ID Clarifications Unit 11

 WEB DuBois (1868-1963, United States): Following World War I, many African leaders were
influenced by the ideas of pan-African philosophers and political thinkers such as W.E.B.
DuBois. DuBois was an African American whose chief goal was to educate black Americans
about their cultural heritage. This deeply influenced political leaders in Africa who sought to
obliterate British rule over their countries.
 Leon Trotsky (1879-1940, Russia/Soviet Union): Trotsky was a major political leader in
Russia/the Soviet Union in the early part of the 20th century. He was known for his instrumental
role in the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War. However, Lenin passed away in the
1920s, leading to infighting amongst the Politburo (the core of the Communist Party). Trotsky
led members of the Left, who wanted to end Lenin’s NEP, force Russia onto a path of rapid
industrialization, and continue the revolution. This was at odds with Stalin’s plan for a socialist
model. Through the 1920s, Stalin attained almost sole control over the Communist Party and
Trotsky was expelled from the party, and later assassinated by one of Stalin’s followers. Trotsky
is important because his ousting from political power marked the beginning of Stalin’s totalitarian
regime over the Soviet Union.
 Francisco Franco (1892-1975, Spain): A military leader in Spain who led a bloody coup against
the government of Spain, sparking a civil war. Franco was significant because he established a
dictatorship in Spain that lasted for nearly 40 years, and he represented the trend toward
totalitarianism that arose in Europe in the interwar period.
 Diplomatic Revolution (1933-1936, Germany): The Diplomatic Revolution was a series of
changes in political relations between Germany and other European countries just before World
War II. Since the Paris Peace Conference, Germany was required to disarm its military and pay
reparations for World War I. However, under Hitler’s rule as chancellor of Germany, the country
slowly started to take actions that directly violated the Treaty of Versailles. Despite this, other
countries were so determined to avoid another world war that they either ignored Germany’s
actions or permitted small concessions (a policy known as “appeasement”). This was called the
diplomatic revolution because it considerably changed the relationship between Germany and its
neighboring countries – especially France and Great Britain – allowing Hitler to make even
greater demands.
 Battle of El-Alamein (October – November 1942, Egypt): This was a decisive battle that ended
in victory for the Allies. British and American forces invaded French North Africa and forced
German and Italian troops to surrender. This was a crucial turning point in the war as it gave the
Allies the upper hand on the North African front.
 Japanese Internment (1942-1946, United States): Following the Japanese attack on Pearl
Harbor, the United States began taking controversial measures to ensure the safety of the country
during wartime. With Executive Order 9066 in February of 1942, all Japanese American citizens
were forced into concentration camps (regardless of whether or not they were born in Japan).
This was a significant moment in American history because although the U.S. government had no
basis to suspect Japanese Americans of aiding the Japanese military, racist backlash against this
population motivated the U.S. to take extreme measures. Moreover, many argued that there was
a strong racial component to this executive order, as German Americans and Italian Americans
were left unaffected by such policies, despite hailing from the other Axis powers.

 Rape of Nanjing (December 1937-January 1938, China): The Rape of Nanjing refers to the
Japanese massacre of the Chinese capital, Nanjing (sometimes called Nanking) during the Second
Sino-Japanese War. During the massacre, the Japanese military systematically raped roughly
20,000 women and murdered as many as 300,000 civilians. This event signified the brutality of
 Japanese war crimes in China and angered the international community ahead of the war in the
Pacific.
 Miracle of Dunkirk (May/June 1940, France): Following Germany’s invasion of France through
the Ardennes Forest, thousands of British soldiers were trapped in the French seaside town of
Dunkirk with Germany quickly advancing. Over 338,000 soldiers were rapidly evacuated from
Dunkirk, avoiding disaster, but a large amount of British military equipment and weaponry was
left behind. This was significant because it was a terrible defeat for the Allies and left German
forces to occupy France.
 Vichy France (1940-1942, France): The government under Philippe Petain’s leadership in
Southern France following the German invasion. Although the southern part of France was
technically a “free zone” with the capital relocated to Vichy, Petain was sympathetic to the Nazi
cause and established an authoritarian regime that essentially acted as a Nazi puppet state for the
duration of World War II.
 Nazi New Order (1939-1945, Europe): Nazi Germany’s plan for administering their newly
conquered territories. The “new order” included the extermination of Jews and others considered
inferior (including Roma, homosexuals, and disabled people), the ruthless exploitation of
resources in conquered territories, and the use of Poles, Russians, and Ukrainians as slave labor.
The Nazi New Order was the foundation of Germany’s plans to take over Europe and establish
the dominance of the Third Reich.
 Einsatzgruppen (1939-1940s, German Empire): The Einsatzgruppen were special forces within
the SS tasked with rounding up Polish Jews and forcing them into ghettoes in cities following the
invasion of Poland. Later, the primary responsibility of the Einsatzgruppen was to act as mobile
killing units, systematically killing whole villages of Polish Jews and burying them in mass
graves. The Einsatzgruppen were the main instrument at the start of the killing stage of the
Holocaust.