware of their
natural characteristics. At Speyer School
they observed small groups of children
spontaneously drawn together by some
shared interest. Miss Hill reported
that the emphasis laid upon the children's
initiation and execution of their own
plans "seemed radical in the extreme
to many observers. Indeed» it required
a reversal in the teacher's role from
director of activities to that of guide
and supporter of children's play experiences.
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Changes in classroom organization furnished
evidence that children were indeed capable
of acquiring the techniques of social
living; observers were especially pleased
to find that increasing self-government
on their part decreased the necessity
of teacher-administered discipline.
While John Dewey and his daughter Evelyn
published a survey of promising educational
practices in 1915» they found the Hill
kindergarten» which was then housed in
Horace Mann School» to be in harmony
with the broad stream of reform in education.
The kindergarten as a "laboratory of
democratic citizenship" was in keeping
with Dewey's pragmatic policy of expanding
the school's social responsibility. He
encouraged efforts to discover which
of the spontaneous activities of children
could be used as points of departure
for ends of recognizable worth. The
elevation of the child's own purposes
coincided with one of his basic tenets.
One kindergartner » in harmony with D
principles» said»
"a crude» free hand drawing» all finger
marks» perhaps» but indicating an effort
to express some idea which the child
had in mind» would have far more educational
value than any number of daintily executed
designs» which are mere lifeless copies
of teacher's patterns." (8)
Changes in play materials were essential
to facilitate these social and organizational
transitions. The focus in selection
became the child's nature and needs rather
than the inculcation of adult ideas and
meanings. They also had to provide for
large motor development. In order for
them to serve the child in his reconstruction
of experience» materials needed to relate»
also» to the child's own background.
The appearance of the kindergarten altered
dramatically. Toys were no longer locked
away to be doled out by the teacher.
The little formal tables with one inch
grooves for using "gifts" disappeared.
Large equipment for climbing» swinging
and lifting were added to the classroom
and to the area for outdoor play. Large
Children's Environments Quarterly
blocks were developed for use in constructions
created by the children. A 1926 publication
reveals a number of styles of building
blocks available from different toy
companies. Over twelve years of testing
and observing children's reactions went
into the development of the Hill building
blocks. These floor blocks consisted
of a series of blocks» square pillars
and metal rods developed for building
structures large enough for children
to get into. They were uniquely designed
so that the blocks locked into the sturdy
square pillars and were further secured
by the metal rods so they would not fall.
Children could safely build a play house
or a store» a boat or a wagon« which
they could then use for dramatic play.
Dewey had early proposed the home as
one center of interest. As children
reconstructed and relived home situations
under the conditions of enlarged social
interaction» understanding would increase» and in greater problem-solving ability.
he believed» and the activities would
afford continuity with previous experience. of a conception of a continuity of growth
Dewey expected the central focus upon
the home to progress naturally into a
series of wider studies» including the
social occupations upon which the home
was dependent. Housekeeping equipment
such as brooms» irons and ironing boards»
dust-mops» dishes and dish towels became
an accepted part of every classroom.
The size of this equipment was such that
the children could readily manipulate
them» but pieces were not to be considered book is well named* Peraanent Play
just toys. Children actually washed
doll clothes and swept the floors and
if they could spread the crackers for
lunch time or make applesauce for the
group* the housekeeping activities would
contribute to the miniature community
of the classroom and help children build
a sense õf responsibility.
A sandbox where children could represent
their own images» a work bench and tools
for constructive activities* toy animals
and wheel toys to contribute to active
dramatic play* large easels for painting*
all became available to children daily.
Small manipulative materials such as
peg boards* puzzles* beads for stringing
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and musical instruments were added to
the choices the classroom offered. Freedom
of choice and freedom of expression*
exploration and representation were watch
words in the discussions of children's
play at this time.
By the time publications describing the
use of new materials in the kindergarten
became available* a new movement embracing
the nurture of very young children gained
momentum in the U.S. Many of the same
materials and equipment were used with
even younger children with some modifications
in size and structure. Nursery schools»
according to one United States Office
of Education bulletin» increased from
3 to 262 in the decade between 1920 and
1930. Development was no longer tied
to a sequence of ideas but to a continuity
of growth evident in the child's increasing
skills» greater precision in bringing
forth ideas and constructing projects»
The ideas of sequence gave way to that
in children from nursery school through
the primary grades.
If the reader recognizes in this
description much of the present day
equipment to be found in classes for
young children» it shows how well the
leaders of that time delved into child
nature and growth to determine appropriate
play materials. Charlotte Garrison's
Materials for Young Children* for many
of the materials have been found to have
significant educative value and have
remained in classrooms. Nò revolutionary
change in thought has discredited these
play materials* as the trend toward a
scientific* gragmatic philosophy did
to Froebel's gifts" and "occupations.**
But the recognition of the value of play
for the growth of the child continually
increases» and this .has given added
insights into the manner of use of play
materials .
The Montessori Curriculum and Materials
At the time American leaders were
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investigating new materials for children#
Maria Montessori opened her first Casa
dei Bambini in Rome. It was 1907» and
new housing had been provided for poor
families by a private philantropist .
Dr. Montessori was invited to plan an
educational program for the children
of the working mothers. Through her
work in medicine and psychology»
Montessori had become interested in the
materials Edward Seguin of France had
developed to help mentally retarded chil-
dren learn. On the basis of Seguin's
work» Madam Montessori built an elaborate
system of "didactic materials'* designed
to give children practice in important
activities. She prepared graded exercises
to help them clarify concepts of form»
color» texture or quantity. These even-
tually became the "auto-educative
materials used in the childrenfs houses.
Three categories of materials were worked
out by Maria Montessori: practical life
exercises» sense-training devices» and
materials to promote reading and writing.
The tenement -house origin of the Casa
dei Bambini's children required the
immediate introduction of many practical
features. Children were taught to wash
themselves» brush their hair» dress
themselves and otherwise care for personal
needs. Frames for lacing» buttoning
and tieing were developed to promote
these skills.
Much of the "didactic apparatus" was
for the cultivation of sense perception.
One of the first sense exercises for
very young children consisted of solid
geometric cylinders of graded size to
be fitted into a wooden frame. Since
the exercise could be completed only
if the child put each cylinder into the
opening that corresponded in size» the
apparatus was called * auto-educative »
or "self -correct ive . Materials became
increasingly complex: wooden tablets
were carefully weighted to develop a
baric sense; metal bowls were filled
with water to promote thermal sensitivity;
a gamut of colors was used to further
discrimination. Madam Montessori said»
"it is exactly in the repetition of
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exercises that education of the senses
consists; their aim is not that the child
shall know colors »forms » and the different
qualities of objects» but that he refine
his senses through an exercise of atten-
tion» or comparison» of judgment. (9)
This view rests upon a concept that
discriminations so developed will transfer
to other life situations.
Sense training in the Montessori school
was extended to the development of skills
in reading and writing. The children
followed procedures set up in several
stages. Continual tracing around geometric
forms developed the ability to manipulate
the writing instrument; repeated tracing
of sandpaper letters formed a mental
image of each letter. To the image of
the graphic sign the letter sound was
attached. To the child who was methodically
but uncomprehending ly repeating the accumu-
lation of sounds» the teacher commanded»
"faster» faster»" until "finally the
word bursts upon his consciousness."
Materials were designed to be used by
children individually; children were
given some freedom of choice. Indeed»
Montessori expressed respect for
individuality and understood the need
for self-confidence. She did not» however»
extend freedom to the use of the materials
themselves. The exercises were formal
and exact» and the child was expected
to use the apparatus in the prescribed
manner. If the child was found playing
train with the blocks of the "long stair
instead of arranging them in graded order»
the blocks were removed. As insightful
as Dr. Montessori was to some aspects
of the learning process» she failed to
recognize the rigid control that was
placed on learning by limiting the materials
and by forbidding any transformation
in their use.
Leaders of kindergarten education went
to Rome to observe the Montessori school
at first hand between 1912 and 1918.
To many of them» just beginning to free
themselves from the domination of one
set of materials» a new set had little
appeal» especially since the equipment
Children's Environments Quarterly
did not foster childrenfs creativity.
Imaginative activities were purposely
omitted from Maria Montessori1 s program
for children; she felt all activities
had to rest on sense impressions. Her
method also did not utilize the child's
initiative or motivation in solving problems.
The exercises in Montessori schools were
always those provided by the directress»
not those set up by the child.
Some observers critized the psychological
theory behind the Montessori Method.
Patty Smith found the theory wandering
too far afield from play and the nature
and needs of young children. She felt
that although the curriculum was created
in the twentieth century» it was based
on nineteenth-century beliefs» and
asserted that psychology had largely
outgrown its earlier faith in so-called
"f acult ies" and the doctrine of "transfer
of training William Kilpatrick» a
student of Dewey» summed up the rejection
of a method and materials based on train-
ing innate faculties for an assumed
transfer:
"We conclude» accordingly» that Madame
Montessori fs doctrine of sense-training
i s based on an outworn and cast-off
psychological theory; that the didactic
apparatus devised to carry this theory
into effect i s in so far worthless; that
what little value remains to the apparatus
could be better got from the sense
experiences incidental to properly
directed play with wisely chosen» but
less expensive and more childlike play-
things." (10)
Stripped of the rigid restrictions in
their use» some observers believed that
the Montessori materials had a place
among other available equipment. This
i s a view shared by a number of educators
today.
Play and the Emotions
Hall elevated the value of play in
strengthening physical development and
in providing a sense of freedom to work
through various stages of development.
Vol. 1, No. 1 (Spring), 1984
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Dewey stressed the social values inherent
in play and showed how ď piobl-em solving
in play activities increased intellectual
growth by enhancing perceptions and
sustaining attention» as well as adding
to the fund of information. Subsequent
theorists have strengthened and extended
appreciation of the values of play for
growth and learning into other realms.
New insights have brought about no such
drastic change in play materials as took
place in the early decades of this century»
but some modifications have been made
in their use. A wider range of materials
continues to enter classrooms prepared
for the young child.
By the 1930s psychologists were emphasizing
the contributions of play in fostering
healthy personality development. The
young child fs fumbling efforts to organize
his or her experiences» to reconcile
his perceptions with those of adults»
to cope with so much newness in his life
might often bring frustration. The out-
side world might appear huge and resistant»
but in play he could manipulate» organize
and rapidly change his small world to
suit his own feelings and perceptions.
Psychoanalysts considered dramatic play
to be auto-therapeutic» enabling a child
to mirror inner feelings and desires
and allowing him to release unacceptable
impulses. Two major ideas stemmed from
the psychoanalytic views (1) that chil-
dren's play revealed their inner conflicts»
strivings and perceptions» and (2) that
play is essential to the child as a means
of coming to grips with feelings. Susan
Isaacs» a leader in the nursery school
movement» expressed this latter idea
in 1933. "The discharge in play of these
inward tensions makes it easier for little
children to temper their behavior in
real life. This is one of the chief
functions of play to which I have
referred. And sad it is for those chil-
dren whose anxiety is so great that they
cannot play. (11)
A significant publication on play as
an instrument of personal growth» Under*
standing Children's Play» was published
15
in 1952. ( 12) This book resulted from
a large project carried out under a grant
from the National Institute of Mental
Health and included accounts of actual
experiences reported by countless teachers
and directors of programs for young chil-
dren.
Through dramatic play* block building,
water play» clay» finger paint and other
graphic materials children were revealed
releasing their feelings and expressing
their conflicts.
One observer recently pointed out that
psychanalyt ic studies of play reflected
an emphasis upon more than emotion alone;
emotional» physical and intellectual
aspects were interwoven. Lawrence Frank
clearly recognized this and described
at length elsewhere how the child
constructs his private frame of reference
while dealing with deprivations» frustra-
tions and coercions through play. (13)
Barbara Biber also has depicted play
as serving two different growth needs:
as an outlet for complex and often con-
fusing emotions wherein reason was
secondary» and as a means for learning
about the world and adjusting to
reality. (14) For a number of years»
however» a preoccupation with play and
the emotions prevailed over its relation
to any intellectual connotation.
Early childhood specialists began to
stress a freer use of play materials
and to call for a wider range of materials
for playing out inner urges. Fantasy
materials included all those already
in the nursery school and kindergarten»
and added a new one» "junk materials
which children could utilize in imagina-
tive play: odds and ends of fabric»
old clothes for dress-up» including male
as well as female clothing» detached
wheels» old clocks» large boxes. The
possibilities of opening up new vistas
Piaget's detailed observations of his
and new opportunities for identification
through the introduction of props and
materials began to be appreciated. To
a larger degree» more malleable materials
such as clay» finger-paints» paper and
water which children could freely shape
16
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to their own purposes and upon which
they could impress their own perceptions
became a valued part of the curriculum.
Play and Thinking
Much of the recognition of the value
of play in the realm of intellectual
growth has come from the work of Jean
Piaget. Yet so integrated are the
various facets of development in his
theory that he shows how social reci-
procity and growth in symbolic represen-
tation accompany expanding intellectual
powers .
The period between the ages of two to
six or seven are characterized by the
child's attempts at making sense of the
world» by understanding the physical
environment and her or his place in it.
Through play the child "freely assimilates
reality to the ego." The child's active
manipulation of objects» his or her
repeated activity with people and things»
leads to a growing awareness that objects
have properties» and that they can be
viewed along different dimensions.
Through continual use of materials-
touching» lifting arranging, building»
sorting - the child comes to note
similarities and differences. All
this is done in the service of play,
for the pleasure of mastery and of
working out the child's own imagery.
Piaget has said. "Play constitutes
the extreme pole of assimilation of
reality to the ego. while at the same
time it has something of the creative
imagination which will be the motor
of all future thought and even of
reason." (15)
One dominant characteristic of the play
of young children is its symbolic natur
In play the child lets an object stand
for something else: a box may be a doll's
bed» a few blocks may be a garage. In
own three children» he noticed before
the age of two the emerging capacity
to represent objects symbolically.
Symbolic play appears at about the sam
time as language» but independently of
Children's Environments Quarterly
it. While a child's language must
accommodate to a socially designated
system of words , hie or her play allows
inventing symbols which have great
personal meaning. Symbolic play serves
this as a means of representational
assimilation. Hans Furth states that
it is "one of the ingenious insights
of Piaget to have discovered the unifying
symbolic character of such different
activities as images» play* imitation
and language and to have related these
to be the development of operative
intelligence.** (16)
As the child assimilates more of the
actual characteristics of her or his
life experiences, her play becomes more
realistic» and fantasy and symbolic play
decline. Games with rules become an
absorbing activity for older children
who have developed a strong "other
orientation.
Piaget has shown that intellectual growth
requires interaction with a wealth of
materials throughout childhood. Active
transactions with objects and experiences»
both inside and outside the educational
setting» are needed from infancy through
the ages of ten or eleven. It has been
shown that a paucity of materials and
experiences» even in infancy, can have
a limiting effect. And even at the upper
Proceedings and Addresses of the lational
range of these ages children need materials
to work out ideas concretely. The role
of environment for children is subtle
and frequently misunderstood. Knowledge
is not simply taken from experience and
activity, but these form the base for
children's active construction of thought.
Even in learning simple arithmetic children(6) Alice Temple, "Report on Materials
must construct representational symbols.
This can only be carried out in an environ-Annual Convention of the International
ment which promotes interaction and
explorât ion.
Extensive reinforcement has been given
to play as a mode of life and learning
for the child. For play to serve its
multiple functions, it is necessary for
the teacher to be attuned to the ways
in which the child establishes meaning
through his experience, while at the
Vol. 1, No. 1 (Spring), 1984
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same time fantasy seems to prevail.
The role of the teacher is subtle and
complex for as Barbara Biber states,
"it takes an open mind to be aware of
the child's ways of 'seeing' the world
around him; but it takes a disciplined
mind to plot the course by which the
child can be guided toward increasingly
objective mastery of reality without
sacrificing the idiom of his own percep-
tions and transformations." (17)
Evelyn Weber
Professor of Education
Wheelock College
Boston, Massachusetts
Footnotes
(1) Friedrich Froebel, The Education
of Man. (Trans.) William N. Hailmann.
New York: D. Appleton and Company,
1889 p. 55.
(2) Ibid. p. 2.
(3) Friedrich, Froebel, Pedagogics of
the Kindergarten. Josephine Jarvis
(trans.) New York: D. Appleton, 1900»
pp. 205» 219» 220.
(4) G. Stanley Hall» "The Ideal School
as Based on Child Study." Journal of
Association. 1890 p. 571.
(5) John Dewey» "Froebel 's Educational
Principles." The Ilemtary School lecord.
1 (June. 1900) p. 144.
and Methods." Proceedings of the Twelfth
Kindergarten Union. 1905 p. 98.
(7) Patty Smith Hill, "introduction."
A Conduct Curriculum for the Kindergarten
and First Grade. Agnes Burke, et al
(eds.) New York: Srribners, 1923 p. xii.
(8) Charlotte Sherwood Martindell, New
Developments in Kindergarten Work.
Kindergarten Review, 9 (Feb., 1899)
17
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
p. 359.

(9) Maria Montessori» The Montessori

Method. (Trans.) Anne E. George. New
York: Frederick A. Stokes* 1912 p. 360.

(10) William Heard Kilpa trick, The Montessori

System Examined. New York: Houghton-Mifflin*
1914, p. 52.

(11) Susan Issacs» The Hursery Tears.

New York: Vanguard Press, 1933, p. 99.

(12) Ruth E. Hartley, Lawrence K. Frank,

and Robert M. Goldenson, Understanding
Children's Play. New York: Columbia
University Press, 1952.

(13) Lawrence K. Frank, "Play in Personality

Development." American Journal of Ortho-
psychiatry. 25 (1955). pp. 576-590.

(14) Barbara Biber, "Play as a Growth

Process." Vassar Alumnae Magazine.
XXXVII. (1951).

(15) Jean Piaget, Play» Dreams and

Initation in Childhood. C.Gategno and
F. M. Hodgson (trans.) New York: Norton,
1962. p. 166.

(16) Hans Furth, Piaget and Knowledge.

Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
1969, p. 85.

(17) Barbara Biber, Ibid.

18 Children's Environments Quarterly

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